Mechanical Properties and Environmental Impact Assessment of Eco-Friendly Pervious Pavement Blocks Containing High-Volume Fly Ash

Mechanical Properties and Environmental Impact Assessment of Eco-Friendly Pervious Pavement Blocks Containing High-Volume Fly Ash | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Mechanical Properties and Environmental Impact Assessment of Eco-Friendly Pervious Pavement Blocks Containing High-Volume Fly Ash Steve Supit, Kornkanok Boonserm, Priyono Priyono This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5180740/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Cement production leads to large amounts of carbon dioxide emissions related to global warming. Fly ash, an abundant industrial solid waste that is often used in some Asian countries like Japan, China, Thailand, and Indonesia, was utilized in this study as a replacement of cement to reduce cement consumption in the production of pervious pavement blocks. This study aims to experimentally investigate the potential use of high-volume fly ash on the characteristics of pervious pavement blocks including compressive strength, flexural strength, void ratio, and infiltration rate. Two types of mixture were considered in this experiment. The type A mixtures were designed to have a ratio of cement + binder: coarse aggregate: fine aggregate of 1:2:1 and a water to binder ratio = 0.3. Type B mixtures were produced with a cement + binder: coarse aggregate of 1:3 with the same water-to-binder ratio as Type A. In this type, no fine aggregate was considered. The binder involves the combination of cement and fly ash with a percentage replacement of 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% by wt. of cement. In addition, the environmental impact assessment was also calculated to examine the CO 2 emission intensity of each material based on the Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare standard. The results show a promising improvement in the properties of pervious pavement blocks when using high-volume fly ash as a cement replacement. The reduction of CO 2 emissions can also be confirmed, making this product one solution in the construction sector to support practical pathways toward carbon neutrality in Asian countries. Pervious pavement block Fly Ash Environmental assessment Flexural Compressive Infiltration Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Introduction According to the Statistical Review of World Energy, Southeast Asian countries (Malaysia and Indonesia) accounted for 6.3% and 7.6% of the world’s carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, respectively. China and Japan lowered their emissions by -0.7 and 1.5% in 2016, respectively, in contrast to 2015 (Sharvini et al., 2018 ). Sustainable infrastructure refers to construction that is environmentally friendly throughout the entirety of its lifecycle, incorporating fiscal, cultural, and institutional aspects. The infrastructure should be designed to endure long periods without collapsing or deteriorating, minimizing the need for major repairs. The construction materials sector is pushing the worldwide market to create inventive types of concrete that exhibit enhanced sustainability and a more environmentally beneficial life cycle. In 2018, this industry contributed 36% of the worldwide energy consumption and 39% of carbon dioxide emissions, leading to global resource depletion (Olagunju & Olanrewaju, n.d.). International collaboration and partnership are necessary for reducing carbon pollution in Asia due to the global implications of climate change. The Paris Agreement and similar initiatives offer a system for countries to collaborate to reduce emissions and adjust to the effects of climate change. As the purpose set by the (United Nations) Climate Change is to restrict global warming to 1.5°C, the release of greenhouse gases needs to reach its highest point before 2025 and decrease by 43% by 2030. Asia's substantial contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions is mainly attributed to its fast industrialization, rising demographics, and significant reliance on fossil fuel and coal for energy consumption. In construction areas, cement production is considered the main contributor to carbon dioxide emissions on Earth. Substituting cement is the most efficient way to rapidly reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Materials like fly ash, silica fume, sludge, and calcinated natural kaolinitic clays are sustainable alternatives for achieving this goal (S. Ahmed & Kamal, 2022 ) (Langga Chandra Galuh et al., 2022 ). It was also explained that replacing a portion of cement with that substance reduces the need for Portland cement, hence decreased quarrying, combustion of fuel, and carbon emissions. (Maddalena et al., 2018 ) also claimed that pozzolanic material can reduce carbon emissions by 23–55% compared to Portland cement. Furthermore, using these materials is more cost-effective than applying cement only (Teixeira et al., 2016 ) Pervious Block containing Fly Ash Pervious concrete can be defined as a particular type of concrete consisting of cement, coarse aggregate, little to no fine aggregates, additives, and water that is usually used for improving the ecological environment in terms of soil and water quality, protecting groundwater resources, and managing stormwater runoff (Maguesvari, 2017 ). Compared to conventional concrete, pervious concrete is more permeable with a pervious structure (15%-30% per volume) that allows the water to penetrate through the concrete matrix, offering sustainable drainage solutions. Some significant factors that generally influence the performance of pervious concrete are the water/cement ratio, the aggregate sizes, the aggregate: cement ratio, and the void volume. Regarding the benefits of pervious concrete, some disadvantages have been discussed about the characteristics of typical pervious concrete, such as the limited bond strength between the aggregates, the risk of clogging by organic and inorganic materials, and the low durability resistance (Zhong & Wille, 2015 ). These issues have initiated more experimental work to enhance the properties of pervious concrete, for example, by partially replacing cement with various supplementary cementitious materials like natural pozzolans and byproduct materials. One of the byproduct materials that can be used to replace cement partially in standard concrete is fly ash. According to ASTM C 618 (ASTM C618-17a, 2017), fly ash is a finely divided residue resulting from ground or powdered coal combustion. As a fuel coal combustion product composed of glassy particles, processed fly ash is effective at acting as a pozzolan material and contributes to the concrete’s performance with a better resistance to durability concerns such as water absorption, alkali-silica, chloride diffusion and corrosion resistance (Malvar & Lenke, 2006 ; Saraswathy & Song, 2006 ; Xu et al., 2010 ) In addition, it increases sustainability and is appropriate for producing high mechanical strength at a low cost. Typically, fly ashes are Class F and Class C. Class F is produced from coal by burning bituminous and anthracite at a higher heat. On the other hand, Class C is processed by burning lignite and sub-bituminous coal, which contains a higher amount of carbon than Class F. The utilization of fly ash has made some progress in addressing the challenges of sustainable construction. Due to the spherical shape and glassy particles of fly ash, the water content can be reduced, offsetting the reduction of early-age strength. In addition, fly ash involves pozzolanic activity, which is attributed to the presence of SiO 2 and Al 2 O 3 (Bendapudi & Saha, 2011 ). In a pozzolanic reaction, it reacts with calcium hydroxide, reducing the risk of leaching calcium hydroxide during cement hydration to form additional Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH) and Calcium Aluminate Hydrate (CAH), which are influential in forming a denser matrix leading to higher strength and better durability. For example, due to a sulfate attack and alkali-silica reaction resistance (Chindaprasirt et al., 2009 ; Malvar & Lenke, 2006 ). The utilization of high-volume fly ash has been recently investigated by researchers to provide more sustainable pervious concrete. (Khankhaje et al., 2023 ) reported the reduction of permeability on pervious concrete affected by the filler effect of fly ash at the optimum substitution level of cement ranged from 10–30%. In this study, increasing the fly ash content will affect the strength development of concrete especially at early age strength. Replacing cement with fly ash could decrease the water during the hydration of cement because of the higher water absorption of fly ash. However, the incorporation of cement with fly ash is still acceptable in reaching the minimum strength and permeability of concrete products. In another studies, it was reported that as the quantity of pulverized coal combustion ash (PCC ash) use has escalated, the global warming potential (GWP) and ozone layer depletion potential (ODP) have decreased by 17.26 kg CO 2 eq/m3 and 3.0 × 10 − 6 kg CFC-11 eq/m3, respectively (Lee et al., 2020 ). The study concludes that substituting PCC ash for standard Portland Cement in the same concrete mix ratios effectively minimizes adverse environmental effects. In addition, other studies on ash waste correlatives with carbon emission disclosure (CED) and Global Warming Impact (GWI) (Lovecchio et al., 2020 ) have found that adding 40% and 60% FA to concrete considerably lowers the CED by about 16% and 24%, respectively. The GWI of the mix 0% is 469 kg CO 2 eq, which can be reduced by 32–48% using 40% and 60% concrete mixes (319 and 244 kg CO 2 eq, respectively). Comparing the life cycle assessment and cost analysis, research also found that using high-volume fly ash in concrete led to more cost-effective and eco-friendlier when compared to high-volume ground granulated blast furnace slag (Pandhare et al., n.d.). However, lack of information available on the use of high-volume fly ash in pervious concrete or permeable pavement blocks, then more studies are required to investigate the factors that should be considered when proportioning the mixtures containing high-volume fly ash. Eco-friendly construction in Asian Countries Sustainable construction focuses on implementing waste to generate environmentally friendly products that address interconnected environmental issues, aiming to positively impact air and soil quality. The utilization of green construction components can improve the atmosphere as well as building efficiency, which benefits the tropical environment, biology, and technology. An alternative solution classified as green construction where fly ash is used waste is permeable blocks, providing a solution to CO 2 pollution by preventing the construction of impermeable surfaces that hinder natural water infiltration into the soil. