New method for reducing evaporation losses in dams, large stagnant water, and agricultural water management

New method for reducing evaporation losses in dams, large stagnant water, and agricultural water management | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article New method for reducing evaporation losses in dams, large stagnant water, and agricultural water management Hamidoddin Yousefi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6100551/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Abstract This study evaaluates two research methods to mitigate water evaporation in arid regions with high temperatures and sparse rainfall. The first method assesses evaporation control using locally available date palm yarn (SEES) as a floating cover for water bodies. The second method investigates the effect of SEES laid under ploughed ground to enhance soil moisture retention. Evaporation from water surfaces was measured using two identical evaporation pan—one covered with date palm yarn and the other left open—over two months. Results indicate a 7.5% reduction in evaporation for the covered pool compared to the open one. The floating SEES cover provided shade, reduced direct solar exposure, and conserved more water for irrigation. Additionally, SEES placed under ploughed soil retained moisture, increasing soil water content and plant root absorption. Chemical analysis revealed that SEES contains beneficial compounds that enhance soil wettability and nutrient retention. This method provides a low-cost, sustainable, and eco-friendly solution for reducing water loss in agriculture and water reservoirs. Environmental Engineering Hydrology Climate Analysis and Modeling SEES evaporation control water management date palm yarn soil moisture retention Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction Water is one of the most vital resources on Earth, covering approximately 70% of the planet’s surface. While oceans account for nearly 95% of the total water, the remaining portion is distributed among lakes, reservoirs, rivers, ponds, and soil moisture. Reservoirs play a crucial role in water storage for irrigation and domestic use, as well as in mitigating the effects of dust storms. However, in arid regions, evaporation poses a significant challenge, leading to substantial water loss. In southeastern Iran, particularly in Baluchistan region, evaporation can result in the loss of up to 50% of stored water, especially between May and September. This loss exacerbates existing water scarcity issues, as evaporated water is effectively removed from the local hydrological system. The rate of evaporation is influenced by several factors, including the surface area of the water body, where larger reservoirs experience greater losses. Higher temperatures accelerate the movement of water molecules, increasing their kinetic energy and enhancing the transition from liquid to vapor. Wind speed also plays a crucial role, as strong winds disrupt the equilibrium at the water surface, carrying away moisture and intensifying evaporation. Additionally, humidity levels affect the process—drier air absorbs moisture more readily, whereas high humidity slows down evaporation. According to the kinetic theory of evaporation, water molecules are in continuous random motion. Some molecules, possessing sufficient kinetic energy, overcome intermolecular forces and transition into the gaseous phase. These principles highlight the importance of controlling environmental conditions to minimize water loss from reservoirs in arid regions. Various methods have been explored to suppress evaporation, including chemical surface films, continuous plastic covers, suspended shading systems, and modular floating elements [Fox, 1965; Bursztyn, 1966; Crow & Manges, 1967; Cooley & Myers, 1973; Cooley, 1983; Burston & Akbarzadeh, 1999; Burston, 2002; Craig, 2005; Martinez-Alvarez et al., 2006; Al-Hassoun et al., 2009; Gallego-Elvira et al., 2010]. This study aims to develop a practical, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective method for reducing evaporation losses by using Phoenix dactylifera (date palm) fibers and leaves as a natural cover on water reservoirs. In addition to mitigating water loss, this approach may enhance soil moisture retention in cultivated lands. The research was conducted in Saravan city, southeastern Iran, over a six-month period in 2019, evaluating the effectiveness of date palm leaves in suppressing evaporation. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) has been cultivated for centuries, with its exact origin likely tracing back to the Middle East, the Fertile Crescent, and North Africa. It has played a significant economic role in agriculture, with various cultivars adapted for commercial farming. Given its widespread availability and sustainability, date palm leaves present a promising, natural solution for evaporation control in water-scarce regions. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Experimental Setup This study was conducted in Saravan, southeastern Iran, from June 25 to August 24, 2019, during the peak of the hot and arid season. The primary objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of natural evaporation suppression methods using locally available date palm materials. Three Class A evaporation pans, conforming to U.S. standards (120.1 cm in diameter and 25.5 cm in height), were used for the experiment. The pans were arranged in an open, unshaded environment to ensure uniform exposure to sunlight and wind. A 10 cm wooden platform elevated each pan to minimize heat exchange with the ground surface. The experimental setup included the following conditions: Pan A : Covered with a woven mat made from date palm fronds (4.2 mm thick). Pan B : Covered with a mat composed of date palm fibers (5 mm thick). Pan C (Control) : Left uncovered to measure natural evaporation rates. To monitor environmental factors influencing evaporation, a weather station was installed near the experimental site. The station continuously recorded key meteorological parameters, including air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and atmospheric pressure. Water levels in each pan were measured weekly using a fixed-point gauge to ensure precision. Any variation due to rainfall was accounted for by draining excess water, and if the water level dropped below 25.4 mm, refilling was conducted to maintain consistent experimental conditions. Please reviw and rewrite"Materials and