Acute Concurrent Exercise Improves Inhibitory Control and Its Non-Mediation Role of Lactate: An Event-Related Potential Study

Acute Concurrent Exercise Improves Inhibitory Control and Its Non-Mediation Role of Lactate: An Event-Related Potential Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Acute Concurrent Exercise Improves Inhibitory Control and Its Non-Mediation Role of Lactate: An Event-Related Potential Study Ruei-Hong Li, Tai-Rui Chen, Nicholas D. Gilson, Marius Brazaitis, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4278500/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 27 Jan, 2025 Read the published version in Sports Medicine-Open → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: Concurrent exercise (CE), an emerging exercise modality characterized by sequential bouts of aerobic (AE) and resistance exercise (RE), has demonstrated acute benefits on executive functions (EFs) and neuroelectric P3 amplitudes. However, the effect of acute CE on inhibitory control, a sub-component of EFs, and P3 amplitudes remains inconclusive. Moreover, exploring the mechanisms underlying the effects of acute exercise on EFs contributes to scientific comprehension, with lactate recognized as a crucial candidate positively correlated with EFs. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effects of acute CE on inhibitory control via behavioral and event-related potential approaches and to examine its potential mediational role on lactate. Methods: Seventy-eight adults ( M age = 22.95, SD = 1.75 years) were randomly assigned to either a CE, AE, or control (CON) group. Participants in the CE group engaged in 12-minutes of AE (40%–59% of heart rate reserve [HRR]) coupled with 13-minutes of RE (1 set, with 75% of 10-repetition maximum, and 12 repetitions of 8 movements). The AE group participated in 25 minutes of AE (40%–59% HRR). Prior to and following exercise onset, participants in both the CE and AE groups completed a 5-minute warm-up and cool-down. Participants in the CON group read books for 35 minutes. Lactate concentrations were measured at timepoint of 0-, 17-, and 30-minutes relative to the treatment onset. Response time (RT) and accuracy in the Stroop test, as well as P3 amplitudes, were assessed before and after the treatment. Results: The results revealed that both the CE and AE groups had significantly shorter RTs compared to the CON group, with no significant differences in accuracy among groups. A decrease in P3 amplitudes was observed for the CE group compared to the AE and CON groups. The mediating effects of lactate between acute exercise and inhibitory control were insignificant. Conclusions: The findings suggest that both CE and AE improve inhibitory control and CE potentially enhances the efficient allocation of attention resources. The lack of a significant mediating effect of lactate warrants further investigation. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT06370286. Registered 12 April 2024 - Retrospectively registered, https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06370286. concurrent training inhibition lactate mediation P300 Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Key Points Acute concurrent exercise improves inhibitory control, and the effect is similar to aerobic exercise. Acute concurrent exercise potentially enhances the efficient allocation of attention resources. Lactate does not act as a mediator between acute exercise and inhibitory control. Background Younger adults, grappling with pivotal challenges as they assume new responsibilities and shape the trajectory of their adult lives, must rely on their capacity to adapt to dynamic environmental changes for success [1]. Executive functions (EFs) emerge as a critical ability for younger adults to navigate environmental changes, involving the control of thoughts and actions to achieve goals through the coordination of various cognitive functions. EFs encompass three core-domains, including inhibitory control (i.e., resist irrelevant information), working memory (i.e., maintain and manipulate information), and cognitive flexibility (i.e., shift between diverse rules or tasks) [2, 3]. Younger adults who exhibit superior EFs evidence lower risky behavior [4], reduced cardiovascular risk [5], higher conscientiousness [6], greater stress regulation [7], and better academic performance [8]. Exploring strategies that can facilitate EFs becomes crucial in fostering the resilience and adaptive capacities of younger adults to confront life challenges. Acute bouts of exercise have been recognized as a feasible approach for improving EFs. This is supported by numerous meta-analyses [9–11], strong evidence presented in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (PAGA) [12]. While positive effects are recognized, there is a need to identify the optimal parameters of acute exercise [12] that can benefit EFs. To investigate this issue, Chang, Erickson [13] proposed the 3W1H framework of acute exercise and cognitive function which encompass the Who (e.g., the characteristics of population), What (e.g., the intensity, duration, or modality of exercise; the domains of cognition), When (e.g., the time point of cognitive function assessment), and How (e.g., the mechanism between the acute exercise and cognition). Using this framework, researchers have begun to explore new modalities of exercise, such as concurrent exercise (CE), and investigate mechanisms that underpin the exercise – EF relationship. CE characterized by back-to-back sessions of aerobic exercise (AE) and resistance exercise (RE), was initially employed as a strategic training approach for athletes facing the dual demands of cardiovascular endurance and muscular strength [14]. Recently, CE has emerged as a credible exercise modality, demonstrating promising health benefits such as weight loss [15], improved cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness [16], elevated brain-derived neurotrophic factor [17], reduced blood pressure [18], and a decreased inflammatory response [19]. These diverse physiological adaptations have also prompted researchers to investigate whether CE could also benefit EF. The acute effects of CE on inhibitory control have involved varied designs and yielded ambiguous findings [20–22]. For example, Chang, Kim [20] recruited 34 healthy young women, who participated in 30 minutes of CE comprising low-intensity RE (30% 1-repetition maximum [1-RM] with 12 repetitions) concomitant with moderate-intensity AE (50–60% heart rate reserve [HRR]). Similarly, Chen, Li [21] enlisted 15 healthy men to engage in CE involving moderate-intensity RE (4 sets, 4 upper body movements, 70% 10-repetition maximum [10-RM], and 10 repetitions) coupled with moderate-intensity AE (65% V̇O 2 peak ) for 20 minutes. Both studies found a favorable impact on inhibitory control. However, Wen and Tsai [22] found no significant positive effect on inhibitory control in 32 obese women participating in 30 minutes of CE which alternated intervals of 1-minute dumbbell RE with 1-minute of moderate-intensity (55% HRR) AE. Inconsistencies in results may stem from the sequential completing-session of CE, where completing one exercise before transitioning to another, rather than alternating between exercises, reveals advantages in EFs [23]. Event-related potentials (ERPs), as indicators of cerebral potential alterations reflecting cognitive processes [24], have been extensively used to explore neuroelectric activation patterns in studies of acute exercise and EFs [25, 26]. The P3 component of ERP represents a stimulus-locked positive oscillation occurring around 300 to 700 milliseconds after the stimulus onset and serves as an index of attention allocation during cognitive processes, particularly over parietal areas [27]. A recent meta-analysis observed that both AE and RE lead to elevated P3 amplitudes following acute exercise [28]. Similarly, an augmentation in P3 amplitudes subsequent to acute CE has been observed in both inhibitory control [22] and cognitive flexibility [23]. However, Wen and Tsai [22] utilized interval CE, while Li, Karageorghis [23] employed completing-session CE. The two studies also investigated different aspects of EFs. This raises the question of whether completing CE would result in a similar increase in P3 amplitudes associated with inhibitory control, underscoring the necessity for further investigation. Along with using high quality measures, examining the causal physiological mechanisms regarding the beneficial effects of acute exercise on EFs stands as a crucial consideration [13]. Lactate, a by-product of glycolysis, plays a critical role in activating the sympathetic nervous system, thereby influencing psychomotor arousal and cognitive processes [29–31]. Both CE and AE have been found to raise the concentrations of lactate [32], with CE showing a more marked rise than AE [33]. Exercise-induced lactate has been demonstrated to correlate positively with cognitive function [34] as well as modify the delivery of neurotrophic factors [35, 36]. Recently, lactate has been suggested by Li, Karageorghis [23] as a mediator in the connection between acute CE and cognitive flexibility. However, it is yet unknown if lactate plays a mediating role with regard to how acute CE and AE affect inhibitory control. Addressing a number of key research gaps, this study aimed to determine the acute effect of CE on inhibitory control and related P3 activation among younger adults. Additionally, the mediating effect of lactate in the relationship between acute exercise, encompassing both CE and AE, and inhibitory control was also examined. Our hypothesis posited that both CE and AE would lead to enhanced inhibitory control and P3 amplitudes, wherein lactate would serve as a mediator in connecting acute exercise with inhibitory control. Methods Participants Seventy-eight cognitively healthy participants (women n = 39; M age = 22.72, SD = 1.62 years; men n = 39; M age = 23.03, SD = 1.69 years) were recruited from universities in and around Taipei City, Taiwan. The sample size was by conducting a power analysis with G*Power 3.1 for a one-way, between-subjects ANCOVA design with a power of 0.8, α of 0.05, and effect size ( \({\text{η}}_{\text{p}}^{\text{2}}\) ) of 0.13 [23]. Participants met inclusion criteria as follows: aged between 20 and 30 years; able to exercise without undue risk (i.e., the first seven questions of the Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire for Everyone [PAR-Q+] were answered “No”); right-handed dominance; typical or corrected-to-typical eyesight; absence of psychiatric or neurological ailments; limited physical activity in the previous month (i.e., < 150 minutes/week of moderate-intensity physical activity); non-obese status (body mass index [BMI] < 27 kg/m 2 ); and no cardiorespiratory or neuromuscular conditions. Eligible participants were randomly assigned into one of three groups, including CE, AE, or the control group (CON) using a lottery draw. All participants provided informed consent and the study received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee of National Taiwan Normal University (Approval No. 202101HM005). Assessment Cardiorespiratory Fitness Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed using the YMCA Submaximal Cycle Ergometer Test [37, 38]. This test, employing a submaximal approach and ergometry, offers significant safety advantages, and is particularly suitable for populations with irregular exercise habits. The detailed testing protocol comprised several stages: (a) Stage 1: Power was set at 25 watts (W) while maintaining a pedal cadence of 50 revolutions per minute (RPM) for 3 minutes, with the recording of heart rate (HR) in the final minute. (b) Stage 2: Adjustment of power was based on the HR recorded in the last minute of Stage 1. If HR exceeded 100, the power was set to 50 W; if HR was between 90 and 99, the power was set to 75 W; if HR was between 80 and 89, the power was set to 100 W; if HR was below 79, the power was set to 125 W. This stage was sustained for at least 3 minutes, with HR recorded every minute. If the HR difference between the last 2 minutes was greater than 5, indicating instability, an additional minute of testing was added until the HR difference was under 5, before progressing to the next stage. (c) Stages 3 and 4: Power increased by 25 W for the current stage, with advancement to the next stage contingent upon conditions similar to Stage 2. (d) Stage 5: The acquired HRs were utilized to estimate peak oxygen consumption (VO 2 peak ). Muscular Fitness Muscular