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) validates pervious concrete for pollution control and storm management capabilities (A, 2008 ). A significant volume of rainfall collects on impermeable surfaces like parking lots, driveways, walkways, and streets instead of being absorbed into the ground. It ultimately results in an environmental imbalance. This solution enhances and balances the surface temperature, and promotes green open spaces, as well as the green basic coefficient to aid in purifying the atmosphere by decreasing the surplus accumulation of carbon through fostering greenery in urban regions (Fadloli et al., 2023 ). The advancement of eco-friendly construction in Asian countries demonstrates the growing realization of responsibility for the environment and a dedication to constructing a healthier future for all. Singapore is spearheading the development of green construction in Southeast Asia (Lai et al., 2023 ). The installation of pervious pavement blocks at the Tianjin Univ. institution in China(Chandrappa & Biligiri, 2016 ) revealed that the performance of the pervious blocks decreased the highest flow by 28.7% and overall runoff by 35.6%. The results show that the type of pervious pavement, the state of draining in porous surfaces, and the water quantity at the start of the rainstorm all significantly influenced the hydrological impact of permeable roads on flood reduction. Another country in Southeast Asia (Malaysia) is also integrating permeable pavers into urban redevelopment projects and green infrastructure efforts to mitigate flooding and heat-related urban impacts. Pervious block surfaces are being implemented in public places, residential developments, and commercial areas in urban centers such as Kuala Lumpur and Penang (Abustan et al., n.d.). Research significance The significance of this research is to evaluate the performance of pervious pavement blocks based on their strengths and properties, and to identify their performance in connection to the environmental side of things when using fly ash at a high volume. Studies have shown that fly ash met the criteria for landfill disposal and categorized as non-hazardous according to Environmental Agency of Japan and can be treated as a byproduct rather than waste (Dwivedi & Jain, 2014 ). Nations like US, China, and European Union countries have also removed fly ash and bottom from their hazardous waste list. The findings in this research will then provide a platform to standardize the implementation of high-volume fly ash as a byproduct material to support green and sustainable construction, especially in Asian countries. Materials and experimental methods In this experiment, the primary binders are Portland Composite Cement (PCC) blended with fly ash type C sourced from the Steam Power Plant in Amurang, North Sulawesi Province. As seen in Table 1 , the fly ash has a CaO content of 28.13%, with a silicate content of 18.77%. From this percentage, it can be expected to form concrete products that have a lower carbon content and higher mechanical properties in comparison to the typical standard concrete containing 100% cement. In the production of pervious pavement blocks, natural coarse aggregate of two different sizes, i.e. a maximum size of 10mm (Type A) and 20mm (Type B). The type A mixtures were designed to have a ratio of cement + binder: coarse aggregate: fine aggregate of 1:2:1 and a water to binder ratio = 0.3. Type B mixtures were produced with a cement + binder: coarse aggregate of 1:3 with the same water-to-binder ratio as Type A. In this mixture, no fine aggregate was considered. The binder involves the combination of cement and fly ash with a percentage replacement of 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% by wt. of cement. These percentages were selected based on the typical dosage replacement of high-volume fly ash which means more than 50% according to (Mehta, 2004 ). Superplasticizer type F was also used as a chemical admixture to maintain the consistency of the pervious pavement blocks during mixing. For specimen size, type A and type B mixtures were produced with 80mm and 60mm thickness sizes, respectively. The mixture proportions used in this research are tabulated in Table 2 . The specimens were produced using a paving block-making machine in collaboration with a paving block manufacturer company. Table 1 Chemical composition of PCC and Fly Ash (%) Chemical Analysis PCC Fly Ash SiO 2 8.43 18.77 Al 2 O 3 1.65 6.89 Fe 2 O 3 4.81 21.8 CaO 73.12 28.13 MgO - 4.65 K 2 O - 1.38 Na 2 O - 7.41 SO 3 2.71 6.65 The specimens were then tested under laboratory conditions to define the compressive strength, flexural strength, void ratio, and infiltration rate after curing for the 7th and 28th days. The compressive strength test was following the procedure in ASTM C39/C39M-21 “Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete”, the flexural strength was tested in accordance with ASTM C78/C78M-22 “Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete”, void ratio test was conducted based on the Testing Method for Void Ratio of Porous Concrete” from the Japan Concrete Institute (JCI) report, and infiltration rate was measured by following the ASTM C1701 “Standard Test Method for Infiltration Rate of In Place Pervious Concrete. Figures 1 and 2 shows how the pavement block samples were cast and tested using concrete laboratory equipment. Table 2 . Mixture proportions (kg/m 3 ) No Mix Code PCC FA CA S W SP Mix Type 1 C100 400 0 800 400 120 2 A 2 FA40 240 160 800 400 120 2 A 3 FA50 200 200 800 400 120 2 A 4 FA60 160 240 800 400 120 2 A 5 C100 400 0 1200 0 120 2 B 6 FA40 240 160 1200 0 120 2 B 7 FA50 200 200 1200 0 120 2 B 8 FA60 160 240 1200 0 120 2 B 9 FA70 120 280 1200 0 120 2 B Notes: C100 = cement 100%; PCC = Portland Composite Cement; FA = Fly Ash; CA = Coarse Aggregate; S = Sand; W = Water; SP = Superplasticizer Results and discussions Compressive strength The compressive strength test was conducted to evaluate the influence of high-volume fly ash when replacing cement in pervious concrete blocks. For the type A samples, the highest strength value was by the sample containing 30% fly ash by wt. of cement, i.e. 17 MPa and 23 MPa at 7 and 28 days, respectively (see Fig. 3 ). The 28th-day strength was 14% lower compared to the normal pore block without fly ash addition or 100% cement. The compressive strength of the samples with 40%, 50%, and 60% showed no significant difference at 7 and 28 days. Based on the results, the FA30 sample can be categorized as quality B, which can be used for parking lots according to the Indonesian National Standard (SNI 03-0691-1996), as seen in Table 3 . Compared to the results of the type B samples, the samples without fine aggregate and a larger maximum size of coarse aggregate were not effective at improving the compressive strength with the maximum strength being obtained by the sample containing 60% fly ash replacement, i.e. 9 MPa at 28 days. The strength then dropped to 6 MPa when the volume of fly ash replacement was increased to 70% (see Fig. 4 ). Since the maximum strength of the compression load was only 9 MPa, this type of mixture can only be applied to gardens or other applications that do not require a load that is too heavy. Overall, the results conclude that to improve the properties of the pervious pavement block, fine aggregate can be added while using smaller coarse aggregate. In this case, the percentage of fly ash can be recommended to be 40 to 60% cement replacement. A similar observation was also reported on the study of (Khankhaje et al., 2023 ). Their outcome confirmed that increasing the level of replacing cement with fly ash resulted in reducing the strength of pervious concrete. On the other hand, higher abrasion resistance and lower drying shrinkage can be expected on cement mixture containing fly ash. In another study, it was reported that compressive strength and flexural strength of pervious concrete pavement containing fly ash were higher at the long-term than that of the early age. This can be due to the increased hydration degree from the reaction between SiO 2 in fly ash and the CH as the product of cement hydration and formed CSH gel that is responsible for strengthening the adhesion and bonding force between aggregate. This study also concluded the potential application of pervious concrete containing fly ash for pedestrian paths, parking lots, and park roads especially in urban settings that requires more stable material to distribute load because of heavy traffic areas while at the same time can reduce stormwater runoff and promoting drainage during the heavy rain (Liu et al., 2019 ). Table 3 Physical properties of the paving block based on SNI 03-0691-1996 Quality Compressive strength (MPa) Maximum absorption Average Min (%) A 40 35 3 B 20 17 6 C 15 12,5 8 D 10 8,5 10 Flexural strength The results show that among the samples containing fly ash, the highest flexural strength in sample type A was the pervious pavement block sample containing 40% fly ash (FA40) with strength values of 3.4 and 3.7 MPa at 7 and 28 days, respectively. The increase in fly ash volume reduced the resistance performance of the pervious pavement blocks for flexural load. In sample type B, no significant difference was found in flexural strength if the specimens contained a high volume of fly ash. However, the flexural strength of all samples was still in the range of the typical strength of pervious concrete, i.e. 1-3.7 MPa. Using smaller particle sizes of coarse aggregate with fine aggregate improved the strength of the pervious pavement blocks, with the maximum percentage of fly ash at 40%. It was interesting to note that the specimens containing a larger size of coarse aggregate tended to have comparable flexural strength, although the content of fly ash increased by up to 60%. This phenomenon was also found in the compressive strength results that indicated that the coarse aggregate's size influenced the strength properties of pervious pavement blocks, even with a higher percentage of fly ash and without the use of fine aggregate. In this case, the larger size of the coarse aggregate was proportional to the paste volume, increasing the binding properties to resist the bending stress to which it was subjected. A similar observation was also reported by (Yu et al., 2019 ). In this study, they also found that an increase in aggregate size (over 7 mm) increased the compressive strength rapidly. They also mentioned a further improvement of strength can be achieved by increasing the paste thickness up to 1.15mm. Furthermore, to improve the strength and durability characteristics of pervious concrete, additions of various chemical and mineral admixtures at a proper proportion were found effective in increasing the density of paste matrix without disturbing the permeability limits (Nazeer, 2023). Void ratio Further investigation of the void ratio was made on the pervious pavement blocks using larger coarse aggregate with no fine aggregate. It can be seen in Fig. 7 that the specimens containing fly ash had a higher total voids compared to the normal pervious block without fly ash. Increasing the fly ash content reduced the percentage of voids due to the increase in paste volume. The continuous void in the pervious pavement blocks also showed the same trend with the reduction of total voids (At) when increasing the fly ash volume. The higher the percentage of continuous voids (Ac), the higher permeability expected. On the other hand, the discontinuous void (Ad) percentages that appeared in high-volume fly ash, i.e. FA60 and FA70, were higher than for the FA40 and FA50 specimens. This means that the degree of compaction was greater when using a higher volume of fly ash in the mixtures, resulting in an improved density for the pervious pavement blocks. However, the poor pozzolanic activity of fly ash resulted in reducing the compression load resistance. This is a common behavior due to using high-volume fly ash that should be minimized by optimizing the utilization of ternary blended systems, for example, using nanoparticles or chemical additions. This modification could promote a pozzolanic reaction and facilitate the late strength development of high-volume fly ash (Shaikh et al., 2014 ; Supit et al., 2014 ). Infiltration Rate The infiltration rate test was conducted on C100 containing 100% cement and FA60 containing 60% fly ash as a cement replacement. This test examined the ability of water to enter the specimens and flow into the soil. FA60 was selected among the other variations since this sample obtained a higher strength compared to the other percentages of cement replacement. The results in Fig. 8 clearly show that using 60% fly ash as a cement replacement reduced the water to penetrate the specimens from 5.37 mm/hour to 2.71 mm/hour, which is 50% lower than the C100 sample. This is an indication that permeability is affected by the volume of fly-ash used in the