Methods". Attention: I have add some forumla which i think they are not placed correctly base on the methodloly, I have also extra detail, 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Experimental Design This study employed an experimental survey research approach to monitor evaporation rates over a two-month period from June 25 to August 24, 2019, the hottest and driest season in Saravan, southeastern Iran. Evaporation was measured weekly by recording changes in water levels every Friday. Three U.S. standard Class A evaporation pans (120.1 cm in diameter, 25.5 cm in height) were used, each subjected to different surface conditions to evaluate their impact on evaporation reduction: Pan A : Covered with a double-layer date palm frond mat (4.2 mm thick). Pan B : Covered with a date palm fiber mat (5 mm thick). Pan C (Control) : Left uncovered to allow direct exposure to sunlight, wind, and temperature fluctuations. The date palm frond and fiber mats used as shaded covers were sourced from local agricultural waste materials, making them an environmentally friendly byproduct available in Saravan. 2.2 Experimental Setup and Sample Collection Each evaporation pan was elevated on a 10 cm wooden platform to ensure stability and accurate measurement conditions. The pans were placed in an open, unshaded area, minimizing external interference. Evaporation rates were measured in millimeters per day ( mm/day ), per week ( mm/week ), and per month ( mm/month ). The recorded parameters included: Evaporation rate (measured by changes in water level). Environmental factors, such as temperature, wind speed, and humidity, monitored using a weather station. To maintain uniform conditions, each pan was initially filled with approximately 250 mm of water and refilled when necessary to compensate for evaporation losses. 2.3 Measurement Procedure The experiment was conducted in Saravan, with all measurements taken every Saturday at 5:00 PM . Water levels in each pan were recorded using a fixed ruler mounted on a stand to ensure stiffness and repeatability . The water was allowed to evaporate over a 24-hour period , enabling the assessment of evaporation rate variations under different conditions. 2.4 Measuring Evaporation Evaporation loss ( EL ) was calculated using the pan coefficient method, as described by Cooley (1983) : EL = Kₚₐₙ × Eₚₐₙ Where: EL = Estimated evaporation loss (mm) Eₚₐₙ = Observed evaporation from the pan (mm) Kₚₐₙ = Pan coefficient (typically 0.7 for Class A evaporation pans) This coefficient accounts for differences between pan evaporation and actual open-water evaporation . Weekly evaporation values were determined by recording changes in water levels while ensuring that evaporation was the primary cause of water loss , preventing external disturbances. This methodological approach allowed for a direct comparison of the evaporation rates under different surface conditions, providing insights into the effectiveness of date palm materials in reducing water loss under extreme climatic conditions. Additionally, the following equation was used to estimate lake evaporation, as per Mayer (1982) and BIS (1992) : $$\:{E}_{L}={K}_{m}\times\:\left({e}_{w}-{e}_{a}\right)\times\:(1+\frac{{\mu\:}_{9}}{16})$$ Where: \(\:{E}_{L}\) = Lake evaporation in mm/day \(\:{K}_{m}\) = Coefficient ( 0.36 for large deep waters, 0.50 for small, shallow waters) \(\:{e}_{w}\) = Saturated vapor pressure at the water surface temperature (mm of mercury) \(\:{e}_{a}\) = Actual vapor pressure of overlying air at a specified height (mm of mercury) \(\:{\mu\:}_{9}\) = Mean monthly wind velocity at about 9m above ground The saturated vapor pressure was determined using the following equation: $$\:{e}_{w}=4.584\times\:\text{exp}\left(\frac{17.27\times\:t}{237.3+t}\right)$$ Where t is the water surface temperature in degree Celsius Wind speed was calculated as : $$\:{\mu\:}_{h}=C\times\:{h}^{\left(\frac{1}{7}\right)}$$ And relative humidity was given by: $$\:\frac{{e}_{a}}{{e}_{w}}=Relative\:Humidity$$ Water loss = Evaporation intensity × Area \(\:Y=\:-0.006{X}^{5}+0.157{X}^{4}+1.537{X}^{3}+5.302{X}^{2}-3.832X+12.02\) + Where: Y = Validated values Y = Predicted values The pan coefficient for ISI modified Class A evaporation pans is typically between 0.70 and 0.60 , with evaporation rates ranging from 4–5 mm/day for these pans and 10 mm/day for lake evaporation. The coefficient ratio is about 0.8 for transitional months. 2.5 Floating Date Palm Mats Experiment To further examine evaporation control, woven date palm leaf and date palm fiber mats of 2m × 3m were floated on top of two pans separately. The evaporation rate was monitored and compared with the undisturbed open pan ( Control Pan C ) to evaluate their effectiveness in reducing evaporation. 3.1 Evaporation Reduction Performance Weekly evaporation rates were recorded and analyzed under varying environmental conditions, as shown in Table 1 . Key meteorological parameters, including temperature, wind velocity, and relative humidity, were monitored to assess their influence on evaporation rates. Table 1 Environmental conditions of the study area Date Temperature (°C) Wind Velocity (km/h) Relative Humidity (%) K Rainfall (mm) 25/05/2019 42 24 33 0.65 - 02/06/2019 44 17 32 0.65 - 09/06/2019 46 21 34 0.65 - 16/06/2019 48 18 35.5 0.65 - 23/06/2019 45 19 34 0.65 - 30/06/2019 46 23 34 0.65 - 06/07/2019 44 27 34 0.65 - 13/07/2019 44 19 32 0.65 - 20/07/2019 45 17 30 0.65 - 27/07/2019 46 20 33 0.65 - 04/08/2019 45 23 34 0.65 - 11/08/2019 45 26 33 0.65 - 18/08/2019 42 25 32 0.65 - The measured evaporation rates for the three experimental setups—control pan (A), date-palm leaf mat pan (B), and date-palm mat fiber pan (C)—are summarized in Table 2 . Table 2 Evaporation performance of different treatments Control Pan A (mm) Date-Palm leaf Mat Pan B (mm) Date Palm- mat Fiber Pan C (mm) Evaporation Pan A (mm/day) Evaporation Pan B (mm/day) Evaporation Pan C (mm/day) 250 250 250 35.75 11.7 7.8 195 232 238 16.25 9.1 7.8 170 218 226 11.7 9.1 7.8 152 204 214 98.8 10.4 5.2 136 188 206 11.7 11.05 8.45 118 171 193 13 9.75 7.8 98 156 181 63.7 101.4 7.15 62 137 170 20.15 16.25 110.5 31 112 159 16.9 10.4 7.15 5 96 148 3.25 10.4 7.15 0 80 137 0 9.1 5.2 0 66 129 0 15.6 7.15 0 42 118 0 27.3 The control pan (A) exhibited the highest evaporation rate. The date-palm mat fiber pan (C) demonstrated the highest evaporation reduction, with a peak reduction of 75.00% , significantly outperforming the other methods. The date-palm leaf mat pan (B) also effectively reduced evaporation, with reductions reaching 57.61% in some cases, confirming the effectiveness of SEES materials in mitigating water loss. In most scenarios, date-palm mat fiber (C) showed greater evaporation reduction than date-palm leaf mat (B) , making it the more effective material for evaporation control. However, in certain environmental conditions, negative reduction percentages were observed , indicating that factors such as temperature, humidity, and material absorption characteristics could influence evaporation dynamics. 