fitness was evaluated using machine resistance fitness equipment, encompassing eight distinct movements: chest press, rowing, lat pull down, shoulder press, arm curl, leg extension, leg press, and leg curl. The comprehensive testing protocol encompassed the following stages: (a) Stage 1: Participants were directed to execute movements at the lowest load, completing 10 to 12 repetitions to familiarize themselves and warm up. (b) Stage 2: Participants engaged in sets with an approximate 20-pound load increment, aiming for 3 to 5 repetitions per movement. Rest intervals of around 1 minute were adhered to between sets until the participant could not complete a single repetition. If a participant managed one repetition, that load was carried forward to Stage 3; otherwise, the load from the prior set was maintained. (c) Stage 3: Preceding this stage, participants rested for 3 minutes, utilizing the load determined in Stage 2. Participants exerted maximal effort until exhaustion, while the researcher recorded the number of repetitions and load. Subsequently, these figures were converted to 10-RM according to the prescribed training load table [39]. Stroop Test Inhibitory control was assessed using a modified computerized version of the Stroop test [40], which was administered through Neuroscan Stim2 software (Compumedics Neuroscan, Charlotte, NC). The test comprised four blocks, each consisting of 108 trials. Within each block, three types of trials were presented: neutral, congruent, and incongruent. The neutral trial involved displaying a square printed in red, green, or blue color. The congruent trial presented Chinese language prints in corresponding colors and words [i.e., 紅 (RED), 綠 (GREEN), or 藍 (BLUE)]. In contrast, the incongruent trial displayed Chinese language prints in different colors and words [e.g., 紅 (RED) printed in blue color]. Each block included 36 neutral trials, 36 congruent trials, and 36 incongruent trials. Participants were instructed to respond promptly and accurately to the color of the stimulus presented. Subsequently, the mean response time (RT) of correct trials and accuracy for each Stroop condition were examined. Heart Rate and Rating of Perceived Exertion A HR monitor (H10; Polar, Finland) was used to assess HRs, while Borg’s rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale was applied to determine subjective exertion levels (scale of 6 to 20) [41]. Four HR metrics were derived, including baseline HR, pre-treatment HR, treatment HR, and post-treatment HR. Baseline HR was recorded during a 5-minute period while the participant remained at rest. Pre-treatment HR was recorded before and after the participant performed the pretest of Stroop test. For the CE group, treatment HR was recorded at 2-minute intervals during AE, and both before and after each movement of RE. In the AE group, treatment HR was recorded at 2-minute intervals during AE. For the CON group, treatment HR was recorded before and after the book-reading activity. Post-treatment HR was recorded before and after the participant performed the Stroop test. The application of the RPE scale coincided with the intervals at which the treatment HR measurements were conducted. Electroencephalography Recordings and Analyses A 32-channel electrode cap (Quik-Cap Neo Net; Compumedics Neuroscan, USA) was used to acquire neuroelectric activity from the scalp. Data collection and real-time processing were conducted using CURRY 8 Data Acquisition and Online Processing software (Compumedics Neuroscan, USA) and the Neuroscan SynAmps2 amplifier (Compumedics Neuroscan, USA). Electrode positions of the cap adhered to the International 10–10 System. Real-time neuroelectric activity was referenced to an electrode (i.e., Ref) between Cz and CPz electrodes and grounded to the AFz electrode. Electrooculography (EOG) activity was tracked using extra electrodes positioned vertically above and below the left eye orbit (VEOG; bipolar vertical EOG) and horizontally at the outer canthus of each eye (HEOG; bipolar horizontal EOG). Throughout the recording, the impedance of each electrode was kept below 10 kΩ. Real-time neuroelectric activity was digitized at a sampling rate of 1000 Hz, subjected to amplification at 500 times, and underwent a 60-Hz notch filter. The offline neuroelectric activity analyses adhered to ERP guidelines [42] and were conducted using Matlab (2023b, Mathworks Inc.), EEGLAB toolbox (version 2023.0) [43], and ERPLAB toolbox (version 10.0) [44]. Initially, the offline neuroelectric activity was downsampled to 250 Hz, bandpass filtered (i.e., 0.1–30 Hz half-amplitude cut-off, 12 dB/oct roll-off), and notch filtered at 60 Hz using the Cleanline plugin [45]. Artifact Subspace Reconstruction method was then applied to correct the data [46] and the data was saved as the “pre-ICA” dataset. To obtain clear eyeblinks signals through Independent Component Analysis (ICA), data must undergo noise reduction processing. The data were downsampled to 100 Hz and were filtered by a frequency band (i.e., 1–30 Hz half-amplitude cut-off, 48 dB/oct roll-off). Artifacts were automatically rejected (i.e., 500 µV threshold with 1000 ms time windows), and VEOG, HEOG, periocular, and the bad channels were removed. Subsequently, ICA was executed. The calculated ICA weights were integrated into the “pre-ICA” dataset, and saved as “post-ICA” dataset for further processing. Blink artifacts of the “post-ICA” dataset were corrected using the “icablinkmetrics” plugin [47], and then were re-referenced using mastoid channels (M1, M2) and bad channels were spherically interpolated. Subsequently, the data were epoched (− 200–800 ms), baseline-corrected (− 200–0 ms), and epochs exceeding ± 150 µV and ± 100 µV peak-to-peak amplitudes with 100 ms moving window were removed. Finally, the P3 amplitudes was computed at Pz channel (300–600 ms post-stimulus) for subsequent analyses [48]. Treatment Concurrent Exercise (CE) The participants commenced the session by undergoing a 5-minute warm-up on a cycle ergometer at 70 RPM. The initial load was set at 25 W/min and progressively incremented until reaching the target HR range of 40–59% of HRR during the last minute of the warm-up. Subsequently, participants engaged in AE on the cycle ergometer, maintaining a target HR for 12 minutes at 70 RPM. Following the AE, participants performed RE involving eight movements: chest press, rowing, lat pulldown, shoulder press, arm curl, leg extension, leg press, and leg curl. Each movement consisted of 12 repetitions executed at moderate intensity, specifically set at 70% of their 10-RM [23]. The duration of the RE regimen spanned approximately 13 minutes, incorporating a 1-minute rest interval between each movement. Participants concluded the session with a 5-minute cool-down phase and full-body stretching exercises. Aerobic Exercise (AE) and Control (CON) In the AE group, the participants underwent a 5-minute warm-up identical to that of the CE group. Following this, they engaged in AE for 25 minutes, maintaining the target HR at 70 RPM on a cycle ergometer. To conclude, participants performed a 5-minute cool-down identical to that of the CE group. In the CON group, participants remained comfortably seated and devoted 35 minutes to reading a book associated with exercise and health. Procedure Participants were scheduled for two laboratory visits, with a minimum gap of 7 days between each visit (refer to Fig. 1 ). Prior to each visit, participants were advised to avoid alcohol and caffeine for at least 6 hours and to abstain from engaging in exercise for 12 hours. In the initial visit, participants completed the written informed consent, PAR-Q+ [37], the Digit Span Forward and Backward test to assess short-term and working memory [49], and International Physical Activity Questionnaire to record exercise volume (IPAQ) [50]. Participants also completed assessments for height, weight, as well as cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness. For the second visit, participants adhered to a multi-step procedure. Initially, participants performed the Stroop test as a pretest while their electroencephalography (EEG) activity was recorded. Subsequently, participants underwent the designated treatment based on their assigned group. Finally, participants concluded the session by performing the Stroop test as a post-test, during which EEG activity was recorded once more. Lactate levels were assessed using fingertip samples measured with a lactate analyzer (The EDGE, Taipei, Taiwan) at three distinct time points: Timepoint 1 (prior to the commencement of treatment), Timepoint 2 (17 minutes after the initiation of treatment), and Timepoint 3 (30 minutes after the start of treatment). Statistical Analyses A one-way ANOVA were employed to examine demographics among the groups (Group: CE vs. AE vs. CON), with means ( M ) and standard deviations ( SD ) presented in the results (SPSS version 29.0, IBM Corp., Armonk, NYA). To assess the acute exercise effect on inhibitory control (i.e., RT and accuracy) and P3 amplitudes, one-way ANCOVAs were executed for post-tests of each Stroop condition with treating the pre-test as a covariate. A mixed-model ANOVA with a 3 (Group: CE vs. AE vs. CON) × 3 (Time: Timepoint 1 vs. Timepoint 2 vs. Timepoint 3) was analyzed for lactate. For exercise manipulation, a mixed-model ANOVA with a 3 (Group: CE vs. AE vs. CON) × 4 (Time: resting HR, pre-treatment HR, treatment HR vs. post-treatment HR) design was analyzed for HR. When assumptions of sphericity were violated, Greenhouse–Geisser corrections were applied. To explore mediational role of lactate, the mediation analysis of the simple mediation model was applied by PROCESS Macro SPSS plugin [51]. The independent variable was encoded into a dummy variable, using CON group as a reference [52]. The mediator was the incremental area under curve of lactate which was calculated the area under the lactate concentration curve by three timepoint (i.e., Timepoint 1, Timepoint 2, and Timepoint 3) [53]. Dependent variables were the post-test of Stroop test, with the pre-test as a covariate. Regression analyses from group to lactate (Path a : CE vs. CON, AE vs. CON), form lactate to inhibitory control (Path b ), and from group to inhibitory control (i.e., total effects [Path c ]: CE vs. RC, AE vs. CON) were examined. If both paths a and b were significant [54], indirect effects ( a × b : CE vs. RC, AE vs. CON) and direct effects (Path c’ : CE vs. RC, AE vs. CON) would be analyzed subsequently via bootstrapping method for 5,000 times [55] and a 95% confidence interval (95% CI) were revealed. The mediating role of blood lactate was considered established if the 95% CI of the indirect effect did not span zero. Results Participants Demographics Seventy-eight younger adults participated in the study ( M age = 22.95, SD = 1.75 years; n = 26 in each group). No significant differences in demographics were observed among the groups ( p s > .05; i.e., IPAQ, VO 2 peak , and 10-RM). Detailed participants demographics are present in Table 1 and S1. Table 1 Participant demographics among groups CE AE CON n 26 26 26 Male/Female 13/13 13/13 13/13 Age (year) 22.73 ± 1.87 23.04 ± 1.48 22.85 ± 1.64 Height (m) 1.65 ± 0.08 1.67 ± 0.09 1.68 ± 0.07 Weight (kg) 60.83 ± 8.66 57.99 ± 7.44 61.74 ± 8.47 Digit Span Forward 14.81 ± 1.30 15.00 ± 1.20 14.65 ± 1.06 Backward 10.96 ± 2.14 10.62 ± 2.76 10.15 ± 2.78 IPAQ (MET·min − 1 ·weeks − 1 ) 997.06 ± 857.92 606.99 ± 469.30 589.45 ± 385.56 VO 2 peak (ml·kg − 1 ·min − 1 ) 35.66 ± 5.97 34.06 ± 4.71 33.43 ± 3.40 10-RM (lb) Chest press 63.84 ± 36.77 57.37 ± 32.10 56.03 ± 31.68 Rowing 87.91 ± 23.73 88.78 ± 29.74 89.92 ± 28.48 Lat pull down 68.88 ± 24.30 64.79 ± 20.05 64.81 ± 21.62 Shoulder press 63.80 ± 20.29 58.15 ± 19.76 59.35 ± 21.51 Arm curl 43.50 ± 17.06 39.20 ± 16.91 39.59 ± 15.96 Leg extension 104.41 ± 33.30 103.64 ± 35.59 105.73 ± 26.36 Leg press 205.90 ± 54.19 198.23 ± 57.02 203.42 ± 51.41 Leg curl 67.97 ± 17.21 70.16 ± 23.04 68.44 ± 17.56 All values are M ± SD, excluding n and gender. CE, concurrent exercise group; AE, aerobic exercise group; CON, control group; IPAQ, International Physical Activity Questionnaire; MET, metabolic equivalent of task; 10-RM, 10-repetition maximum. Stroop Test Response Time A significant main effect was observed in the neutral, congruent, and incongruent conditions, respectively ( p s < .001; Tables S2 and S3 ). Multiple comparisons revealed that both CE and AE groups had shorter RT compared to the CON group in neutral (CE: p = .003; AE: p = .004), congruent (CE: p = .002; AE: p = .007), and incongruent (CE: p = .043; AE: p = .048) conditions, with no significant difference between the CE and AE groups in each Stroop condition ( p s = 1.000). Mean and standard error (SE) of RTs are shown in Fig. 2 . Accuracy A non-significant main effect was observed in the neutral ( p = .119), congruent ( p = .082), and incongruent condition ( p = .087) ( Table S2 and S3 ). P3 Amplitudes One-way ANCOVAs indicated no significant main effects of P3 amplitudes among groups in the neutral ( p = .135) and incongruent ( p = .094) conditions. However, a significant main effect was observed in the congruent condition ( p < .001). Further multiple comparisons revealed that the CE group exhibited smaller P3 amplitudes compared to both the AE ( p < .001) and RC ( p = .040) groups (Fig. 3 , Table S2, and S3 ). Lactate A significant interaction of Group × Time as well as a main effect of Group and Time were observed ( p s .05). However, both CE ( p < .001) and AE ( p < .001) groups revealed significantly higher lactate level compared to the CON group at Timepoint 2. The CE group had the significantly highest lactate level, followed by AE ( p < .001) and RC ( p < .001) groups at Timepoint 3. Within the CE group, lactate was significantly highest at Timepoint 1, followed by Timepoint 2, and Timepoint 3 ( p s < .001). Within the AE group, lactate was significantly higher at both Timepoint 2 and 3 compared to Timepoint 1( p s .05) within the CON group. Mediation of Lactate Response Time In the CE and AE groups, both path a and total effect revealed the significant regression in the neutral, congruent, and incongruent condition ( p s .05, Table 2 ). Table 2 The mediation analyses of lactate for acute exercise effect on inhibitory control Group Path b Path a Total effect C LCI UCI C LCI UCI C LCI UCI Response time Neutral CE −0.03 −0.23 0.16 81.22* 59.73 102.71 −31.25* −49.40 −13.10 AE 58.48* 37.02 79.93 −30.05* −48.18 −11.93 Congruent CE 0.00 −0.20 0.20 81.46* 59.97 102.96 −33.37* −51.75 −14.98 AE 58.52* 37.02 80.01 −29.10* −47.49 −10.71 Incongruent CE −0.04 −0.26 0.19 81.55* 60.05 103.05 −26.15* −46.92 −5.38 AE 58.34* 36.81 79.88 −25.71* −46.51 −4.90 Accuracy Neutral CE 0.00 −0.01 0.01 87.17* 64.65 109.69 1.08 −0.13 2.28 AE 58.95* 37.74 80.15 0.66 −0.47 1.80 Congruent CE 0.00 −0.01 0.01 81.43* 59.97 102.90 0.39 −0.62 1.40 AE 59.01* 37.43 80.59 1.13* 0.12 2.15 Incongruent CE 0.02* 0.00 0.04 81.54* 60.04 103.04 2.00* 0.10 3.90 AE 58.46* 36.90 80.02 1.96* 0.06 3.87 P3amplitude Neutral CE 0.00 −0.01 0.01 81.64* 60.22 103.07 −0.93 −1.87 0.01 AE 60.34* 38.26 82.41 −0.26 −1.23 0.71 Congruent CE 0.00 −0.01 0.01 82.07* 60.65 103.50 −1.19* −2.13 −0.26 AE 61.89* 39.06 84.73 0.95 −0.06 1.95 Incongruent CE 0.00 −0.01 0.01 80.75* 59.43 102.08 −0.59 −1.45 0.27 AE 62.49* 40.18 84.80 0.42 −0.48 1.32 CE, concurrent exercise group; AE, aerobic exercise group; C, coefficients; LCI, lower limit of confidence interval; UCI, upper limit of confidence interval; *, significant effect (i.e., confidence interval does not include zero). Accuracy In the CE and AE groups, both path a and total effect revealed the significant regression in the neutral and congruent condition ( p s .05). Regarding the incongruent condition, path a , path b , and total effect revealed a significant regression, but the indirect effect was not significant in both the CE (95% CI: −0.09–2.99) and AE (95% CI: −0.06–2.40) groups (Table 2 ). P3 Amplitudes In the CE and AE groups, both path a and total effect revealed a significant regression in the neutral, congruent, and incongruent condition ( p s .05, Table 2 ). Heart Rate A significant interaction of Group × Time as well as a main effect of Group and Time were observed for HR ( p s .05). For treatment HR, the AE group had a significantly higher HR level compared to the CE group ( p = .001), with the CE group significantly higher than the CON group ( p < .001). For post-treatment HR, both CE ( p < .001) and AE ( p < .001) groups revealed significantly higher HR levels compared to the CON group. Within the CE group, treatment HR was significantly the highest, followed by post-treatment HR, pre-treatment HR, and resting HR ( p s < .001). Similarly, within the AE group, treatment HR was significantly the highest, followed by post-treatment HR, pre-treatment HR, and resting HR ( p s < .001). Within the CON group, resting HR was significantly the lowest compared to pre-treatment HR ( p < .001), treatment HR ( p .05). Discussion The present study examined the effects of acute CE and AE on inhibitory control, utilizing both behavioral and neuroelectric assessments among younger adults. We also investigated the mediating role of lactate in the relationship between acute exercise and inhibitory control. Our findings revealed that acute CE, combining both AE and RE, increased inhibitory control by reducing RT across all Stroop test conditions, regardless of accuracy. Beneficial effects for Stroop data were similar for acute AE. Differences in P3 amplitudes were observed only in the congruent condition, where the amplitudes of the CE group were significantly smaller than those of AE and CON groups. However, no mediating effects of lactate for acute exercise and inhibitory control were observed. Relative to the hypothesis, our findings indicate that acute AE improved inhibitory control by reducing RT. These improvements were accompanied by no significant differences in accuracy, indicating that this enhancement is unlikely to be associated with a trade-off between speed and accuracy [56]. The results replicated previous studies demonstrating the positive effect of acute AE on inhibitory control among younger adults [57, 58]. A meta-analysis, synthesizing data from 55 effect sizes, also supports this, indicating a small and positive effect of acute moderate AE on inhibitory control (Hedges’ g = − 0.26, 95% CI: −0.34 to − 0.18) [59]. The design of acute AE in the present study, structured as a 25-minute moderate-intensity exercise, is noteworthy for its alignment with the PAGA recommendation regarding the facilitation of EF enhancements [12, 60]. Taken together, these findings suggest that acute AE, characterized by moderate intensity over a duration of 20 to 30 minutes, holds the potential to elicit a favorable effect on inhibitory control. Similarly, our findings also indicate acute CE facilitated inhibitory control and this aligns with previous studies showing increased inhibitory control with acute CE [20, 21]. While Wen and Tsai [22] found no effect on inhibitory control after an interval-session of CE, the inconsistency may be attributed to the need for CE to incorporate both completing-sessions of AE and RE, if benefits on EFs are to be elicited [23]. Quintero, Bonilla-Vargas [61] tested CE that combined both AE with intensity interval form and RE and reported enhanced inhibitory control. This finding not only supports that a complete CE is essential for enhancing EFs but also supports the view that intensity interval forms of single AE, when integrated into a comprehensive CE session, could be also effective. Therefore, our findings extend previous research, emphasizing that the design of CE should include a completing-session of both AE and RE for optimal EFs benefits. Contrary to our hypothesis, P3 amplitudes were not increased following AE. The inconsistency might be attributed to differences in cardiorespiratory fitness levels. For example, increased P3 amplitudes following acute AE were observed among individuals with higher cardiorespiratory fitness levels (49.18 ± 7.57 ml·kg − 1 ·min − 1 ) [62], whereas our participants demonstrated lower cardiorespiratory fitness levels (34.38 ± 4.84ml·kg − 1 ·min − 1 ). Tsai, Pan [63] compared acute AE effects on P3 amplitudes among younger adults with varying levels of cardiorespiratory fitness and indicated that the high-fitness group displayed larger P3 amplitudes compared to both the low-fitness and control groups, suggesting a potential association between cardiorespiratory fitness levels and differences in P3 amplitudes. A meta-analysis by Kao, Chen [28] supports this view and found the absence of a noticeable effect of acute exercise on P3 amplitudes in individuals with low cardiorespiratory fitness. One of our novel findings is the reduction in P3 amplitudes observed following acute CE compared to acute AE and the control treatment, particularly noted in the congruent condition. The result was inconsistent with our hypothesis and might be attributed to cognitive demands [64]. Li, Karageorghis [23] found no difference in P3 amplitudes between acute CE and AE under high cognitive demands (i.e., cognitive flexibility) but observed larger P3 amplitudes for acute CE compared to the CON group, suggesting that acute CE might require increased attentional resources to meet higher cognitive demand conditions [27]. Contrary to expectations, our findings showed that in the congruent condition, which involves lower cognitive demands, acute CE triggered smaller P3 amplitudes compared to acute AE and the control treatment. This reduction in P3 amplitudes suggests a more efficient allocation of attentional resources during CE, possibly leading to enhanced inhibitory control. Taken together, our results suggest that following acute CE, attentional resources may be more efficiently managed, necessitating fewer resources particularly in conditions with lower cognitive demands. From a practical perspective, these data suggest that acute CE may help EF function in young adults. For instance, regular participation might mitigate interference during focused studying, and during demanding and critical work situations, CE might benefit transition and flexibly between different perspectives and ideas. The findings of the present study indicated that lactate played no mediating role between acute exercise and inhibitory control. In contrast to our findings, Li, Karageorghis [23] showed that lactate mediated the impact of both acute AE and CE on EF, specifically cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility necessitates concurrent engagement of both inhibitory control and working memory [64, 65], potentially imposing a greater cognitive demand compared to inhibitory control alone. Considering lactate might function as an energy source for the brain [31], it is plausible that the brain requires a lower amount of energy to support EFs with lower cognitive demand. Notably, both Li, Karageorghis [23] and our studies failed to observe the mediating role of lactate in the relationship between acute exercise and P3 amplitudes. Li, Karageorghis [23] proposed that the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system might serve as a possible mechanism between acute exercise and P3 amplitude. The LC serves as the supplier of NE, an important neurotransmitter for central nervous system function and behavior, to the hippocampus and cortex, influencing both cognitive and emotional processes [66]. Acute exercise leads to elevated cognitive performance and activation of the LC-NE system [67], suggesting that the LC-NE system might serve as a conceivable mechanism in the relationship between acute exercise and P3 amplitudes. Our study has a number of strengths and is the first to examine the impact of acute CE on inhibitory control in younger adults, using a comprehensive set of measures that included both behavioral and neuroelectric assessments. We also explored the mediating influence of lactate on the relationship between acute exercise, inhibitory control, and P3 amplitudes, and aimed to elucidate the relationships among these factors. The study design was strong and incorporated a randomized between-group approach, encompassing both genders, and concurrently assessed cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness. This comprehensive approach allowed for the consideration of multiple factors, distinguishing our research from previous studies [20–22]. Several limitations should be acknowledged. Firstly, this study focused solely on the impact of CE on inhibitory control in an “aerobic-resistance order.” The effects of acute CE in the “resistance-aerobic order” on inhibitory control remain unexplored. Past research has shown that different sequences of acute CE can elicit distinct responses in growth hormones [68], which are associated with inhibitory control [69]. Secondly, this study inferred effects on inhibitory control, leaving the impact on working memory and planning, which are additional components, unexplored. Future studies should investigate the benefits of acute CE on working memory to explore both the similarities and differences across