Eco-Friendly Cellulose-Based Membranes Derived from Sugarcane Bagasse for Efficient Industrial Paint Wastewater Treatment

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Alrefaey, Nabila A. Sallam, Irene S. Fahim This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6296543/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of biodegradable membranes produced from agricultural waste in eliminating pollutants from paint industry wastewater. The data was gathered to investigate sustainable green synthesis techniques and evaluate the efficacy of cellulose based membranes integrated with chitosan nanoparticles and derived activated carbon. The objective is to establish if these eco-friendly materials may function as effective sorbents for modifying water pollution from the paint industry.The research focuses on cellulose extraction from cotton stalks and bagasse, with bagasse exhibiting the highest cellulose concentration at 94.14%, in contrast to 87.22% from cotton stalks. Characterization techniques, such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), zeta potential analysis, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller surface area analysis (BET), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), were utilized to assess material properties. Spectroscopic investigation revealed a maximum pollutant removal efficiency of 99.1%. The fabricated membranes demonstrated a surface area of 30.5719 m²/g, with particle sizes varying from 483.4 to 3568 nm. These findings highlight the potential of biodegradable membranes as effective sorbents for removing white paint pollutants from water, providing significant insights into sustainable wastewater treatment. Biodegradable cellulose membranes paint industry wastewater green synthesis sorbents pollutants removal Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 1. Introduction Water pollution is a significant global environmental challenge that poses a threat to aquatic ecosystems and the well-being of living organisms. The paint industry generates a considerable number of pollutants that create challenges in their removal from wastewater [ 1 ]. These pollutants include organic solvents, heavy metals, pigments, and resins. These pollutants, including organic solvents, heavy metals, pigments, and resins, are often toxic and can have adverse effects on the environment and human health if not effectively eliminated from wastewater [ 2 ]. The paint manufacturing industry relies heavily on water, consuming 75–85 million gallons per day from public or municipal sources, with the remaining portion primarily obtained from wells and surface water. Only a small percentage (approximately 4%) of the water used in paint production is recycled globally [ 3 ]. The wastewaters of the paint industry are characterized by elevated levels of organic matter, salinity, sulfate content, and suspended solids. Untreated or inadequately treated paint industrial effluents contain variable amounts of heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, nickel, cadmium, copper, mercury, zinc, and chromium, which can contaminate crops irrigated with such water [ 4 ]. According to Dovletoglou et al.,[ 5 ] we discharge approximately 70% of the total effluent without treatment and dispose of the remaining 25% through evaporation or other methods. Figure 1 illustrates that most white paints consist of a mixture of pigments (suspended solids) in a liquid medium, volatile solvents, binders (polymeric materials), extenders, and suitable additives. Pigments can be natural or synthetic and are classified based on their production method, chemical structure, and application [ 3 ]. The effluent from the paint industry is characterized by high concentrations of suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), heavy metals, and hazardous chemicals. The presence of organic contaminants in the wastewater degrades water quality and complicates water treatment processes [ 6 ]. Microbial contamination occurs during paint manufacturing and storage, as indicated by the fact that 80% of paint industry effluents originate from equipment washing, which contains both inorganic and organic components (Khan, 2008). Therefore, proper treatment of paint industry effluents is necessary, and innovative ecological methods are required to effectively remove color, microbes, COD, and BOD [ 7 ]. Conventional wastewater treatment processes often fail to adequately remove these pollutants, resulting in their release into the environment. This emphasizes the need for the development of effective treatment technologies to remove these pollutants from paint industry wastewater and mitigate their negative impact on the environment [ 8 ]. Researchers have explored various methods, including physical, chemical, and biological technologies, for treating paint industry wastewater. These methods include coagulation, adsorption, photolysis, electrochemical treatment, biological treatment, and membrane processes. The treatment process is complex and involves multiple steps, primarily aimed at reducing COD and BOD levels by efficiently eliminating various contaminants. Conventional industrial water treatment methods do not effectively remove the pollutants entering watercourses, making industrial wastewater potentially hazardous to freshwater ecosystems [ 3 ]. However, each method has its limitations in terms of effectiveness and cost. Therefore, the selection of an appropriate treatment