3.2 Effect of SEES on Soil Moisture Retention Soil moisture retention was analyzed by comparing fields treated with ploughed-in SEES to untreated control fields. The results showed a 9.3% increase in soil moisture content in SEES-treated areas, suggesting a notable improvement in water conservation. This finding supports the hypothesis that organic-based surface covers enhance soil water retention by reducing direct evaporation losses. 3.3 Reduction in Evaporation Using Date-Palm Leaf Mat (Pan B) and Date-Palm Mat Fiber (Pan C) The effectiveness of date-palm-based materials in reducing evaporation was assessed by comparing the percentage reduction in evaporation for Pan B and Pan C relative to the control Pan A. The results demonstrated that: Date-Palm Mat Fiber (Pan C) consistently exhibited the highest evaporation reduction , with reductions of up to 75.00% in some trials. Date-Palm Leaf Mat (Pan B) achieved moderate reductions , with a maximum of 57.61% in optimal conditions. In several instances, both materials reduced evaporation rates by 44–69% , highlighting their significant contribution to water conservation. Anomalies were observed in certain conditions where evaporation rates in Pan B and Pan C exceeded those in the control pan, leading to negative reduction percentages. This suggests that under specific environmental factors, such as high humidity or material absorption properties, evaporation suppression may be less effective or even reversed . Despite these variations, the overall trend confirmed that natural palm-based materials substantially reduce evaporation, with date-palm mat fiber proving to be the most effective option . 3.4 Comparison with Existing Literature The evaporation reduction performance observed in this study aligns with findings from previous research: Al-Hassoun et al. (2009) reported a 63% reduction in evaporation using floating palm fronds as a cover, indicating the potential of palm-based materials in arid conditions. Craig et al. (2007) demonstrated that physical shading structures significantly lower evaporation rates by minimizing solar radiation exposure. Recent studies on nature-based evaporation control methods highlight that organic surface covers not only conserve water but also contribute to soil temperature regulation and moisture retention . 3.5 Implications for Water Management in Arid Regions The findings of this study provide valuable insights into sustainable water conservation strategies for arid and semi-arid regions. The integration of date-palm-based covers in irrigation and reservoir management can significantly reduce evaporation losses, improving water availability for agricultural and domestic use. Additionally, applying these techniques in large-scale water storage systems could enhance long-term water sustainability in drought-prone areas. Conclusion Water scarcity is a critical challenge in arid regions, where low precipitation and high evaporation rates significantly reduce available water resources. This study aimed to highlight the importance of water conservation in such environments and demonstrated an effective, low-cost, and sustainable method for reducing evaporation losses. The results confirm that utilizing waste materials from date palm trees, such as fibers and leaves, can effectively decrease evaporation rates while also contributing to agricultural water conservation . This method not only enhances water availability for irrigation and dam storage but also supports crop production by retaining soil moisture . Compared to conventional evaporation suppression techniques, such as chemical films, plastic covers, and floating modules , the use of date-palm waste is an environmentally friendly and cost-effective alternative . Unlike synthetic materials that degrade under high temperatures and potentially introduce pollutants into water bodies, natural palm-based materials preserve water quality and offer a sustainable solution tailored to the local environment . Additionally, this approach promotes effective waste management by repurposing agricultural byproducts that would otherwise be discarded. By integrating this technique into water conservation strategies, communities in arid regions can achieve dual benefits— minimizing water loss and enhancing sustainability . Future research should explore long-term performance, large-scale application, and the potential combination of this method with other water conservation strategies to optimize its effectiveness in diverse environmental conditions. References Amit Kohli and Karen Frenken (2015) *Evaporation from Artificial Lakes and Reservoirs*. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, AQUASTAT Programme, FAO Mathur BS, *Evaporation, Control* Department of Hydrology, I.I.T. Roorkee George B, Magin B, Randall L (1849) *Review of Literature on Evaporation Suppression* Shuttleworth WJ (1993) *Evaporation*. In: Maidment DR (ed) Handbook of Hydrology. 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Agric For Meteorol 148:1522–1533 Raziei T, Pereira LS (2013) *Estimation of Reference Evapotranspiration in the Semiarid Middle East*. Water Resour Manage 27(8):2875–2890 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6100551","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":420440199,"identity":"7f9255f1-14d4-4319-abfc-b6f67a3a64e6","order_by":0,"name":"Hamidoddin Yousefi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA20lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAyA+wMPAzNjGwMD4AMjh4SNFCzOIw8NGjBYGkJYGBgY2CRCHoBZz9tOJB95UWMv2SfeYVX7NsZNhY2B++OgGHi2WPbkbDs45k27cJnPG7LbstmSgw9iMjXPwOexA7obDvG2HE9skcsxuS25jBmrhYZPGq+X8W4SWYslt9URouYFkC+PHbYeJ0fIW6heJtGJpxm3HediYCfnlfO7mD6AQmz8jeePHn9uq7fnZmx8+xqcFCXAYMPOAaGbilIMA+wPGH8SrHgWjYBSMghEEAKq0Szx4CBCdAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3701-6271","institution":"Makoran Research Institute","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hamidoddin","middleName":"","lastName":"Yousefi","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-02-25 