various core domains of EFs. This approach will provide a more comprehensive understanding of the positive effects of acute CE on EFs. Finally, it is important to note that, while we controlled for many factors, the ecological validity in practical settings still needs to be considered, such as the impact of exercise on work-related cognitive functions [70]. The transition from laboratory settings to real-world conditions is necessary. Conclusions The study findings underscore the beneficial impact of acute CE on inhibitory control in younger adults, emphasizing its role in efficiently allocating attentional resources. Data also suggest that lactate may not play a mediating role in the advantageous effects of CE on EF. This research provides valuable insight into the potential advantages of CE for younger adults aiming to improve inhibitory control and also highlights areas for further investigation into the underlying mechanisms that influence inhibitory control following acute CE. Abbreviations 1-RM 1-repetition maximum 10-RM 10-repetition maximum AE aerobic exercise BMI body mass index CE concurrent exercise CON control group EEG Electroencephalography EFs Executive functions EOG Electrooculography ERPs Event-related potentials HR heart rate HRR heart rate reserve ICA Independent Component Analysis PAR-Q+ Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire for Everyone RE resistance exercise RPM revolutions per minute VO 2 peak peak oxygen consumption W watts Declarations Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate The study received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee of National Taiwan Normal University (Approval No. 202101HM005), and all participants obtained written informed consent. Consent for Publication Not applicable. Availability of Data and Materials Data will be made available on reasonable request from the corresponding author. Competing Interests Ruei-Hong Li, Tai-Rui Chen, Nicholas D. Gilson, Marius Brazaitis, Yi-Ting Cheng, Hui-Fang Wu, Ji-Hang Lee, and Yu-Kai Chang declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This work was financially supported by the National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan (MOST 107-2628-H-003-003-MY3; 110-2410-H-003-142-MY3; 111-2918-I-003-001-) and by the National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU) within the framework of the Higher Education Sprout Project (HESP) by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan, as well as “Social Emotional Education and Development Center” and “Institute for Research Excellence in Learning Sciences” of the Featured Areas Research Center Program within the framework of the HESP of the MOE in Taiwan. Authors’ Contributions RHL, TRC, YTC, and YKC conceptualized the research project; NDG, MB, and YKC developed the methodology; RHL, TRC, YTC, and HFW conducted data collection; RHL, MB, and YKC analyzed the data; NDG, HFW, and JHL created visualizations; JHL and YKC supervised the project; RHL, TRC, and YKC wrote the original draft; RHL, TRC, NDG, MB, YTC, HFW, JHL, and YKC have reviewed, edited, approved, and contributed to the final manuscript for publication. Acknowledgements Not applicable. References Council NR, Medicine I, Board on Children YF, Committee on Improving the Health SWBYA, Breiner H, Stroud C, Bonnie RJ. Investing in the health and well-being of young adults: National Academies Press; 2015. Diamond A. Chapter 19 - Executive functions. In: Gallagher A, Bulteau C, Cohen D, Michaud JL, editors. Handb Clin Neurol: Elsevier; 2020. p. 225–40. Diamond A. Executive functions. Annu Rev Psychol. 2013;64(1):135–68. Reynolds BW, Basso MR, Miller AK, Whiteside DM, Combs D. 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19:52:28","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":18007,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAcute exercise effect on inhibitory control regarding response time of the neutral, congruent, and incongruent conditions\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4278500/v1/a8746bfa90fb0da25cdeb149.png"},{"id":55632349,"identity":"453d6f06-5827-438d-ba86-12f741380d03","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-30 19:52:28","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":101703,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAcute exercise effect on inhibitory control regarding P3 amplitudes of the neutral, congruent, and incongruent 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19:52:28","extension":"docx","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":29062,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SMOSupplementalMaterials.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4278500/v1/a8375a17e484766efcec7b15.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Acute Concurrent Exercise Improves Inhibitory Control and Its Non-Mediation Role of Lactate: An Event-Related Potential Study","fulltext":[{"header":"Key Points","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAcute concurrent exercise improves inhibitory control, and the effect is similar to aerobic exercise.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAcute concurrent exercise potentially enhances the efficient allocation of attention resources.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLactate does not act as a mediator between acute exercise and inhibitory control.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eYounger adults, grappling with pivotal challenges as they assume new responsibilities and shape the trajectory of their adult lives, must rely on their capacity to adapt to dynamic environmental changes for success [1]. Executive functions (EFs) emerge as a critical ability for younger adults to navigate environmental changes, involving the control of thoughts and actions to achieve goals through the coordination of various cognitive functions. EFs encompass three core-domains, including \u003cem\u003einhibitory control\u003c/em\u003e (i.e., resist irrelevant information), \u003cem\u003eworking memory\u003c/em\u003e (i.e., maintain and manipulate information), and \u003cem\u003ecognitive flexibility\u003c/em\u003e (i.e., shift between diverse rules or tasks) [2, 3]. Younger adults who exhibit superior EFs evidence lower risky behavior [4], reduced cardiovascular risk [5], higher conscientiousness [6], greater stress regulation [7], and better academic performance [8]. Exploring strategies that can facilitate EFs becomes crucial in fostering the resilience and adaptive capacities of younger adults to confront life challenges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcute bouts of exercise have been recognized as a feasible approach for improving EFs. This is supported by numerous meta-analyses [9\u0026ndash;11], strong evidence presented in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (PAGA) [12]. While positive effects are recognized, there is a need to identify the optimal parameters of acute exercise [12] that can benefit EFs. To investigate this issue, Chang, Erickson [13] proposed the 3W1H framework of acute exercise and cognitive function which encompass the \u003cem\u003eWho\u003c/em\u003e (e.g., the characteristics of population), \u003cem\u003eWhat\u003c/em\u003e (e.g., the intensity, duration, or modality of exercise; the domains of cognition), \u003cem\u003eWhen\u003c/em\u003e (e.g., the time point of cognitive function assessment), and \u003cem\u003eHow\u003c/em\u003e (e.g., the mechanism between the acute exercise and cognition). Using this framework, researchers have begun to explore new modalities of exercise, such as concurrent exercise (CE), and investigate mechanisms that underpin the exercise \u0026ndash; EF relationship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE characterized by back-to-back sessions of aerobic exercise (AE) and resistance exercise (RE), was initially employed as a strategic training approach for athletes facing the dual demands of cardiovascular endurance and muscular strength [14]. Recently, CE has emerged as a credible exercise modality, demonstrating promising health benefits such as weight loss [15], improved cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness [16], elevated brain-derived neurotrophic factor [17], reduced blood pressure [18], and a decreased inflammatory response [19]. These diverse physiological adaptations have also prompted researchers to investigate whether CE could also benefit EF.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe acute effects of CE on inhibitory control have involved varied designs and yielded ambiguous findings [20\u0026ndash;22]. For example, Chang, Kim [20] recruited 34 healthy young women, who participated in 30 minutes of CE comprising low-intensity RE (30% 1-repetition maximum [1-RM] with 12 repetitions) concomitant with moderate-intensity AE (50\u0026ndash;60% heart rate reserve [HRR]). Similarly, Chen, Li [21] enlisted 15 healthy men to engage in CE involving moderate-intensity RE (4 sets, 4 upper body movements, 70% 10-repetition maximum [10-RM], and 10 repetitions) coupled with moderate-intensity AE (65% V̇O\u003csub\u003e2 peak\u003c/sub\u003e) for 20 minutes. Both studies found a favorable impact on inhibitory control. However, Wen and Tsai [22] found no significant positive effect on inhibitory control in 32 obese women participating in 30 minutes of CE which alternated intervals of 1-minute dumbbell RE with 1-minute of moderate-intensity (55% HRR) AE. Inconsistencies in results may stem from the sequential completing-session of CE, where completing one exercise before transitioning to another, rather than alternating between exercises, reveals advantages in EFs [23].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvent-related potentials (ERPs), as indicators of cerebral potential alterations reflecting cognitive processes [24], have been extensively used to explore neuroelectric activation patterns in studies of acute exercise and EFs [25, 26]. The P3 component of ERP represents a stimulus-locked positive oscillation occurring around 300 to 700 milliseconds after the stimulus onset and serves as an index of attention allocation during cognitive processes, particularly over parietal areas [27]. A recent meta-analysis observed that both AE and RE lead to elevated P3 amplitudes following acute exercise [28]. Similarly, an augmentation in P3 amplitudes subsequent to acute CE has been observed in both inhibitory control [22] and cognitive flexibility [23]. However, Wen and Tsai [22] utilized interval CE, while Li, Karageorghis [23] employed completing-session CE. The two studies also investigated different aspects of EFs. This raises the question of whether completing CE would result in a similar increase in P3 amplitudes associated with inhibitory control, underscoring the necessity for further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlong with using high quality measures, examining the causal physiological mechanisms regarding the beneficial effects of acute exercise on EFs stands as a crucial consideration [13]. Lactate, a by-product of glycolysis, plays a critical role in activating the sympathetic nervous system, thereby influencing psychomotor arousal and cognitive processes [29\u0026ndash;31]. Both CE and AE have been found to raise the concentrations of lactate [32], with CE showing a more marked rise than AE [33]. Exercise-induced lactate has been demonstrated to correlate positively with cognitive function [34] as well as modify the delivery of neurotrophic factors [35, 36]. Recently, lactate has been suggested by Li, Karageorghis [23] as a mediator in the connection between acute CE and cognitive flexibility. However, it is yet unknown if lactate plays a mediating role with regard to how acute CE and AE affect inhibitory control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAddressing a number of key research gaps, this study aimed to determine the acute effect of CE on inhibitory control and related P3 activation among younger adults. Additionally, the mediating effect of lactate in the relationship between acute exercise, encompassing both CE and AE, and inhibitory control was also examined. Our hypothesis posited that both CE and AE would lead to enhanced inhibitory control and P3 amplitudes, wherein lactate would serve as a mediator in connecting acute exercise with inhibitory control.