pervious pavement blocks mixture. Increasing the fly ash content, increases the volume of paste thus decreasing the open pore structure of the previous pavement block matrix. (T. Ahmed & Hoque, 2020 ) commented on the influence of aggregate to cement ratio in permeability of pervious concrete mixture. In their study, they found that more bonding from the cement paste and aggregate can be expected in a lower aggregate: cement ratio while higher value could lead to destroy the adhesion between aggregate particles. Environmental assessment The most appropriate parameters used to assess the ecological properties of concrete were carbon footprint and energy demand (Habert et al., 2020 ). In this case, the environmental impact assessment was calculated based on the compressive strength performance and environmental impact evaluation value following the equation developed by (Fantilli & Chiaia, 2013 ) as follows: MIx = MI/MIinf (1) EIy = EIsup/EI (2) EMI = MI/EI (MPa×m 3 /kg) (3) where MIinf is the reference compressive strength, MI is the compressive strength (MPa), EIsup is the reference CO 2 emissions, and EI is the CO 2 emissions (kg/m 3 ). The definition of MI is based on concrete strength and can also include other mechanical properties of concrete structures. CO 2 emissions can be calculated using an equation where E is CO 2 emissions (kg/m 3 ), w is the unit mass of each material (kg/m 3 ), and e is the CO 2 emissions intensity of each material (kg/t). E = Σ (w x e / 1000) (4) The CO 2 emissions based on the JSCE 2004 standard are shown in Table 4 , while Fig. 9 shows the relationship between the intensity of the CO 2 emissions and compressive strength performance. Table 4 CO 2 emissions based on JSCE 2004 standard Materials CO 2 emissions intensity (kg/t) Cement 766.6 Fly Ash 19.6 Superplasticizer 100 Coarse Aggregate 2.9 Fine Aggregate 4.7 Figure 9 shows the relationship diagram between MI and EI where the lower area represents compressive strength performance, and the higher area is the ecological impact. In this diagram, the compressive strength results were selected based on the strength performance of mixtures containing 40%, 50%, and 60% of fly ash compared with control mixture. The diagram can be divided into four different zones representing the performance of each mixture of permeable pavement block. Zone 1 indicates low compressive strength–low ecological performance, Zone 2 indicates high compressive strength–low ecological performance, Zone 3 indicates high compressive strength–high ecological, and Zone 4 indicates low compressive strength–high ecological performance. Based on the plotting, the performance of the permeable pavement blocks using high-volume fly ash are in Zone 4, indicating that high ecological performance can be expected. However, modification to the mixture containing high-volume fly ash is still necessary to help it become a more sustainable permeable pavement product. Some efforts can be made through the incorporation of high-volume fly ash with another supplementary cementitious materials like silica fume, metakaolin, and slag (Runganga et al., 2024 ). The influence of combining silica fume in high-volume fly ash concrete was studied by (Thac Hoc Nguyen & Quang Van Le, 2021). It was reported that the combination of 60% fly ash and 5 to10% of silica fume as a replacement of cement improved the workability and compressive strength of concrete after 90 days of curing. This study confirmed that the later age performance of concrete should be considered when using high-volume fly ash because of the slow activity of alumina and silicates that can have a negative impact on strength resistance of concrete at the early age. In another study, using nano silica and silica fume was found effective in accelerating the initial hydration reaction of high-volume fly ash cement composites that finally improved strength and microstructural refinement (Kim et al., 2022 ). Since less reports are available on the use of nanoparticles in high-volume fly ash composites on permeable concrete, future studies on optimizing these promising mixtures are needed. Conclusions The mechanical properties and environmental assessment of pervious pavement blocks containing high-volume fly ash have been examined. The results can be summarized as follows: Samples that do not contain fine aggregates or coarse aggregates with a maximum size don't act to increase compressive strength. In this experiment, sample type A with smaller size of aggregate and 30% of fly ash as a replacement of cement (FA30) had the highest compressive strength categorized as quality B, which means it can be used for parking lots. The increase in fly ash volume decreased the compression load resistance and tensile effectiveness of the pervious pavement blocks under flexural strain. Despite a high-volume fly ash concentration of up to 60%, the pavements with larger rough aggregate sizes had a comparable flexural strength. The pervious pavement blocks with fly ash had a higher overall void than the samples without ash. Increasing the fly ash content reduced the percentage of voids due to the increased paste volume. The infiltration rate results show the ability of pervious pavement blocks with 60% fly ash in absorbing the water from the surface to enter the soil with a maximum infiltration rate of 2.71 mm/hour, categorized as low intensity. Therefore, it is important to select the fly ash proportions in pervious pavement blocks to achieve a suitable infiltration rate without compromising the strength. Based on ecological performance, the use of high-volume fly ash could provide high ecological performance but still be low in compressive strength. Therefore, modification by adding another pozzolanic material such as metakaolin or silica fume in nano form can be considered for further development regarding the use of high-volume fly ash as a construction material. The implementation of green technology requires specialized knowledge due to its higher level of complexity compared to traditional procedures. Construction businesses must follow additional regulations and requirements to ensure a solid understanding of implementing environmentally friendly practices, which can extend the construction process due to the need for extra steps. Fly ash is a well-known material from coal-fired power plant over the world including Asian countries. However, there is a limitation of guidelines for using fly ash across the country because of the difference in chemical composition and its variability that raises an issue when selecting the proper source of fly ash. Therefore, advance assessment should be conducted when selecting the fly ash to optimize the replacement level of cement before using it in civil engineering work. Declarations Acknowledgement The authors wish to thank the Atsumi International Foundation and Manado State Polytechnic for the grants and technical support during the research. Conflicts of interests The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interests. Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, Steve Supit. The data are not publicly available due to their containing information that could compromise the privacy of research participants. Funding The publication of this research was supported by Atsumi International Foundation through Asia Future Conference scholarship year 2024. Author contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Steve Supit, Kornkanok Boonserm and Priyono. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Steve Supit and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable in this section References A RB (2008) Green Pervious Concrete. Int J Adv Eng Manage (IJAEM 2(1):1107. https://doi.org/10.35629/5252-45122323 Abustan I, Hamzah O, Rashid A (n.d.). Review Of Permeable Pavement Systems In Malaysia Conditions Ahmed S, Kamal I (2022) Green Conductive Construction Materials Toward Sustainable Infrastructures. ECS Trans 107(1):2139–2153. https://doi.org/10.1149/10701.2139ecst Ahmed T, Hoque S (2020) Study on pervious concrete pavement mix designs. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science , 476 (1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/476/1/012062 Bendapudi S, Saha P (2011) Contribution of Fly ash to the properties of Mortar and Concrete. Int J Earth Sci Eng 04:974–5904 Chandrappa AK, Biligiri KP (2016) Comprehensive investigation of permeability characteristics of pervious concrete: A hydrodynamic approach. Constr Build Mater 123:627–637. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.035 Chindaprasirt P, Kanchanda P, Sathonsaowaphak A, Cao H (2009) Sulfate resistance of blended cements containing fly ash and rice husk ash. Constr Build Mater 21:1356–1361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.10.005 Dwivedi A, Jain MK (2014) Fly ash-waste management and overview: A Review . 6 (1), 30–35. http://recent-science.com/ Fadloli L, Arifin HS, Ridwan WA (2023) Study on green concrete (porous concrete) sustainability to support sustainable construction in Indonesia. Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam Dan Lingkungan 13(3):432–443. https://doi.org/10.29244/jpsl.13.3.432-443 Fantilli AP, Chiaia B (2013) The work of fracture in the eco-mechanical performances of structural concrete. J Adv Concr Technol 11(10):282–290. https://doi.org/10.3151/jact.11.282 Habert G, Miller SA, John VM, Provis JL, Favier A, Horvath A, Scrivener KL (2020) Environmental impacts and decarbonization strategies in the cement and concrete industries. Nat Reviews Earth Environ 1(11):559–573. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0093-3 Khankhaje E, Kim T, Jang H, Kim CS, Kim J, Rafieizonooz M (2023) Properties of pervious concrete incorporating fly ash as partial replacement of cement: A review. Developments in the Built Environment , 14 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100130 Kim BJ, Lee GW, Choi YC (2022) Hydration and Mechanical Properties of High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete with Nano-Silica and Silica Fume. Materials 15(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196599 Lai F, Zhou J, Lu L, Hasanuzzaman M, Yuan Y (2023) Green building technologies in Southeast Asia: A review. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 55:102946. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SETA.2022.102946 Langga Chandra Galuh D, Afif Shulhan M, Yasin I (2022) Low Carbon Concrete: Cement Replacement Utilizing Fly Ash. Journal Of Green Science And Technology , VI (1) Lee J, Lee T, Jeong J, Jeong J (2020) Engineering, durability, and sustainability properties analysis of high-volume, PCC ash-based concrete. Sustain (Switzerland) 12(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/SU12093520 Liu H, Luo G, Wang L, Gong Y (2019) Strength time-varying and freeze-thaw durability of sustainable pervious concrete pavement material containing waste fly ash. Sustain (Switzerland) 11(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010176 Lovecchio N, Shaikh F, Rosano M, Ceravolo R, Biswas W (2020) Environmental assessment of supplementary cementitious materials and engineered nanomaterials concrete. AIMS Environ Sci 7(1):13–30. https://doi.org/10.3934/environsci.2020002 Maddalena R, Roberts JJ, Hamilton A (2018) Can Portland cement be replaced by low-carbon alternative materials? A study on the thermal properties and carbon emissions of innovative cements. J Clean Prod 186:933–942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.138 Maguesvari U (2017) Influence of Fly Ash and Fine Aggregates on the Characteristics of Pervious Concrete. In Int J Appl Eng Res (12, Issue 8). http://www.ripublication.com Malvar L, Lenke L (2006) Efficiency of fly ash in mitigating alkali-silica reaction based on chemical composition. ACI Mater J, 103 Mehta PK (2004) High-performance, high-volume fly ash concrete for sustainable development. International Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology , 3–14 Olagunju BD, Olanrewaju OA (n.d.). Comparative Analysis of Different Fly Ash Percentage of Pozzolanic Cement Pandhare SJ, Geetha M, Jayaraj K (n.d.). Properties of High volume GGBFS and High Volume Flyash Concrete: A Brief Review. In International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET) (Vol. 11). Runganga D, Okonta F, Musonda I (2024) Strength and Durability Properties of High-Volume Fly Ash (HVFA) Binders: A Systematic Review. In CivilEng (Vol. 5, Issue 2, pp. 435–460). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng5020022 Saraswathy V, Song H (2006) Corrosion Performance Of Fly Ash Blended Cement Concrete: A State-Of-Art Review. Corros Rev 24:122–187. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:138308758 Shaikh FUA, Supit SWM, Sarker PK (2014) A study on the effect of nano silica on compressive strength of high volume fly ash mortars and concretes. Mater Design 60:433–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATDES.2014.04.025 Sharvini SR, Noor ZZ, Chong CS, Stringer LC, Yusuf RO (2018) Energy consumption trends and their linkages with renewable energy policies in East and Southeast Asian countries: Challenges and opportunities. In Sustainable Environment Research (Vol. 28, Issue 6, pp. 257–266). Chinese Institute of Environmental Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.serj.2018.08.006 Supit SWM, Shaikh FUA, Sarker PK (2014) Effect of ultrafine fly ash on mechanical properties of high volume fly ash mortar. Constr Build Mater 51:278–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.11.002 Teixeira ER, Mateus R, Camões AF, Bragança L, Branco FG (2016) Comparative environmental life-cycle analysis of concretes using biomass and coal fly ashes as partial cement replacement material. J Clean Prod 112:2221–2230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.124 Thac Hoc Nguyen, & Quang Van Le (2021) Influences of SilicaFume to Engineering Properties of HVFC. J Polym Compos 9:33–44. https://doi.org/DOI:10.37591/jopc.v9i3.5543 Xu G, Liu J, Qiao L, Sun Y (2010) Experimental Study on Carbonation and Steel Corrosion of High Volume Fly Ash Concrete. 2010 Asia-Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference , 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/APPEEC.2010.5448649 Yu F, Sun D, Wang J, Hu M (2019) Influence of aggregate size on compressive strength of pervious concrete. Constr Build Mater 209:463–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2019.03.140 Zhong R, Wille K (2015) Material design and characterization of high performance pervious concrete. Constr Build Mater 98:51–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.08.027 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Apr, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 20 Apr, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 13 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 12 Apr, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5180740","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":445445007,"identity":"1565e961-6763-4696-bc83-bed358176261","order_by":0,"name":"Steve Supit","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8ElEQVRIie3SsYrCMBjA8e8jEJeqq059hUonQemrWAQn7x0sgXRRZzv5Ck6ZFaGTDyB8Doov0HJLET0uuUEn244H5g8hIeQHCQTAZvvf4QwyPfFG1UH+IlG0MhusPgEUjpmqiLsWaSeXKvBIxNfBTbktBpjl0/fES/mkm0gKN6ddJL6W1JMMWDdRJYQ7vt9UNPKOoSZzQk04a5YQV7a//Yei4I/05xRUEkgdvKIi3BgCBYWVxEsnvcvih8JEvyVZzGgsGYrSt7hif94WBwpaFJ+z4k7DdSx2WV52sWcdPVCalf4G9TIE7jUP22w220f1C/amV764w8KrAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2860-0318","institution":"Politeknik Negeri Manado","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Steve","middleName":"","lastName":"Supit","suffix":""},{"id":445445008,"identity":"715480eb-8d7d-420c-95b1-fa4b6be654bc","order_by":1,"name":"Kornkanok Boonserm","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Rajamangala University of Technology Isan Northeastern Campus: Rajamangala University of Technology Isan","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kornkanok","middleName":"","lastName":"Boonserm","suffix":""},{"id":445445009,"identity":"e516fc8a-c922-43ea-8717-222cd9484569","order_by":2,"name":"Priyono Priyono","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Politeknik Negeri Manado","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Priyono","middleName":"","lastName":"Priyono","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-09-30 12:10:13","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5180740/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5180740/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":81215659,"identity":"97bac6d8-f92e-45e8-9a39-11beee433075","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 14:15:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":76155,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eType A (1) Compressive strength, and (2) Infiltration\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5180740/v1/1fb6c9997fa69bfc11c28c21.jpg"},{"id":81216993,"identity":"3273072c-4950-49e7-b51a-caaa51b9a8d8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 14:31:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":63762,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eType B (1) Pervious paving blocks casting process, and (2) Flexural Strength Test\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5180740/v1/55cdb9a79c133265fe487642.jpg"},{"id":81215661,"identity":"0df62f22-2764-4b62-bde8-12f80c8ecb97","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 14:15:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35795,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompressive strength results on mixture type A\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5180740/v1/332810a8c96c4b87dc491e34.jpg"},{"id":81216609,"identity":"72a2c03d-7dc9-4ca3-a41c-91c95972f888","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 14:23:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27128,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompressive strength results on mixture type B\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5180740/v1/40117ec688d94eb7d704a6a7.jpg"},{"id":81215673,"identity":"8967c293-14fe-4bc7-8e92-74cd9a3dda4f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 14:15:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31576,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlexural Strength results on mixture type A\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5180740/v1/e53434bd2244417aa0aa1ee3.jpg"},{"id":81216613,"identity":"ba5a6806-e59d-4497-82f2-d83c7e52e51b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 14:23:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31144,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlexural Strength results on mixture type B\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5180740/v1/105b37dfd1cf9283c50ff552.jpg"},{"id":81215666,"identity":"7c0e8f8f-16bc-4f9c-84dc-d37517d0436e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 14:15:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":40116,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVoid ratio results on different type of mixtures\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5180740/v1/46b04861d5a6b4b145be8f82.jpg"},{"id":81215668,"identity":"15bcaa90-904f-4b2f-b119-6f67c4f47d1e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 14:15:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26976,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInfiltration results of C100 and FA60\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5180740/v1/3a4df8f7b0314e9b998a5227.jpg"},{"id":81216617,"identity":"dbfc3ae9-46ae-4dfd-9cb4-35039faeda11","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 14:23:58","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":18169,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental assessment of different type of mixtures\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5180740/v1/864cef5302ecdcd74590ba96.jpg"},{"id":81218659,"identity":"8a787b1e-eb86-40ea-98d3-ee43d4315f14","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-23 14:47:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1041443,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5180740/v1/2cdcf55b-ad6d-4cc9-83ff-aca5204829eb.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Mechanical Properties and Environmental Impact Assessment of Eco-Friendly Pervious Pavement Blocks Containing High-Volume Fly Ash","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAccording to the Statistical Review of World Energy, Southeast Asian countries (Malaysia and Indonesia) accounted for 6.3% and 7.6% of the world\u0026rsquo;s carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) emissions, respectively. China and Japan lowered their emissions by -0.7 and 1.5% in 2016, respectively, in contrast to 2015 (Sharvini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Sustainable infrastructure refers to construction that is environmentally friendly throughout the entirety of its lifecycle, incorporating fiscal, cultural, and institutional aspects. The infrastructure should be designed to endure long periods without collapsing or deteriorating, minimizing the need for major repairs. The construction materials sector is pushing the worldwide market to create inventive types of concrete that exhibit enhanced sustainability and a more environmentally beneficial life cycle. In 2018, this industry contributed 36% of the worldwide energy consumption and 39% of carbon dioxide emissions, leading to global resource depletion (Olagunju \u0026amp; Olanrewaju, n.d.). International collaboration and partnership are necessary for reducing carbon pollution in Asia due to the global implications of climate change. The Paris Agreement and similar initiatives offer a system for countries to collaborate to reduce emissions and adjust to the effects of climate change. As the purpose set by the (United Nations) Climate Change is to restrict global warming to 1.5\u0026deg;C, the release of greenhouse gases needs to reach its highest point before 2025 and decrease by 43% by 2030. Asia's substantial contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions is mainly attributed to its fast industrialization, rising demographics, and significant reliance on fossil fuel and coal for energy consumption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn construction areas, cement production is considered the main contributor to carbon dioxide emissions on Earth. Substituting cement is the most efficient way to rapidly reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Materials like fly ash, silica fume, sludge, and calcinated natural kaolinitic clays are sustainable alternatives for achieving this goal (S. Ahmed \u0026amp; Kamal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) (Langga Chandra Galuh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). It was also explained that replacing a portion of cement with that substance reduces the need for Portland cement, hence decreased quarrying, combustion of fuel, and carbon emissions. (Maddalena et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) also claimed that pozzolanic material can reduce carbon emissions by 23\u0026ndash;55% compared to Portland cement. Furthermore, using these materials is more cost-effective than applying cement only (Teixeira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePervious Block containing Fly Ash\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePervious concrete can be defined as a particular type of concrete consisting of cement, coarse aggregate, little to no fine aggregates, additives, and water that is usually used for improving the ecological environment in terms of soil and water quality, protecting groundwater resources, and managing stormwater runoff (Maguesvari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Compared to conventional concrete, pervious concrete is more permeable with a pervious structure (15%-30% per volume) that allows the water to penetrate through the concrete matrix, offering sustainable drainage solutions. Some significant factors that generally influence the performance of pervious concrete are the water/cement ratio, the aggregate sizes, the aggregate: cement ratio, and the void volume. Regarding the benefits of pervious concrete, some disadvantages have been discussed about the characteristics of typical pervious concrete, such as the limited bond strength between the aggregates, the risk of clogging by organic and inorganic materials, and the low durability resistance (Zhong \u0026amp; Wille, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These issues have initiated more experimental work to enhance the properties of pervious concrete, for example, by partially replacing cement with various supplementary cementitious materials like natural pozzolans and byproduct materials. One of the byproduct materials that can be used to replace cement partially in standard concrete is fly ash.