02:05:40","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":true,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6100551/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6100551/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":77406023,"identity":"3b06bce0-a6c2-4d1d-9ef0-231e7b3b9b5c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-28 09:24:49","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1355090,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eshows the woven fiber, and fiber of date palm\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6100551/v1/fd2980882774fb2b77e800e8.png"},{"id":77407818,"identity":"263b0860-2a8a-4e20-a92b-fd94217b3b71","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-28 09:40:52","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1571902,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eshow the date frond and woven frond\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6100551/v1/9cd5b762b6622c4200885c84.png"},{"id":77406031,"identity":"a3b2c0c5-8a59-434c-8ae3-5771cb1bdd45","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-28 09:24:49","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":851076,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eshow the Evaporation Pan\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6100551/v1/f315ef2b974a0aa506fb2611.png"},{"id":77406028,"identity":"c5fffa44-1e78-4249-a4fc-5ed6929240b7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-28 09:24:49","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":265694,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eshows the evaporation rates of Pan A(open) in relation to environmental temperature.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6100551/v1/3ea19e30ef9b7972bf41fcc6.png"},{"id":77406029,"identity":"f3882e26-eef8-456f-81e8-4d3de2c16128","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-28 09:24:49","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":192226,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eshows the evaporation rates of Pan C (fiber) and Pan B (frond) in relation to environmental temperature.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6100551/v1/b5dc02bdadcdbb6c7c28d2d6.png"},{"id":77408336,"identity":"d63cc9e9-c438-4a7a-b0a2-3e8ea968d9bf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-28 09:48:53","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":7120066,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6100551/v1/b196237d-ff4d-4a71-add4-de8a69d29d01.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNew method for reducing evaporation losses in dams, large stagnant water, and agricultural water management\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater is one of the most vital resources on Earth, covering approximately 70% of the planet\u0026rsquo;s surface. While oceans account for nearly 95% of the total water, the remaining portion is distributed among lakes, reservoirs, rivers, ponds, and soil moisture. Reservoirs play a crucial role in water storage for irrigation and domestic use, as well as in mitigating the effects of dust storms. However, in arid regions, evaporation poses a significant challenge, leading to substantial water loss.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn southeastern Iran, particularly in Baluchistan region, evaporation can result in the loss of up to 50% of stored water, especially between May and September. This loss exacerbates existing water scarcity issues, as evaporated water is effectively removed from the local hydrological system. The rate of evaporation is influenced by several factors, including the surface area of the water body, where larger reservoirs experience greater losses. Higher temperatures accelerate the movement of water molecules, increasing their kinetic energy and enhancing the transition from liquid to vapor. Wind speed also plays a crucial role, as strong winds disrupt the equilibrium at the water surface, carrying away moisture and intensifying evaporation. Additionally, humidity levels affect the process\u0026mdash;drier air absorbs moisture more readily, whereas high humidity slows down evaporation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the kinetic theory of evaporation, water molecules are in continuous random motion. Some molecules, possessing sufficient kinetic energy, overcome intermolecular forces and transition into the gaseous phase. These principles highlight the importance of controlling environmental conditions to minimize water loss from reservoirs in arid regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious methods have been explored to suppress evaporation, including chemical surface films, continuous plastic covers, suspended shading systems, and modular floating elements [Fox, 1965; Bursztyn, 1966; Crow \u0026amp; Manges, 1967; Cooley \u0026amp; Myers, 1973; Cooley, 1983; Burston \u0026amp; Akbarzadeh, 1999; Burston, 2002; Craig, 2005; Martinez-Alvarez et al., 2006; Al-Hassoun et al., 2009; Gallego-Elvira et al., 2010].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to develop a practical, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective method for reducing evaporation losses by using Phoenix dactylifera (date palm) fibers and leaves as a natural cover on water reservoirs. In addition to mitigating water loss, this approach may enhance soil moisture retention in cultivated lands. The research was conducted in Saravan city, southeastern Iran, over a six-month period in 2019, evaluating the effectiveness of date palm leaves in suppressing evaporation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) has been cultivated for centuries, with its exact origin likely tracing back to the Middle East, the Fertile Crescent, and North Africa. It has played a significant economic role in agriculture, with various cultivars adapted for commercial farming. Given its widespread availability and sustainability, date palm leaves present a promising, natural solution for evaporation control in water-scarce regions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Experimental Setup\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in Saravan, southeastern Iran, from June 25 to August 24, 2019, during the peak of the hot and arid season. The primary objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of natural evaporation suppression methods using locally available date palm materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree Class A evaporation pans, conforming to U.S. standards (120.1 cm in diameter and 25.5 cm in height), were used for the experiment. The pans were arranged in an open, unshaded environment to ensure uniform exposure to sunlight and wind. A 10 cm wooden platform elevated each pan to minimize heat exchange with the ground surface. The experimental setup included the following conditions:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePan A\u003c/b\u003e: Covered with a woven mat made from date palm fronds (4.2 mm thick).