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeventy-eight cognitively healthy participants (women \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;39; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 22.72, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.62 years; men \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;39; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 23.03, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.69 years) were recruited from universities in and around Taipei City, Taiwan. The sample size was by conducting a power analysis with G*Power 3.1 for a one-way, between-subjects ANCOVA design with a power of 0.8, \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e of 0.05, and effect size (\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\text{\u0026eta;}}_{\\text{p}}^{\\text{2}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) of 0.13 [23]. Participants met inclusion criteria as follows: aged between 20 and 30 years; able to exercise without undue risk (i.e., the first seven questions of the Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire for Everyone [PAR-Q+] were answered \u0026ldquo;No\u0026rdquo;); right-handed dominance; typical or corrected-to-typical eyesight; absence of psychiatric or neurological ailments; limited physical activity in the previous month (i.e., \u0026lt; 150 minutes/week of moderate-intensity physical activity); non-obese status (body mass index [BMI]\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;27 kg/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e); and no cardiorespiratory or neuromuscular conditions. Eligible participants were randomly assigned into one of three groups, including CE, AE, or the control group (CON) using a lottery draw. All participants provided informed consent and the study received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee of National Taiwan Normal University (Approval No. 202101HM005).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCardiorespiratory Fitness\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCardiorespiratory fitness was assessed using the YMCA Submaximal Cycle Ergometer Test [37, 38]. This test, employing a submaximal approach and ergometry, offers significant safety advantages, and is particularly suitable for populations with irregular exercise habits. The detailed testing protocol comprised several stages: (a) Stage 1: Power was set at 25 watts (W) while maintaining a pedal cadence of 50 revolutions per minute (RPM) for 3 minutes, with the recording of heart rate (HR) in the final minute. (b) Stage 2: Adjustment of power was based on the HR recorded in the last minute of Stage 1. If HR exceeded 100, the power was set to 50 W; if HR was between 90 and 99, the power was set to 75 W; if HR was between 80 and 89, the power was set to 100 W; if HR was below 79, the power was set to 125 W. This stage was sustained for at least 3 minutes, with HR recorded every minute. If the HR difference between the last 2 minutes was greater than 5, indicating instability, an additional minute of testing was added until the HR difference was under 5, before progressing to the next stage. (c) Stages 3 and 4: Power increased by 25 W for the current stage, with advancement to the next stage contingent upon conditions similar to Stage 2. (d) Stage 5: The acquired HRs were utilized to estimate peak oxygen consumption (VO\u003csub\u003e2 peak\u003c/sub\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMuscular Fitness\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuscular fitness was evaluated using machine resistance fitness equipment, encompassing eight distinct movements: chest press, rowing, lat pull down, shoulder press, arm curl, leg extension, leg press, and leg curl. The comprehensive testing protocol encompassed the following stages: (a) Stage 1: Participants were directed to execute movements at the lowest load, completing 10 to 12 repetitions to familiarize themselves and warm up. (b) Stage 2: Participants engaged in sets with an approximate 20-pound load increment, aiming for 3 to 5 repetitions per movement. Rest intervals of around 1 minute were adhered to between sets until the participant could not complete a single repetition. If a participant managed one repetition, that load was carried forward to Stage 3; otherwise, the load from the prior set was maintained. (c) Stage 3: Preceding this stage, participants rested for 3 minutes, utilizing the load determined in Stage 2. Participants exerted maximal effort until exhaustion, while the researcher recorded the number of repetitions and load. Subsequently, these figures were converted to 10-RM according to the prescribed training load table [39].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStroop Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInhibitory control was assessed using a modified computerized version of the Stroop test [40], which was administered through Neuroscan Stim2 software (Compumedics Neuroscan, Charlotte, NC). The test comprised four blocks, each consisting of 108 trials. Within each block, three types of trials were presented: neutral, congruent, and incongruent. The neutral trial involved displaying a square printed in red, green, or blue color. The congruent trial presented Chinese language prints in corresponding colors and words [i.e., 紅 (RED), 綠 (GREEN), or 藍 (BLUE)]. In contrast, the incongruent trial displayed Chinese language prints in different colors and words [e.g., 紅 (RED) printed in blue color]. Each block included 36 neutral trials, 36 congruent trials, and 36 incongruent trials. Participants were instructed to respond promptly and accurately to the color of the stimulus presented. Subsequently, the mean response time (RT) of correct trials and accuracy for each Stroop condition were examined.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHeart Rate and Rating of Perceived Exertion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA HR monitor (H10; Polar, Finland) was used to assess HRs, while Borg\u0026rsquo;s rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale was applied to determine subjective exertion levels (scale of 6 to 20) [41]. Four HR metrics were derived, including baseline HR, pre-treatment HR, treatment HR, and post-treatment HR.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBaseline HR was recorded during a 5-minute period while the participant remained at rest. Pre-treatment HR was recorded before and after the participant performed the pretest of Stroop test. For the CE group, treatment HR was recorded at 2-minute intervals during AE, and both before and after each movement of RE. In the AE group, treatment HR was recorded at 2-minute intervals during AE. For the CON group, treatment HR was recorded before and after the book-reading activity. Post-treatment HR was recorded before and after the participant performed the Stroop test. The application of the RPE scale coincided with the intervals at which the treatment HR measurements were conducted.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eElectroencephalography Recordings and Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA 32-channel electrode cap (Quik-Cap Neo Net; Compumedics Neuroscan, USA) was used to acquire neuroelectric activity from the scalp. Data collection and real-time processing were conducted using CURRY 8 Data Acquisition and Online Processing software (Compumedics Neuroscan, USA) and the Neuroscan SynAmps2 amplifier (Compumedics Neuroscan, USA). Electrode positions of the cap adhered to the International 10\u0026ndash;10 System. Real-time neuroelectric activity was referenced to an electrode (i.e., Ref) between Cz and CPz electrodes and grounded to the AFz electrode. Electrooculography (EOG) activity was tracked using extra electrodes positioned vertically above and below the left eye orbit (VEOG; bipolar vertical EOG) and horizontally at the outer canthus of each eye (HEOG; bipolar horizontal EOG). Throughout the recording, the impedance of each electrode was kept below 10 kΩ. Real-time neuroelectric activity was digitized at a sampling rate of 1000 Hz, subjected to amplification at 500 times, and underwent a 60-Hz notch filter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The offline neuroelectric activity analyses adhered to ERP guidelines [42] and were conducted using Matlab (2023b, Mathworks Inc.), EEGLAB toolbox (version 2023.0) [43], and ERPLAB toolbox (version 10.0) [44]. Initially, the offline neuroelectric activity was downsampled to 250 Hz, bandpass filtered (i.e., 0.1\u0026ndash;30 Hz half-amplitude cut-off, 12 dB/oct roll-off), and notch filtered at 60 Hz using the Cleanline plugin [45]. Artifact Subspace Reconstruction method was then applied to correct the data [46] and the data was saved as the \u0026ldquo;pre-ICA\u0026rdquo; dataset. To obtain clear eyeblinks signals through Independent Component Analysis (ICA), data must undergo noise reduction processing. The data were downsampled to 100 Hz and were filtered by a frequency band (i.e., 1\u0026ndash;30 Hz half-amplitude cut-off, 48 dB/oct roll-off). Artifacts were automatically rejected (i.e., 500 \u0026micro;V threshold with 1000 ms time windows), and VEOG, HEOG, periocular, and the bad channels were removed. Subsequently, ICA was executed. The calculated ICA weights were integrated into the \u0026ldquo;pre-ICA\u0026rdquo; dataset, and saved as \u0026ldquo;post-ICA\u0026rdquo; dataset for further processing. Blink artifacts of the \u0026ldquo;post-ICA\u0026rdquo; dataset were corrected using the \u0026ldquo;icablinkmetrics\u0026rdquo; plugin [47], and then were re-referenced using mastoid channels (M1, M2) and bad channels were spherically interpolated. Subsequently, the data were epoched (\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;200\u0026ndash;800 ms), baseline-corrected (\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;200\u0026ndash;0 ms), and epochs exceeding\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;150 \u0026micro;V and \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;100 \u0026micro;V peak-to-peak amplitudes with 100 ms moving window were removed. Finally, the P3 amplitudes was computed at Pz channel (300\u0026ndash;600 ms post-stimulus) for subsequent analyses [48].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTreatment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConcurrent Exercise (CE)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe participants commenced the session by undergoing a 5-minute warm-up on a cycle ergometer at 70 RPM. The initial load was set at 25 W/min and progressively incremented until reaching the target HR range of 40\u0026ndash;59% of HRR during the last minute of the warm-up. Subsequently, participants engaged in AE on the cycle ergometer, maintaining a target HR for 12 minutes at 70 RPM. Following the AE, participants performed RE involving eight movements: chest press, rowing, lat pulldown, shoulder press, arm curl, leg extension, leg press, and leg curl. Each movement consisted of 12 repetitions executed at moderate intensity, specifically set at 70% of their 10-RM [23]. The duration of the RE regimen spanned approximately 13 minutes, incorporating a 1-minute rest interval between each movement. Participants concluded the session with a 5-minute cool-down phase and full-body stretching exercises.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAerobic Exercise (AE) and Control (CON)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the AE group, the participants underwent a 5-minute warm-up identical to that of the CE group. Following this, they engaged in AE for 25 minutes, maintaining the target HR at 70 RPM on a cycle ergometer. To conclude, participants performed a 5-minute cool-down identical to that of the CE group. In the CON group, participants remained comfortably seated and devoted 35 minutes to reading a book associated with exercise and health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProcedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were scheduled for two laboratory visits, with a minimum gap of 7 days between each visit (refer to Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Prior to each visit, participants were advised to avoid alcohol and caffeine for at least 6 hours and to abstain from engaging in exercise for 12 hours. In the initial visit, participants completed the written informed consent, PAR-Q+ [37], the Digit Span Forward and Backward test to assess short-term and working memory [49], and International Physical Activity Questionnaire to record exercise volume (IPAQ) [50]. Participants also completed assessments for height, weight, as well as cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the second visit, participants adhered to a multi-step procedure. Initially, participants performed the Stroop test as a pretest while their electroencephalography (EEG) activity was recorded. Subsequently, participants underwent the designated treatment based on their assigned group. Finally, participants concluded the session by performing the Stroop test as a post-test, during which EEG activity was recorded once more. Lactate levels were assessed using fingertip samples measured with a lactate analyzer (The EDGE, Taipei, Taiwan) at three distinct time points: Timepoint 1 (prior to the commencement of treatment), Timepoint 2 (17 minutes after the initiation of treatment), and Timepoint 3 (30 minutes after the start of treatment).