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to ASTM C 618 (ASTM C618-17a, 2017), fly ash is a finely divided residue resulting from ground or powdered coal combustion. As a fuel coal combustion product composed of glassy particles, processed fly ash is effective at acting as a pozzolan material and contributes to the concrete\u0026rsquo;s performance with a better resistance to durability concerns such as water absorption, alkali-silica, chloride diffusion and corrosion resistance (Malvar \u0026amp; Lenke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Saraswathy \u0026amp; Song, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) In addition, it increases sustainability and is appropriate for producing high mechanical strength at a low cost. Typically, fly ashes are Class F and Class C. Class F is produced from coal by burning bituminous and anthracite at a higher heat. On the other hand, Class C is processed by burning lignite and sub-bituminous coal, which contains a higher amount of carbon than Class F. The utilization of fly ash has made some progress in addressing the challenges of sustainable construction. Due to the spherical shape and glassy particles of fly ash, the water content can be reduced, offsetting the reduction of early-age strength. In addition, fly ash involves pozzolanic activity, which is attributed to the presence of SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e(Bendapudi \u0026amp; Saha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In a pozzolanic reaction, it reacts with calcium hydroxide, reducing the risk of leaching calcium hydroxide during cement hydration to form additional Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH) and Calcium Aluminate Hydrate (CAH), which are influential in forming a denser matrix leading to higher strength and better durability. For example, due to a sulfate attack and alkali-silica reaction resistance (Chindaprasirt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Malvar \u0026amp; Lenke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe utilization of high-volume fly ash has been recently investigated by researchers to provide more sustainable pervious concrete. (Khankhaje et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) reported the reduction of permeability on pervious concrete affected by the filler effect of fly ash at the optimum substitution level of cement ranged from 10\u0026ndash;30%. In this study, increasing the fly ash content will affect the strength development of concrete especially at early age strength. Replacing cement with fly ash could decrease the water during the hydration of cement because of the higher water absorption of fly ash. However, the incorporation of cement with fly ash is still acceptable in reaching the minimum strength and permeability of concrete products. In another studies, it was reported that as the quantity of pulverized coal combustion ash (PCC ash) use has escalated, the global warming potential (GWP) and ozone layer depletion potential (ODP) have decreased by 17.26 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq/m3 and 3.0 \u0026times; 10\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6 kg CFC-11 eq/m3, respectively (Lee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The study concludes that substituting PCC ash for standard Portland Cement in the same concrete mix ratios effectively minimizes adverse environmental effects. In addition, other studies on ash waste correlatives with carbon emission disclosure (CED) and Global Warming Impact (GWI) (Lovecchio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) have found that adding 40% and 60% FA to concrete considerably lowers the CED by about 16% and 24%, respectively. The GWI of the mix 0% is 469 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq, which can be reduced by 32\u0026ndash;48% using 40% and 60% concrete mixes (319 and 244 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq, respectively). Comparing the life cycle assessment and cost analysis, research also found that using high-volume fly ash in concrete led to more cost-effective and eco-friendlier when compared to high-volume ground granulated blast furnace slag (Pandhare et al., n.d.). However, lack of information available on the use of high-volume fly ash in pervious concrete or permeable pavement blocks, then more studies are required to investigate the factors that should be considered when proportioning the mixtures containing high-volume fly ash.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEco-friendly construction in Asian Countries\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainable construction focuses on implementing waste to generate environmentally friendly products that address interconnected environmental issues, aiming to positively impact air and soil quality. The utilization of green construction components can improve the atmosphere as well as building efficiency, which benefits the tropical environment, biology, and technology. An alternative solution classified as green construction where fly ash is used waste is permeable blocks, providing a solution to CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e pollution by preventing the construction of impermeable surfaces that hinder natural water infiltration into the soil. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) validates pervious concrete for pollution control and storm management capabilities (A, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). A significant volume of rainfall collects on impermeable surfaces like parking lots, driveways, walkways, and streets instead of being absorbed into the ground. It ultimately results in an environmental imbalance. This solution enhances and balances the surface temperature, and promotes green open spaces, as well as the green basic coefficient to aid in purifying the atmosphere by decreasing the surplus accumulation of carbon through fostering greenery in urban regions (Fadloli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe advancement of eco-friendly construction in Asian countries demonstrates the growing realization of responsibility for the environment and a dedication to constructing a healthier future for all. Singapore is spearheading the development of green construction in Southeast Asia (Lai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The installation of pervious pavement blocks at the Tianjin Univ. institution in China(Chandrappa \u0026amp; Biligiri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that the performance of the pervious blocks decreased the highest flow by 28.7% and overall runoff by 35.6%. The results show that the type of pervious pavement, the state of draining in porous surfaces, and the water quantity at the start of the rainstorm all significantly influenced the hydrological impact of permeable roads on flood reduction. Another country in Southeast Asia (Malaysia) is also integrating permeable pavers into urban redevelopment projects and green infrastructure efforts to mitigate flooding and heat-related urban impacts. Pervious block surfaces are being implemented in public places, residential developments, and commercial areas in urban centers such as Kuala Lumpur and Penang (Abustan et al., n.d.).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eResearch significance\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe significance of this research is to evaluate the performance of pervious pavement blocks based on their strengths and properties, and to identify their performance in connection to the environmental side of things when using fly ash at a high volume. Studies have shown that fly ash met the criteria for landfill disposal and categorized as non-hazardous according to Environmental Agency of Japan and can be treated as a byproduct rather than waste (Dwivedi \u0026amp; Jain, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Nations like US, China, and European Union countries have also removed fly ash and bottom from their hazardous waste list. The findings in this research will then provide a platform to standardize the implementation of high-volume fly ash as a byproduct material to support green and sustainable construction, especially in Asian countries.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and experimental methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this experiment, the primary binders are Portland Composite Cement (PCC) blended with fly ash type C sourced from the Steam Power Plant in Amurang, North Sulawesi Province. As seen in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the fly ash has a CaO content of 28.13%, with a silicate content of 18.77%. From this percentage, it can be expected to form concrete products that have a lower carbon content and higher mechanical properties in comparison to the typical standard concrete containing 100% cement. In the production of pervious pavement blocks, natural coarse aggregate of two different sizes, i.e. a maximum size of 10mm (Type A) and 20mm (Type B). The type A mixtures were designed to have a ratio of cement\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;binder: coarse aggregate: fine aggregate of 1:2:1 and a water to binder ratio\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.3. Type B mixtures were produced with a cement\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;binder: coarse aggregate of 1:3 with the same water-to-binder ratio as Type A. In this mixture, no fine aggregate was considered. The binder involves the combination of cement and fly ash with a percentage replacement of 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% by wt. of cement. These percentages were selected based on the typical dosage replacement of high-volume fly ash which means more than 50% according to (Mehta, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Superplasticizer type F was also used as a chemical admixture to maintain the consistency of the pervious pavement blocks during mixing. For specimen size, type A and type B mixtures were produced with 80mm and 60mm thickness sizes, respectively. The mixture proportions used in this research are tabulated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The specimens were produced using a paving block-making machine in collaboration with a paving block manufacturer company.