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePan B\u003c/b\u003e: Covered with a mat composed of date palm fibers (5 mm thick).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePan C (Control)\u003c/b\u003e: Left uncovered to measure natural evaporation rates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo monitor environmental factors influencing evaporation, a weather station was installed near the experimental site. The station continuously recorded key meteorological parameters, including air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and atmospheric pressure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater levels in each pan were measured weekly using a fixed-point gauge to ensure precision. Any variation due to rainfall was accounted for by draining excess water, and if the water level dropped below 25.4 mm, refilling was conducted to maintain consistent experimental conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlease reviw and rewrite\"Materials and Methods\". Attention: I have add some forumla which i think they are not placed correctly base on the methodloly, I have also extra detail,\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Experimental Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study employed an experimental survey research approach to monitor evaporation rates over a two-month period from June 25 to August 24, 2019, the hottest and driest season in Saravan, southeastern Iran. Evaporation was measured weekly by recording changes in water levels every Friday.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree U.S. standard Class A evaporation pans (120.1 cm in diameter, 25.5 cm in height) were used, each subjected to different surface conditions to evaluate their impact on evaporation reduction:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePan A\u003c/b\u003e: Covered with a double-layer date palm frond mat (4.2 mm thick).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePan B\u003c/b\u003e: Covered with a date palm fiber mat (5 mm thick).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePan C (Control)\u003c/b\u003e: Left uncovered to allow direct exposure to sunlight, wind, and temperature fluctuations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe date palm frond and fiber mats used as shaded covers were sourced from local agricultural waste materials, making them an environmentally friendly byproduct available in Saravan.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Experimental Setup and Sample Collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach evaporation pan was elevated on a \u003cb\u003e10 cm wooden platform\u003c/b\u003e to ensure stability and accurate measurement conditions. The pans were placed in an open, unshaded area, minimizing external interference.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaporation rates were measured in millimeters per day (\u003cb\u003emm/day\u003c/b\u003e), per week (\u003cb\u003emm/week\u003c/b\u003e), and per month (\u003cb\u003emm/month\u003c/b\u003e). The recorded parameters included:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaporation rate (measured by changes in water level).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental factors, such as temperature, wind speed, and humidity, monitored using a weather station.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo maintain uniform conditions, each pan was initially filled with approximately \u003cb\u003e250 mm of water\u003c/b\u003e and refilled when necessary to compensate for evaporation losses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Measurement Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experiment was conducted in Saravan, with all measurements taken every \u003cb\u003eSaturday at 5:00 PM\u003c/b\u003e. Water levels in each pan were recorded using a fixed ruler mounted on a stand to ensure \u003cb\u003estiffness and repeatability\u003c/b\u003e. The water was allowed to evaporate over a \u003cb\u003e24-hour period\u003c/b\u003e, enabling the assessment of evaporation rate variations under different conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Measuring Evaporation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaporation loss (\u003cb\u003eEL\u003c/b\u003e) was calculated using the pan coefficient method, as described by \u003cb\u003eCooley (1983)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEL = Kₚₐₙ × Eₚₐₙ\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEL\u003c/b\u003e = Estimated evaporation loss (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEₚₐₙ\u003c/b\u003e = Observed evaporation from the pan (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eKₚₐₙ\u003c/b\u003e = Pan coefficient (typically \u003cb\u003e0.7\u003c/b\u003e for Class A evaporation pans)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis coefficient accounts for differences between \u003cb\u003epan evaporation\u003c/b\u003e and \u003cb\u003eactual open-water evaporation\u003c/b\u003e. Weekly evaporation values were determined by recording changes in water levels while ensuring that evaporation was the \u003cb\u003eprimary cause of water loss\u003c/b\u003e, preventing external disturbances.