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA one-way ANOVA were employed to examine demographics among the groups (Group: CE vs. AE vs. CON), with means (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e) and standard deviations (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e) presented in the results (SPSS version 29.0, IBM Corp., Armonk, NYA). To assess the acute exercise effect on inhibitory control (i.e., RT and accuracy) and P3 amplitudes, one-way ANCOVAs were executed for post-tests of each Stroop condition with treating the pre-test as a covariate. A mixed-model ANOVA with a 3 (Group: CE vs. AE vs. CON) \u0026times; 3 (Time: Timepoint 1 vs. Timepoint 2 vs. Timepoint 3) was analyzed for lactate. For exercise manipulation, a mixed-model ANOVA with a 3 (Group: CE vs. AE vs. CON) \u0026times; 4 (Time: resting HR, pre-treatment HR, treatment HR vs. post-treatment HR) design was analyzed for HR. When assumptions of sphericity were violated, Greenhouse\u0026ndash;Geisser corrections were applied.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo explore mediational role of lactate, the mediation analysis of the simple mediation model was applied by PROCESS Macro SPSS plugin [51]. The independent variable was encoded into a dummy variable, using CON group as a reference [52]. The mediator was the incremental area under curve of lactate which was calculated the area under the lactate concentration curve by three timepoint (i.e., Timepoint 1, Timepoint 2, and Timepoint 3) [53]. Dependent variables were the post-test of Stroop test, with the pre-test as a covariate. Regression analyses from group to lactate (Path \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e: CE vs. CON, AE vs. CON), form lactate to inhibitory control (Path \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e), and from group to inhibitory control (i.e., total effects [Path \u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e]: CE vs. RC, AE vs. CON) were examined. If both paths a and b were significant [54], indirect effects (\u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e \u0026times; \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e: CE vs. RC, AE vs. CON) and direct effects (Path \u003cem\u003ec\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e: CE vs. RC, AE vs. CON) would be analyzed subsequently via bootstrapping method for 5,000 times [55] and a 95% confidence interval (95% CI) were revealed. The mediating role of blood lactate was considered established if the 95% CI of the indirect effect did not span zero.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants Demographics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeventy-eight younger adults participated in the study (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 22.95, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.75 years; \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26 in each group). No significant differences in demographics were observed among the groups (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05; i.e., IPAQ, VO\u003csub\u003e2 peak\u003c/sub\u003e, and 10-RM). Detailed participants demographics are present in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and S1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipant demographics among groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCON\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale/Female\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13/13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13/13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13/13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (year)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight (m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigit Span\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eForward\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBackward\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIPAQ (MET\u0026middot;min\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026middot;weeks\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e997.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;857.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e606.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;469.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e589.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;385.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVO\u003csub\u003e2 peak\u003c/sub\u003e (ml\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026middot;min\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10-RM (lb)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChest press\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;36.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;32.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;31.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRowing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;23.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;29.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;28.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLat pull down\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;24.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShoulder press\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArm curl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeg extension\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;33.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;35.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;26.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeg press\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e205.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;54.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e198.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;57.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e203.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;51.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeg curl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;23.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eAll values are M\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD, excluding \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e and gender. CE, concurrent exercise group; AE, aerobic exercise group; CON, control group; IPAQ, International Physical Activity Questionnaire; MET, metabolic equivalent of task; 10-RM, 10-repetition maximum.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStroop Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResponse Time\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA significant main effect was observed in the neutral, congruent, and incongruent conditions, respectively (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001; \u003cb\u003eTables S2 and S3\u003c/b\u003e). Multiple comparisons revealed that both CE and AE groups had shorter RT compared to the CON group in neutral (CE: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003; AE: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.004), congruent (CE: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002; AE: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.007), and incongruent (CE: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.043; AE: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.048) conditions, with no significant difference between the CE and AE groups in each Stroop condition (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.000). Mean and standard error (SE) of RTs are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAccuracy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA non-significant main effect was observed in the neutral (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.119), congruent (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.082), and incongruent condition (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.087) (\u003cb\u003eTable S2 and S3\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eP3 Amplitudes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne-way ANCOVAs indicated no significant main effects of P3 amplitudes among groups in the neutral (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.135) and incongruent (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.094) conditions. However, a significant main effect was observed in the congruent condition (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Further multiple comparisons revealed that the CE group exhibited smaller P3 amplitudes compared to both the AE (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and RC (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.040) groups (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cb\u003eTable S2, and S3\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLactate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA significant interaction of Group \u0026times; Time as well as a main effect of Group and Time were observed (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001; \u003cb\u003eTable S2 and S3\u003c/b\u003e). Multiple comparisons indicated that lactate was not significantly different among the groups at Timepoint 1 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05). However, both CE (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and AE (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) groups revealed significantly higher lactate level compared to the CON group at Timepoint 2. The CE group had the significantly highest lactate level, followed by AE (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and RC (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) groups at Timepoint 3. Within the CE group, lactate was significantly highest at Timepoint 1, followed by Timepoint 2, and Timepoint 3 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Within the AE group, lactate was significantly higher at both Timepoint 2 and 3 compared to Timepoint 1(\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). No significant differences were observed among timepoints (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05) within the CON group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMediation of Lactate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResponse Time\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the CE and AE groups, both path \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e and total effect revealed the significant regression in the neutral, congruent, and incongruent condition (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05), but path \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e was not significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mediation analyses of lactate for acute exercise effect on inhibitory control\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePath \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePath \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponse time\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeutral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.22*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;31.25*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;49.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;13.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.48*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;30.05*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;48.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCongruent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.46*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;33.37*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;51.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;14.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.52*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;29.10*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;47.