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical composition of PCC and Fly Ash (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical Analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePCC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFly Ash\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMgO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eK\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe specimens were then tested under laboratory conditions to define the compressive strength, flexural strength, void ratio, and infiltration rate after curing for the 7th and 28th days. The compressive strength test was following the procedure in ASTM C39/C39M-21 \u0026ldquo;Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete\u0026rdquo;, the flexural strength was tested in accordance with ASTM C78/C78M-22 \u0026ldquo;Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete\u0026rdquo;, void ratio test was conducted based on the Testing Method for Void Ratio of Porous Concrete\u0026rdquo; from the Japan Concrete Institute (JCI) report, and infiltration rate was measured by following the ASTM C1701 \u0026ldquo;Standard Test Method for Infiltration Rate of In Place Pervious Concrete. Figures 1 and 2 shows how the pavement block samples were cast and tested using concrete laboratory equipment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Mixture proportions (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Code\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePCC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Type\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e800\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFA40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e800\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFA50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e800\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFA60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e800\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFA40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFA50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFA60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFA70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e280\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003eNotes: C100\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;cement 100%; PCC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Portland Composite Cement; FA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Fly Ash; CA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Coarse Aggregate; S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Sand;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003eW\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Water; SP\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Superplasticizer\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussions","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eCompressive strength\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe compressive strength test was conducted to evaluate the influence of high-volume fly ash when replacing cement in pervious concrete blocks. For the type A samples, the highest strength value was by the sample containing 30% fly ash by wt. of cement, i.e. 17 MPa and 23 MPa at 7 and 28 days, respectively (see Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe 28th-day strength was 14% lower compared to the normal pore block without fly ash addition or 100% cement. The compressive strength of the samples with 40%, 50%, and 60% showed no significant difference at 7 and 28 days. Based on the results, the FA30 sample can be categorized as quality B, which can be used for parking lots according to the Indonesian National Standard (SNI 03-0691-1996), as seen in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Compared to the results of the type B samples, the samples without fine aggregate and a larger maximum size of coarse aggregate were not effective at improving the compressive strength with the maximum strength being obtained by the sample containing 60% fly ash replacement, i.e. 9 MPa at 28 days. The strength then dropped to 6 MPa when the volume of fly ash replacement was increased to 70% (see Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Since the maximum strength of the compression load was only 9 MPa, this type of mixture can only be applied to gardens or other applications that do not require a load that is too heavy. Overall, the results conclude that to improve the properties of the pervious pavement block, fine aggregate can be added while using smaller coarse aggregate. In this case, the percentage of fly ash can be recommended to be 40 to 60% cement replacement.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA similar observation was also reported on the study of (Khankhaje et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Their outcome confirmed that increasing the level of replacing cement with fly ash resulted in reducing the strength of pervious concrete. On the other hand, higher abrasion resistance and lower drying shrinkage can be expected on cement mixture containing fly ash. In another study, it was reported that compressive strength and flexural strength of pervious concrete pavement containing fly ash were higher at the long-term than that of the early age. This can be due to the increased hydration degree from the reaction between SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in fly ash and the CH as the product of cement hydration and formed CSH gel that is responsible for strengthening the adhesion and bonding force between aggregate. This study also concluded the potential application of pervious concrete containing fly ash for pedestrian paths, parking lots, and park roads especially in urban settings that requires more stable material to distribute load because of heavy traffic areas while at the same time can reduce stormwater runoff and promoting drainage during the heavy rain (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhysical properties of the paving block based on SNI 03-0691-1996\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuality\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompressive strength (MPa)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaximum absorption\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12,5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8,5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eFlexural strength\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe results show that among the samples containing fly ash, the highest flexural strength in sample type A was the pervious pavement block sample containing 40% fly ash (FA40) with strength values of 3.4 and 3.7 MPa at 7 and 28 days, respectively. The increase in fly ash volume reduced the resistance performance of the pervious pavement blocks for flexural load. In sample type B, no significant difference was found in flexural strength if the specimens contained a high volume of fly ash. However, the flexural strength of all samples was still in the range of the typical strength of pervious concrete, i.e. 1-3.7 MPa. Using smaller particle sizes of coarse aggregate with fine aggregate improved the strength of the pervious pavement blocks, with the maximum percentage of fly ash at 40%. It was interesting to note that the specimens containing a larger size of coarse aggregate tended to have comparable flexural strength, although the content of fly ash increased by up to 60%. This phenomenon was also found in the compressive strength results that indicated that the coarse aggregate\u0026apos;s size influenced the strength properties of pervious pavement blocks, even with a higher percentage of fly ash and without the use of fine aggregate. In this case, the larger size of the coarse aggregate was proportional to the paste volume, increasing the binding properties to resist the bending stress to which it was subjected. A similar observation was also reported by (Yu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, they also found that an increase in aggregate size (over 7 mm) increased the compressive strength rapidly. They also mentioned a further improvement of strength can be achieved by increasing the paste thickness up to 1.15mm. Furthermore, to improve the strength and durability characteristics of pervious concrete, additions of various chemical and mineral admixtures at a proper proportion were found effective in increasing the density of paste matrix without disturbing the permeability limits (Nazeer, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eVoid ratio\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurther investigation of the void ratio was made on the pervious pavement blocks using larger coarse aggregate with no fine aggregate. It can be seen in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e that the specimens containing fly ash had a higher total voids compared to the normal pervious block without fly ash.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIncreasing the fly ash content reduced the percentage of voids due to the increase in paste volume. The continuous void in the pervious pavement blocks also showed the same trend with the reduction of total voids (At) when increasing the fly ash volume. The higher the percentage of continuous voids (Ac), the higher permeability expected. On the other hand, the discontinuous void (Ad) percentages that appeared in high-volume fly ash, i.e. FA60 and FA70, were higher than for the FA40 and FA50 specimens. This means that the degree of compaction was greater when using a higher volume of fly ash in the mixtures, resulting in an improved density for the pervious pavement blocks. However, the poor pozzolanic activity of fly ash resulted in reducing the compression load resistance. This is a common behavior due to using high-volume fly ash that should be minimized by optimizing the utilization of ternary blended systems, for example, using nanoparticles or chemical additions. This modification could promote a pozzolanic reaction and facilitate the late strength development of high-volume fly ash (Shaikh et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Supit et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInfiltration Rate\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe infiltration rate test was conducted on C100 containing 100% cement and FA60 containing 60% fly ash as a cement replacement. This test examined the ability of water to enter the specimens and flow into the soil. FA60 was selected among the other variations since this sample obtained a higher strength compared to the other percentages of cement replacement. The results in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e clearly show that using 60% fly ash as a cement replacement reduced the water to penetrate the specimens from 5.37 mm/hour to 2.71 mm/hour, which is 50% lower than the C100 sample. This is an indication that permeability is affected by the volume of fly-ash used in the pervious pavement blocks mixture. Increasing the fly ash content, increases the volume of paste thus decreasing the open pore structure of the previous pavement block matrix. (T. Ahmed \u0026amp; Hoque, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) commented on the influence of aggregate to cement ratio in permeability of pervious concrete mixture. In their study, they found that more bonding from the cement paste and aggregate can be expected in a lower aggregate: cement ratio while higher value could lead to destroy the adhesion between aggregate particles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eEnvironmental assessment\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe most appropriate parameters used to assess the ecological properties of concrete were carbon footprint and energy demand (Habert et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In this case, the environmental impact assessment was calculated based on the compressive strength performance and environmental impact evaluation value following the equation developed by (Fantilli \u0026amp; Chiaia, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMIx\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;MI/MIinf (1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEIy\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;EIsup/EI (2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEMI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;MI/EI (MPa\u0026times;m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/kg) (3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhere MIinf is the reference compressive strength, MI is the compressive strength (MPa), EIsup is the reference CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions, and EI is the CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e). The definition of MI is based on concrete strength and can also include other mechanical properties of concrete structures.