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis methodological approach allowed for a direct comparison of the evaporation rates under different surface conditions, providing insights into the effectiveness of \u003cb\u003edate palm materials\u003c/b\u003e in reducing water loss under extreme climatic conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the following equation was used to estimate lake evaporation, as per \u003cb\u003eMayer (1982) and BIS (1992)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:{E}_{L}={K}_{m}\\times\\:\\left({e}_{w}-{e}_{a}\\right)\\times\\:(1+\\frac{{\\mu\\:}_{9}}{16})$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{E}_{L}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e = Lake evaporation in mm/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{K}_{m}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e = Coefficient (\u003cb\u003e0.36\u003c/b\u003e for large deep waters, \u003cb\u003e0.50\u003c/b\u003e for small, shallow waters)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{e}_{w}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e = Saturated vapor pressure at the water surface temperature (mm of mercury)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{e}_{a}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e = Actual vapor pressure of overlying air at a specified height (mm of mercury)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{\\mu\\:}_{9}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e = Mean monthly wind velocity at about 9m above ground\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe saturated vapor pressure was determined using the following equation:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:{e}_{w}=4.584\\times\\:\\text{exp}\\left(\\frac{17.27\\times\\:t}{237.3+t}\\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere t is the water surface temperature in degree Celsius\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWind speed was calculated as :\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equc\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equc\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:{\\mu\\:}_{h}=C\\times\\:{h}^{\\left(\\frac{1}{7}\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnd relative humidity was given by:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equd\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equd\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\frac{{e}_{a}}{{e}_{w}}=Relative\\:Humidity$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater loss = Evaporation intensity × Area\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:Y=\\:-0.006{X}^{5}+0.157{X}^{4}+1.537{X}^{3}+5.302{X}^{2}-3.832X+12.02\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eY = Validated values\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eY = Predicted values\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe pan coefficient for \u003cb\u003eISI modified Class A evaporation pans\u003c/b\u003e is typically between \u003cb\u003e0.70 and 0.60\u003c/b\u003e, with evaporation rates ranging from \u003cb\u003e4–5 mm/day\u003c/b\u003e for these pans and \u003cb\u003e10 mm/day\u003c/b\u003e for lake evaporation. The coefficient ratio is about \u003cb\u003e0.8\u003c/b\u003e for transitional months.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Floating Date Palm Mats Experiment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo further examine evaporation control, \u003cb\u003ewoven date palm leaf\u003c/b\u003e and \u003cb\u003edate palm fiber mats\u003c/b\u003e of \u003cb\u003e2m × 3m\u003c/b\u003e were floated on top of two pans separately. The evaporation rate was monitored and compared with the undisturbed open pan (\u003cb\u003eControl Pan C\u003c/b\u003e) to evaluate their effectiveness in reducing evaporation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Evaporation Reduction Performance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeekly evaporation rates were recorded and analyzed under varying environmental conditions, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Key meteorological parameters, including temperature, wind velocity, and relative humidity, were monitored to assess their influence on evaporation rates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental conditions of the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature (°C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWind Velocity (km/h)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative Humidity (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainfall (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25/05/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e02/06/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e09/06/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16/06/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23/06/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30/06/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e06/07/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13/07/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20/07/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27/07/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e04/08/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11/08/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18/08/2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe measured evaporation rates for the three experimental setups—control pan (A), date-palm leaf mat pan (B), and date-palm mat fiber pan (C)—are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaporation performance of different treatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl Pan\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e A\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDate-Palm leaf Mat Pan\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e B\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDate Palm- mat Fiber Pan C\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaporation \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePan A\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mm/day)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaporation \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePan B\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mm/day)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaporation \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePan C\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mm/day)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e195\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e232\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e238\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e170\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e218\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e226\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11.7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9.1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7.8\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e152\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e204\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e214\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e98.8\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5.2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e136\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e188\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e206\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11.7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11.05\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8.45\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e118\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e171\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e193\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9.75\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7.8\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e98\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e156\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e181\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e63.7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e101.4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7.15\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e62\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e137\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e170\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e20.15\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e16.25\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e110.5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e31\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e112\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e159\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e16.9\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7.15\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e96\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e148\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.25\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7.15\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e80\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e137\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9.1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5.2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e66\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e129\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15.6\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7.15\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e42\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e118\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e27.3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe control pan (A) exhibited the highest evaporation rate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe date-palm mat fiber pan (C) demonstrated the highest evaporation reduction, with a peak reduction of \u003cb\u003e75.00%\u003c/b\u003e, significantly outperforming the other methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe date-palm leaf mat pan (B) also effectively reduced evaporation, with reductions reaching \u003cb\u003e57.61%\u003c/b\u003e in some cases, confirming the effectiveness of SEES materials in mitigating water loss.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn most scenarios, \u003cb\u003edate-palm mat fiber (C) showed greater evaporation reduction than date-palm leaf mat (B)\u003c/b\u003e, making it the more effective material for evaporation control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, in certain environmental conditions, \u003cb\u003enegative reduction percentages were observed\u003c/b\u003e, indicating that factors such as temperature, humidity, and material absorption characteristics could influence evaporation dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Effect of SEES on Soil Moisture Retention\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil moisture retention was analyzed by comparing fields treated with ploughed-in SEES to untreated control fields. The results showed a \u003cb\u003e9.3% increase in soil moisture content\u003c/b\u003e in SEES-treated areas, suggesting a notable improvement in water conservation. This finding supports the hypothesis that organic-based surface covers enhance soil water retention by reducing direct evaporation losses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Reduction in Evaporation Using Date-Palm Leaf Mat (Pan B) and Date-Palm Mat Fiber (Pan C)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness of date-palm-based materials in reducing evaporation was assessed by comparing the percentage reduction in evaporation for Pan B and Pan C relative to the control Pan A. The results demonstrated that:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDate-Palm Mat Fiber (Pan C) consistently exhibited the highest evaporation reduction\u003c/b\u003e, with reductions of up to \u003cb\u003e75.00%\u003c/b\u003e in some trials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDate-Palm Leaf Mat (Pan B) achieved moderate reductions\u003c/b\u003e, with a maximum of \u003cb\u003e57.61%\u003c/b\u003e in optimal conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn several instances, both materials reduced evaporation rates by \u003cb\u003e44–69%\u003c/b\u003e, highlighting their significant contribution to water conservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnomalies were observed in certain conditions where evaporation rates in Pan B and Pan C exceeded those in the control pan, leading to negative reduction percentages. This suggests that \u003cb\u003eunder specific environmental factors, such as high humidity or material absorption properties, evaporation suppression may be less effective or even reversed\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these variations, \u003cb\u003ethe overall trend confirmed that natural palm-based materials substantially reduce evaporation, with date-palm mat fiber proving to be the most effective option\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Comparison with Existing Literature\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe evaporation reduction performance observed in this study aligns with findings from previous research:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAl-Hassoun et al. (2009) reported a \u003cb\u003e63% reduction in evaporation\u003c/b\u003e using floating palm fronds as a cover, indicating the potential of palm-based materials in arid conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eCraig et al. (2007) demonstrated that \u003cb\u003ephysical shading structures\u003c/b\u003e significantly lower evaporation rates by minimizing solar radiation exposure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent studies on nature-based evaporation control methods highlight that \u003cb\u003eorganic surface covers not only conserve water but also contribute to soil temperature regulation and moisture retention\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Implications for Water Management in Arid Regions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study provide valuable insights into \u003cb\u003esustainable water conservation strategies\u003c/b\u003e for arid and semi-arid regions. The integration of \u003cb\u003edate-palm-based covers in irrigation and reservoir management\u003c/b\u003e can significantly reduce evaporation losses, improving water availability for agricultural and domestic use. Additionally, applying these techniques in \u003cb\u003elarge-scale water storage systems\u003c/b\u003e could enhance long-term water sustainability in drought-prone areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater scarcity is a critical challenge in arid regions, where low precipitation and high evaporation rates significantly reduce available water resources. This study aimed to highlight the importance of water conservation in such environments and demonstrated an effective, low-cost, and sustainable method for reducing evaporation losses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results confirm that utilizing waste materials from date palm trees, such as fibers and leaves, can \u003cb\u003eeffectively decrease evaporation rates\u003c/b\u003e while also contributing to \u003cb\u003eagricultural water conservation\u003c/b\u003e. This method not only enhances \u003cb\u003ewater availability for irrigation and dam storage\u003c/b\u003e but also supports \u003cb\u003ecrop production by retaining soil moisture\u003c/b\u003e. Compared to conventional evaporation suppression techniques, such as \u003cb\u003echemical films, plastic covers, and floating modules\u003c/b\u003e, the use of \u003cb\u003edate-palm waste is an environmentally friendly and cost-effective alternative\u003c/b\u003e. Unlike synthetic materials that degrade under high temperatures and potentially introduce pollutants into water bodies, \u003cb\u003enatural palm-based materials preserve water quality and offer a sustainable solution tailored to the local environment\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, this approach promotes \u003cb\u003eeffective waste management\u003c/b\u003e by repurposing agricultural byproducts that would otherwise be discarded. By integrating this technique into water conservation strategies, communities in arid regions can achieve dual benefits—\u003cb\u003eminimizing water loss and enhancing sustainability\u003c/b\u003e. Future research should explore \u003cb\u003elong-term performance, large-scale application, and the potential combination of this method with other water conservation strategies\u003c/b\u003e to optimize its effectiveness in diverse environmental conditions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmit Kohli and Karen Frenken (2015) *Evaporation from Artificial Lakes and Reservoirs*. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, AQUASTAT Programme, FAO\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMathur BS, *Evaporation, Control* Department of Hydrology, I.I.T. Roorkee\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGeorge B, Magin B, Randall L (1849) *Review of Literature on Evaporation Suppression*\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShuttleworth WJ (1993) *Evaporation*. In: Maidment DR (ed) Handbook of Hydrology. 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Water Resour Manage 27(8):2875\u0026ndash;2890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Makoran","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"SEES, evaporation control, water management, date palm yarn, soil moisture retention","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6100551/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6100551/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbstract\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study evaaluates two research methods to mitigate water evaporation in arid regions with high temperatures and sparse rainfall. The first method assesses evaporation control using locally available date palm yarn (SEES) as a floating cover for water bodies. The second method investigates the effect of SEES laid under ploughed ground to enhance soil moisture retention. Evaporation from water surfaces was measured using two identical evaporation pan—one covered with date palm yarn and the other left open—over two months. Results indicate a \u003cstrong\u003e7.5% reduction in evaporation\u003c/strong\u003e for the covered pool compared to the open one. The floating SEES cover provided shade, reduced direct solar exposure, and conserved more water for irrigation. Additionally, SEES placed under ploughed soil retained moisture, increasing soil water content and plant root absorption. Chemical analysis revealed that SEES contains beneficial compounds that enhance soil wettability and nutrient retention. This method provides a \u003cstrong\u003elow-cost, sustainable, and eco-friendly\u003c/strong\u003e solution for reducing water loss in agriculture and water reservoirs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"New method for reducing evaporation losses in dams, large stagnant water, and agricultural water management","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-02-28 09:24:44","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6100551/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0b289be3-8dfb-4515-bddf-f4f7c6c78786","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 28th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":44818479,"name":"Environmental Engineering"},{"id":44818480,"name":"Hydrology"},{"id":44818481,"name":"Climate Analysis and Modeling"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-02-28T09:24:45+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-02-28 09:24:44","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6100551","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6100551","identity":"rs-6100551","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}