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncongruent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.55*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;26.15*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;46.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;5.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.34*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;25.71*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;46.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;4.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccuracy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeutral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.17*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.95*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCongruent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.43*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.01*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncongruent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.54*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.46*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.96*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP3amplitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeutral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.64*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.34*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;1.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCongruent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.07*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;1.19*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;2.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.89*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncongruent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.75*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;1.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.49*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003eCE, concurrent exercise group; AE, aerobic exercise group; C, coefficients; LCI, lower limit of confidence interval; UCI, upper limit of confidence interval; *, significant effect (i.e., confidence interval does not include zero).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAccuracy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the CE and AE groups, both path \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e and total effect revealed the significant regression in the neutral and congruent condition (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05, Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), but path \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e was not significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05). Regarding the incongruent condition, path \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e, path \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e, and total effect revealed a significant regression, but the indirect effect was not significant in both the CE (95% CI: \u0026minus;0.09\u0026ndash;2.99) and AE (95% CI: \u0026minus;0.06\u0026ndash;2.40) groups (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eP3 Amplitudes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the CE and AE groups, both path \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e and total effect revealed a significant regression in the neutral, congruent, and incongruent condition (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05), but path \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e was not significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHeart Rate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA significant interaction of Group \u0026times; Time as well as a main effect of Group and Time were observed for HR (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001; refer to \u003cb\u003eTable S2 and S3\u003c/b\u003e). Multiple comparisons indicated that resting and pre-treatment HRs were not significantly different among the groups (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05). For treatment HR, the AE group had a significantly higher HR level compared to the CE group (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001), with the CE group significantly higher than the CON group (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). For post-treatment HR, both CE (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and AE (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) groups revealed significantly higher HR levels compared to the CON group. Within the CE group, treatment HR was significantly the highest, followed by post-treatment HR, pre-treatment HR, and resting HR (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Similarly, within the AE group, treatment HR was significantly the highest, followed by post-treatment HR, pre-treatment HR, and resting HR (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Within the CON group, resting HR was significantly the lowest compared to pre-treatment HR (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), treatment HR (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), and post-treatment HR (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001). No significant differences were observed among pre-treatment HR, treatment HR, and post-treatment HR (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study examined the effects of acute CE and AE on inhibitory control, utilizing both behavioral and neuroelectric assessments among younger adults. We also investigated the mediating role of lactate in the relationship between acute exercise and inhibitory control. Our findings revealed that acute CE, combining both AE and RE, increased inhibitory control by reducing RT across all Stroop test conditions, regardless of accuracy. Beneficial effects for Stroop data were similar for acute AE. Differences in P3 amplitudes were observed only in the congruent condition, where the amplitudes of the CE group were significantly smaller than those of AE and CON groups. However, no mediating effects of lactate for acute exercise and inhibitory control were observed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative to the hypothesis, our findings indicate that acute AE improved inhibitory control by reducing RT. These improvements were accompanied by no significant differences in accuracy, indicating that this enhancement is unlikely to be associated with a trade-off between speed and accuracy [56]. The results replicated previous studies demonstrating the positive effect of acute AE on inhibitory control among younger adults [57, 58]. A meta-analysis, synthesizing data from 55 effect sizes, also supports this, indicating a small and positive effect of acute moderate AE on inhibitory control (Hedges\u0026rsquo; \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.26, 95% CI: \u0026minus;0.34 to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.18) [59]. The design of acute AE in the present study, structured as a 25-minute moderate-intensity exercise, is noteworthy for its alignment with the PAGA recommendation regarding the facilitation of EF enhancements [12, 60]. Taken together, these findings suggest that acute AE, characterized by moderate intensity over a duration of 20 to 30 minutes, holds the potential to elicit a favorable effect on inhibitory control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, our findings also indicate acute CE facilitated inhibitory control and this aligns with previous studies showing increased inhibitory control with acute CE [20, 21]. While Wen and Tsai [22] found no effect on inhibitory control after an interval-session of CE, the inconsistency may be attributed to the need for CE to incorporate both completing-sessions of AE and RE, if benefits on EFs are to be elicited [23]. Quintero, Bonilla-Vargas [61] tested CE that combined both AE with intensity interval form and RE and reported enhanced inhibitory control. This finding not only supports that a complete CE is essential for enhancing EFs but also supports the view that intensity interval forms of single AE, when integrated into a comprehensive CE session, could be also effective. Therefore, our findings extend previous research, emphasizing that the design of CE should include a completing-session of both AE and RE for optimal EFs benefits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContrary to our hypothesis, P3 amplitudes were not increased following AE. The inconsistency might be attributed to differences in cardiorespiratory fitness levels. For example, increased P3 amplitudes following acute AE were observed among individuals with higher cardiorespiratory fitness levels (49.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.57 ml\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026middot;min\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) [62], whereas our participants demonstrated lower cardiorespiratory fitness levels (34.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.84ml\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026middot;min\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e). Tsai, Pan [63] compared acute AE effects on P3 amplitudes among younger adults with varying levels of cardiorespiratory fitness and indicated that the high-fitness group displayed larger P3 amplitudes compared to both the low-fitness and control groups, suggesting a potential association between cardiorespiratory fitness levels and differences in P3 amplitudes. A meta-analysis by Kao, Chen [28] supports this view and found the absence of a noticeable effect of acute exercise on P3 amplitudes in individuals with low cardiorespiratory fitness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of our novel findings is the reduction in P3 amplitudes observed following acute CE compared to acute AE and the control treatment, particularly noted in the congruent condition. The result was inconsistent with our hypothesis and might be attributed to cognitive demands [64]. Li, Karageorghis [23] found no difference in P3 amplitudes between acute CE and AE under high cognitive demands (i.e., cognitive flexibility) but observed larger P3 amplitudes for acute CE compared to the CON group, suggesting that acute CE might require increased attentional resources to meet higher cognitive demand conditions [27]. Contrary to expectations, our findings showed that in the congruent condition, which involves lower cognitive demands, acute CE triggered smaller P3 amplitudes compared to acute AE and the control treatment. This reduction in P3 amplitudes suggests a more efficient allocation of attentional resources during CE, possibly leading to enhanced inhibitory control. Taken together, our results suggest that following acute CE, attentional resources may be more efficiently managed, necessitating fewer resources particularly in conditions with lower cognitive demands. From a practical perspective, these data suggest that acute CE may help EF function in young adults. For instance, regular participation might mitigate interference during focused studying, and during demanding and critical work situations, CE might benefit transition and flexibly between different perspectives and ideas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of the present study indicated that lactate played no mediating role between acute exercise and inhibitory control. In contrast to our findings, Li, Karageorghis [23] showed that lactate mediated the impact of both acute AE and CE on EF, specifically cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility necessitates concurrent engagement of both inhibitory control and working memory [64, 65], potentially imposing a greater cognitive demand compared to inhibitory control alone. Considering lactate might function as an energy source for the brain [31], it is plausible that the brain requires a lower amount of energy to support EFs with lower cognitive demand. Notably, both Li, Karageorghis [23] and our studies failed to observe the mediating role of lactate in the relationship between acute exercise and P3 amplitudes. Li, Karageorghis [23] proposed that the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system might serve as a possible mechanism between acute exercise and P3 amplitude. The LC serves as the supplier of NE, an important neurotransmitter for central nervous system function and behavior, to the hippocampus and cortex, influencing both cognitive and emotional processes [66]. Acute exercise leads to elevated cognitive performance and activation of the LC-NE system [67], suggesting that the LC-NE system might serve as a conceivable mechanism in the relationship between acute exercise and P3 amplitudes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur study has a number of strengths and is the first to examine the impact of acute CE on inhibitory control in younger adults, using a comprehensive set of measures that included both behavioral and neuroelectric assessments. We also explored the mediating influence of lactate on the relationship between acute exercise, inhibitory control, and P3 amplitudes, and aimed to elucidate the relationships among these factors. The study design was strong and incorporated a randomized between-group approach, encompassing both genders, and concurrently assessed cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness. This comprehensive approach allowed for the consideration of multiple factors, distinguishing our research from previous studies [20\u0026ndash;22].