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions can be calculated using an equation where E is CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e), w is the unit mass of each material (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e), and e is the CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions intensity of each material (kg/t).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026Sigma; (w x e / 1000) (4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions based on the JSCE 2004 standard are shown in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, while Fig.\u0026nbsp;9 shows the relationship between the intensity of the CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions and compressive strength performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions based on JSCE 2004 standard\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaterials\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions intensity (kg/t)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e766.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFly Ash\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSuperplasticizer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoarse Aggregate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFine Aggregate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure 9 shows the relationship diagram between MI and EI where the lower area represents compressive strength performance, and the higher area is the ecological impact. In this diagram, the compressive strength results were selected based on the strength performance of mixtures containing 40%, 50%, and 60% of fly ash compared with control mixture.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe diagram can be divided into four different zones representing the performance of each mixture of permeable pavement block. Zone 1 indicates low compressive strength\u0026ndash;low ecological performance, Zone 2 indicates high compressive strength\u0026ndash;low ecological performance, Zone 3 indicates high compressive strength\u0026ndash;high ecological, and Zone 4 indicates low compressive strength\u0026ndash;high ecological performance. Based on the plotting, the performance of the permeable pavement blocks using high-volume fly ash are in Zone 4, indicating that high ecological performance can be expected. However, modification to the mixture containing high-volume fly ash is still necessary to help it become a more sustainable permeable pavement product.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSome efforts can be made through the incorporation of high-volume fly ash with another supplementary cementitious materials like silica fume, metakaolin, and slag (Runganga et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The influence of combining silica fume in high-volume fly ash concrete was studied by (Thac Hoc Nguyen \u0026amp; Quang Van Le, 2021). It was reported that the combination of 60% fly ash and 5 to10% of silica fume as a replacement of cement improved the workability and compressive strength of concrete after 90 days of curing. This study confirmed that the later age performance of concrete should be considered when using high-volume fly ash because of the slow activity of alumina and silicates that can have a negative impact on strength resistance of concrete at the early age. In another study, using nano silica and silica fume was found effective in accelerating the initial hydration reaction of high-volume fly ash cement composites that finally improved strength and microstructural refinement (Kim et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Since less reports are available on the use of nanoparticles in high-volume fly ash composites on permeable concrete, future studies on optimizing these promising mixtures are needed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe mechanical properties and environmental assessment of pervious pavement blocks containing high-volume fly ash have been examined. The results can be summarized as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples that do not contain fine aggregates or coarse aggregates with a maximum size don't act to increase compressive strength. In this experiment, sample type A with smaller size of aggregate and 30% of fly ash as a replacement of cement (FA30) had the highest compressive strength categorized as quality B, which means it can be used for parking lots. The increase in fly ash volume decreased the compression load resistance and tensile effectiveness of the pervious pavement blocks under flexural strain.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite a high-volume fly ash concentration of up to 60%, the pavements with larger rough aggregate sizes had a comparable flexural strength. The pervious pavement blocks with fly ash had a higher overall void than the samples without ash. Increasing the fly ash content reduced the percentage of voids due to the increased paste volume.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe infiltration rate results show the ability of pervious pavement blocks with 60% fly ash in absorbing the water from the surface to enter the soil with a maximum infiltration rate of 2.71 mm/hour, categorized as low intensity. Therefore, it is important to select the fly ash proportions in pervious pavement blocks to achieve a suitable infiltration rate without compromising the strength.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on ecological performance, the use of high-volume fly ash could provide high ecological performance but still be low in compressive strength. Therefore, modification by adding another pozzolanic material such as metakaolin or silica fume in nano form can be considered for further development regarding the use of high-volume fly ash as a construction material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe implementation of green technology requires specialized knowledge due to its higher level of complexity compared to traditional procedures. Construction businesses must follow additional regulations and requirements to ensure a solid understanding of implementing environmentally friendly practices, which can extend the construction process due to the need for extra steps. Fly ash is a well-known material from coal-fired power plant over the world including Asian countries. However, there is a limitation of guidelines for using fly ash across the country because of the difference in chemical composition and its variability that raises an issue when selecting the proper source of fly ash. Therefore, advance assessment should be conducted when selecting the fly ash to optimize the replacement level of cement before using it in civil engineering work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors wish to thank the Atsumi International Foundation and Manado State Polytechnic for the grants and technical support during the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, Steve Supit. The data are not publicly available due to their containing information that could compromise the privacy of research participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe publication of this research was supported by Atsumi International Foundation through Asia Future Conference scholarship year 2024.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Steve Supit, Kornkanok Boonserm and Priyono. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Steve Supit and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable in this section\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eA RB (2008) Green Pervious Concrete. Int J Adv Eng Manage (IJAEM 2(1):1107. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.35629/5252-45122323\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.35629/5252-45122323\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbustan I, Hamzah O, Rashid A (n.d.). Review Of Permeable Pavement Systems In Malaysia Conditions\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmed S, Kamal I (2022) Green Conductive Construction Materials Toward Sustainable Infrastructures. ECS Trans 107(1):2139\u0026ndash;2153. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1149/10701.2139ecst\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1149/10701.2139ecst\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmed T, Hoque S (2020) Study on pervious concrete pavement mix designs. \u003cem\u003eIOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e476\u003c/em\u003e(1). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/476/1/012062\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1088/1755-1315/476/1/012062\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBendapudi S, Saha P (2011) Contribution of Fly ash to the properties of Mortar and Concrete. Int J Earth Sci Eng 04:974\u0026ndash;5904\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChandrappa AK, Biligiri KP (2016) Comprehensive investigation of permeability characteristics of pervious concrete: A hydrodynamic approach. Constr Build Mater 123:627\u0026ndash;637. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.035\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.035\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChindaprasirt P, Kanchanda P, Sathonsaowaphak A, Cao H (2009) Sulfate resistance of blended cements containing fly ash and rice husk ash. Constr Build Mater 21:1356\u0026ndash;1361. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.10.005\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.10.005\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDwivedi A, Jain MK (2014) \u003cem\u003eFly ash-waste management and overview: A Review\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e(1), 30\u0026ndash;35. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://recent-science.com/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://recent-science.com/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFadloli L, Arifin HS, Ridwan WA (2023) Study on green concrete (porous concrete) sustainability to support sustainable construction in Indonesia. Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam Dan Lingkungan 13(3):432\u0026ndash;443. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.29244/jpsl.13.3.432-443\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.29244/jpsl.13.3.432-443\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFantilli AP, Chiaia B (2013) The work of fracture in the eco-mechanical performances of structural concrete. J Adv Concr Technol 11(10):282\u0026ndash;290. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3151/jact.11.282\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3151/jact.11.282\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHabert G, Miller SA, John VM, Provis JL, Favier A, Horvath A, Scrivener KL (2020) Environmental impacts and decarbonization strategies in the cement and concrete industries. Nat Reviews Earth Environ 1(11):559\u0026ndash;573. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0093-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s43017-020-0093-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKhankhaje E, Kim T, Jang H, Kim CS, Kim J, Rafieizonooz M (2023) Properties of pervious concrete incorporating fly ash as partial replacement of cement: A review. \u003cem\u003eDevelopments in the Built Environment\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100130\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100130\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKim BJ, Lee GW, Choi YC (2022) Hydration and Mechanical Properties of High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete with Nano-Silica and Silica Fume. Materials 15(19). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196599\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/ma15196599\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLai F, Zhou J, Lu L, Hasanuzzaman M, Yuan Y (2023) Green building technologies in Southeast Asia: A review. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 55:102946. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/J.SETA.2022.102946\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.SETA.2022.102946\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLangga Chandra Galuh D, Afif Shulhan M, Yasin I (2022) Low Carbon Concrete: Cement Replacement Utilizing Fly Ash. \u003cem\u003eJournal Of Green Science And Technology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eVI\u003c/em\u003e(1)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLee J, Lee T, Jeong J, Jeong J (2020) Engineering, durability, and sustainability properties analysis of high-volume, PCC ash-based concrete. Sustain (Switzerland) 12(9). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/SU12093520\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/SU12093520\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu H, Luo G, Wang L, Gong Y (2019) Strength time-varying and freeze-thaw durability of sustainable pervious concrete pavement material containing waste fly ash. Sustain (Switzerland) 11(1). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/su11010176\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/su11010176\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLovecchio N, Shaikh F, Rosano M, Ceravolo R, Biswas W (2020) Environmental assessment of supplementary cementitious materials and engineered nanomaterials concrete. AIMS Environ Sci 7(1):13\u0026ndash;30. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3934/environsci.2020002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3934/environsci.2020002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMaddalena R, Roberts JJ, Hamilton A (2018) Can Portland cement be replaced by low-carbon alternative materials? A study on the thermal properties and carbon emissions of innovative cements. J Clean Prod 186:933\u0026ndash;942. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.138\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.138\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMaguesvari U (2017) Influence of Fly Ash and Fine Aggregates on the Characteristics of Pervious Concrete. In Int J Appl Eng Res (12, Issue 8). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.ripublication.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.ripublication.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMalvar L, Lenke L (2006) Efficiency of fly ash in mitigating alkali-silica reaction based on chemical composition. ACI Mater J, \u003cem\u003e103\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMehta PK (2004) High-performance, high-volume fly ash concrete for sustainable development. \u003cem\u003eInternational Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology\u003c/em\u003e, 3\u0026ndash;14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOlagunju BD, Olanrewaju OA (n.d.). \u003cem\u003eComparative Analysis of Different Fly Ash Percentage of Pozzolanic Cement\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePandhare SJ, Geetha M, Jayaraj K (n.d.). Properties of High volume GGBFS and High Volume Flyash Concrete: A Brief Review. In \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal for Research in Applied Science \u0026amp; Engineering Technology (IJRASET)\u003c/em\u003e (Vol. 11). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.ijraset.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRunganga D, Okonta F, Musonda I (2024) Strength and Durability Properties of High-Volume Fly Ash (HVFA) Binders: A Systematic Review. In \u003cem\u003eCivilEng\u003c/em\u003e (Vol. 5, Issue 2, pp. 435\u0026ndash;460). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/civileng5020022\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/civileng5020022\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSaraswathy V, Song H (2006) Corrosion Performance Of Fly Ash Blended Cement Concrete: A State-Of-Art Review. Corros Rev 24:122\u0026ndash;187. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:138308758\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:138308758\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShaikh FUA, Supit SWM, Sarker PK (2014) A study on the effect of nano silica on compressive strength of high volume fly ash mortars and concretes. Mater Design 60:433\u0026ndash;442. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATDES.2014.04.025\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.MATDES.2014.04.025\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSharvini SR, Noor ZZ, Chong CS, Stringer LC, Yusuf RO (2018) Energy consumption trends and their linkages with renewable energy policies in East and Southeast Asian countries: Challenges and opportunities. In \u003cem\u003eSustainable Environment Research\u003c/em\u003e (Vol. 28, Issue 6, pp. 257\u0026ndash;266). Chinese Institute of Environmental Engineering. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.serj.2018.08.006\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.serj.2018.08.006\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSupit SWM, Shaikh FUA, Sarker PK (2014) Effect of ultrafine fly ash on mechanical properties of high volume fly ash mortar. Constr Build Mater 51:278\u0026ndash;286. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.11.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.11.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTeixeira ER, Mateus R, Cam\u0026otilde;es AF, Bragan\u0026ccedil;a L, Branco FG (2016) Comparative environmental life-cycle analysis of concretes using biomass and coal fly ashes as partial cement replacement material. J Clean Prod 112:2221\u0026ndash;2230. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.124\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.124\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThac Hoc Nguyen, \u0026amp; Quang Van Le (2021) Influences of SilicaFume to Engineering Properties of HVFC. J Polym Compos 9:33\u0026ndash;44. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/DOI:10.37591/jopc.v9i3.5543\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"DOI:10.37591/jopc.v9i3.5543\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXu G, Liu J, Qiao L, Sun Y (2010) Experimental Study on Carbonation and Steel Corrosion of High Volume Fly Ash Concrete. \u003cem\u003e2010 Asia-Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference\u003c/em\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;4. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1109/APPEEC.2010.5448649\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1109/APPEEC.2010.5448649\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYu F, Sun D, Wang J, Hu M (2019) Influence of aggregate size on compressive strength of pervious concrete. Constr Build Mater 209:463\u0026ndash;475. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2019.03.140\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2019.03.140\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhong R, Wille K (2015) Material design and characterization of high performance pervious concrete. Constr Build Mater 98:51\u0026ndash;60. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.08.027\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.08.027\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"city-and-built-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"cben","sideBox":"Learn more about [City and Built Environment](https://www.springer.com/journal/44213/)","snPcode":"44213","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/cben/default.aspx","title":"City and Built Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"EM KeenBeans","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Pervious pavement block, Fly Ash, Environmental assessment, Flexural, Compressive, Infiltration","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5180740/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5180740/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eCement production leads to large amounts of carbon dioxide emissions related to global warming. Fly ash, an abundant industrial solid waste that is often used in some Asian countries like Japan, China, Thailand, and Indonesia, was utilized in this study as a replacement of cement to reduce cement consumption in the production of pervious pavement blocks. This study aims to experimentally investigate the potential use of high-volume fly ash on the characteristics of pervious pavement blocks including compressive strength, flexural strength, void ratio, and infiltration rate. Two types of mixture were considered in this experiment. The type A mixtures were designed to have a ratio of cement\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;binder: coarse aggregate: fine aggregate of 1:2:1 and a water to binder ratio\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.3. Type B mixtures were produced with a cement\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;binder: coarse aggregate of 1:3 with the same water-to-binder ratio as Type A. In this type, no fine aggregate was considered. The binder involves the combination of cement and fly ash with a percentage replacement of 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% by wt. of cement. In addition, the environmental impact assessment was also calculated to examine the CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emission intensity of each material based on the Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare standard. The results show a promising improvement in the properties of pervious pavement blocks when using high-volume fly ash as a cement replacement. The reduction of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions can also be confirmed, making this product one solution in the construction sector to support practical pathways toward carbon neutrality in Asian countries.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Mechanical Properties and Environmental Impact Assessment of Eco-Friendly Pervious Pavement Blocks Containing High-Volume Fly Ash","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-23 14:15:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5180740/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-04-21T01:15:44+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-04-20T23:35:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-04-14T00:24:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"City and Built Environment","date":"2025-04-12T09:47:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"city-and-built-environment","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"cben","sideBox":"Learn more about [City and Built Environment](https://www.springer.com/journal/44213/)","snPcode":"44213","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/cben/default.aspx","title":"City and Built Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"EM KeenBeans","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5c931e4d-95e9-4a4e-800f-e31e58ce8fc8","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 23rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-08T02:09:26+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-23 14:15:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5180740","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5180740","identity":"rs-5180740","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}