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations should be acknowledged. Firstly, this study focused solely on the impact of CE on inhibitory control in an \u0026ldquo;aerobic-resistance order.\u0026rdquo; The effects of acute CE in the \u0026ldquo;resistance-aerobic order\u0026rdquo; on inhibitory control remain unexplored. Past research has shown that different sequences of acute CE can elicit distinct responses in growth hormones [68], which are associated with inhibitory control [69]. Secondly, this study inferred effects on inhibitory control, leaving the impact on working memory and planning, which are additional components, unexplored. Future studies should investigate the benefits of acute CE on working memory to explore both the similarities and differences across various core domains of EFs. This approach will provide a more comprehensive understanding of the positive effects of acute CE on EFs. Finally, it is important to note that, while we controlled for many factors, the ecological validity in practical settings still needs to be considered, such as the impact of exercise on work-related cognitive functions [70]. The transition from laboratory settings to real-world conditions is necessary.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study findings underscore the beneficial impact of acute CE on inhibitory control in younger adults, emphasizing its role in efficiently allocating attentional resources. Data also suggest that lactate may not play a mediating role in the advantageous effects of CE on EF. This research provides valuable insight into the potential advantages of CE for younger adults aiming to improve inhibitory control and also highlights areas for further investigation into the underlying mechanisms that influence inhibitory control following acute CE.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1-RM\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;1-repetition maximum\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10-RM\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;10-repetition maximum\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAE\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;aerobic exercise\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBMI\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;body mass index\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCE\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;concurrent exercise\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCON\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;control group\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEEG\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Electroencephalography\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEFs\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Executive functions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEOG\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Electrooculography\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eERPs\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Event-related potentials\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHR\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;heart rate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHRR\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;heart rate reserve\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eICA\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Independent Component Analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePAR-Q+\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire for Everyone\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRE\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;resistance exercise\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRPM\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;revolutions per minute\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVO\u003csub\u003e2 peak\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;peak oxygen consumption\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eW\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; watts\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval and Consent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee of National Taiwan Normal University (Approval No. 202101HM005), and all participants obtained written informed consent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of Data and Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData will be made available on reasonable request from the corresponding author.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRuei-Hong Li, Tai-Rui Chen, Nicholas D. Gilson, Marius Brazaitis, Yi-Ting Cheng, Hui-Fang Wu, Ji-Hang Lee, and Yu-Kai Chang declare that they have no competing interests.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was financially supported by the National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan (MOST 107-2628-H-003-003-MY3; 110-2410-H-003-142-MY3; 111-2918-I-003-001-) and by the National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU) within the framework of the Higher Education Sprout Project (HESP) by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan, as well as “Social Emotional Education and Development Center” and “Institute for Research Excellence in Learning Sciences” of the Featured Areas Research Center Program within the framework of the HESP of the MOE in Taiwan.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors’ Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRHL, TRC, YTC, and YKC conceptualized the research project; NDG, MB, and YKC developed the methodology; RHL, TRC, YTC, and HFW conducted data collection; RHL, MB, and YKC analyzed the data; NDG, HFW, and JHL created visualizations; JHL and YKC supervised the project; RHL, TRC, and YKC wrote the original draft; RHL, TRC, NDG, MB, YTC, HFW, JHL, and YKC have reviewed, edited, approved, and contributed to the final manuscript for publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCouncil NR, Medicine I, Board on Children YF, Committee on Improving the Health SWBYA, Breiner H, Stroud C, Bonnie RJ. 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Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2023;33(6):814\u0026ndash;33.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"sports-medicine-open","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"smoa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Sports Medicine-Open](http://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/smoa/default.aspx","title":"Sports Medicine-Open","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"concurrent training, inhibition, lactate, mediation, P300","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4278500/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4278500/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground: \u003c/strong\u003eConcurrent exercise (CE), an emerging exercise modality characterized by sequential bouts of aerobic (AE) and resistance exercise (RE), has demonstrated acute benefits on executive functions (EFs) and neuroelectric P3 amplitudes. However, the effect of acute CE on inhibitory control, a sub-component of EFs, and P3 amplitudes remains inconclusive. Moreover, exploring the mechanisms underlying the effects of acute exercise on EFs contributes to scientific comprehension, with lactate recognized as a crucial candidate positively correlated with EFs. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effects of acute CE on inhibitory control via behavioral and event-related potential approaches and to examine its potential mediational role on lactate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods: \u003c/strong\u003eSeventy-eight adults (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 22.95, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 1.75 years) were randomly assigned to either a CE, AE, or control (CON) group. Participants in the CE group engaged in 12-minutes of AE (40%–59% of heart rate reserve [HRR]) coupled with 13-minutes of RE (1 set, with 75% of 10-repetition maximum, and 12 repetitions of 8 movements). The AE group participated in 25 minutes of AE (40%–59% HRR). Prior to and following exercise onset, participants in both the CE and AE groups completed a 5-minute warm-up and cool-down. Participants in the CON group read books for 35 minutes. Lactate concentrations were measured at timepoint of 0-, 17-, and 30-minutes relative to the treatment onset. Response time (RT) and accuracy in the Stroop test, as well as P3 amplitudes, were assessed before and after the treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: \u003c/strong\u003eThe results revealed that both the CE and AE groups had significantly shorter RTs compared to the CON group, with no significant differences in accuracy among groups. A decrease in P3 amplitudes was observed for the CE group compared to the AE and CON groups. The mediating effects of lactate between acute exercise and inhibitory control were insignificant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions:\u003c/strong\u003e The findings suggest that both CE and AE improve inhibitory control and CE potentially enhances the efficient allocation of attention resources. The lack of a significant mediating effect of lactate warrants further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTrial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT06370286. Registered 12 April 2024 - Retrospectively registered, https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06370286.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Acute Concurrent Exercise Improves Inhibitory Control and Its Non-Mediation Role of Lactate: An Event-Related Potential Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-30 19:52:24","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4278500/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revision","date":"2024-08-12T04:10:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-05-30T16:45:47+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-04-24T11:52:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-04-17T23:26:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Sports Medicine-Open","date":"2024-04-17T03:32:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"sports-medicine-open","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"smoa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Sports Medicine-Open](http://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/smoa/default.aspx","title":"Sports Medicine-Open","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5687cccb-4121-41cc-a871-ff1d73854bb5","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 30th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-02-03T16:08:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4278500","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-024-00809-2","journal":{"identity":"sports-medicine-open","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Sports Medicine-Open"},"publishedOn":"2025-01-27 15:57:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 27th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-30 19:52:24","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s40798-024-00809-2","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-024-00809-2","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4278500","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4278500","identity":"rs-4278500","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}