method depends on the specific pollutants present in the wastewater, the desired effluent quality, and the treatment cost. Effective treatment technologies are crucial for mitigating the negative impact of paint industry wastewater on the environment and safeguarding public health [ 9 ]. Adsorption has been extensively studied as a cost-effective and efficient method for removing pollutants from paint industry wastewater. Additionally, researchers have explored synthetic membranes like reverse osmosis and nanofiltration for their high efficiency and low energy consumption. However, these methods have limitations and drawbacks, such as membrane fouling and low adsorption capacity [ 6 ]. In response to these challenges, researchers have developed hybrid adsorptive membranes that combine the benefits of adsorption and membrane processes [ 10 ]. To make these membranes, adsorptive nanoparticles are mixed in with synthetic membranes. This makes membranes that can both absorb and filter substances. This approach has shown promising results in removing pollutants from paint industry wastewater [ 11 ]. The development of low-cost and effective methods for removing heavy metals from contaminated water sources is crucial for mitigating the harmful effects of heavy metal pollution on human health and the environment. The use of biomass materials as an alternative method for removing heavy metals from contaminated wastewater is a promising approach that can reduce process costs and eliminate the disposal of chemical sludge, making it a sustainable solution for addressing heavy metal pollution. Therefore, the development of sustainable and cost-effective methods for removing heavy metals from contaminated water sources is essential for mitigating the adverse effects of heavy metal pollution on human health and the environment [ 12 ]. Effective and sustainable methods for removing heavy metals from contaminated water sources are crucial for mitigating the adverse impact of heavy metal pollution on human health and the environment [ 12 ]. Tropical countries extensively cultivate sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), with global sugarcane production reaching approximately 1.84 billion tons in 2017 [ 13 ]. The residue from sugarcane, known as bagasse, can be utilized to produce biodegradable membranes (Khulbe & Matsuura, 2021). Sugarcane bagasse consists of lignin (14–30%), cellulose (35–50%), hemicelluloses (22–26%), and ash (10%). Cellulose, being the most abundant renewable biopolymer, has emerged as a promising and cost-effective material for developing various structural polymers [ 14 ]. Researchers have focused on using different biopolymers such as cellulose, chitin, starch, and alginate to create fully or partially biodegradable membranes for wastewater treatment applications [ 14 ]. Previous studies have successfully developed cellulose composite membranes by employing trimethylsilyl cellulose (TMSC) as a precursor, followed by a simple cellulose regeneration process [ 15 ]. Cellulose possesses unique properties such as a large surface area, good mechanical strength, and natural biodegradability, making it an attractive material for water treatment applications [ 16 ]. The use of conventional and non-conventional adsorbents has gained significant attention in the past few decades [ 17 ]. Particularly, chemical and physical methods can prepare activated carbon, a widely recognized and efficient adsorbent, for use in the adsorption process [ 17 ]. Biomass derived from living organisms and agricultural waste, including sugarcane bagasse pulp waste, holds enormous potential as an alternative raw material for generating activated carbon due to their abundance and renewability [ 18 ]. The ability of activated carbon to hold organic molecules is greatly affected by things like the size, location, shape, and surface properties of the pores [ 19 ]. Activated carbon derived from various sources has been employed for removing heavy metals from aqueous solutions [ 20 ]. The production of activated carbon has utilized the high carbon content, availability, and low cost of sugarcane bagasse pulp waste. The prepared composite membranes, incorporating activated carbon, have been synthesized and investigated for the removal of pollutants such as methyl orange, crystal violet dyes, and chromium heavy metals [ 21 ]. Chitosan, a by-product extracted from chitin using different biological and chemical methods, has been used in composite materials for wastewater treatment to adsorb dyes and heavy metals. Researchers have combined chitosan with various substances such as montmorillonite, polyurethane, activated earth, bentonite, zeolites, oil palm detritus, calcium alginate, polyvinyl alcohol, cellulose, magnetite, sand, cotton filaments, perlite, and alumina to form composite materials [ 22 ]. Furthermore, chitosan exhibits antibacterial properties against microorganisms, and its transparency, antibacterial characteristics, and film-forming ability make it suitable for food packaging materials [ 23 ]. Chitosan, in combination with nanoparticles, has also been explored for applications such as drug delivery, vaccine transport, antibacterial agents, and wound healing [ 22 ]. Its high surface area makes it an efficient adsorbent for removing toxic metal ions, disease-causing microorganisms, and organic and inorganic solutes from water. Nano-chitosan membranes have shown promise for the removal of dyes from wastewater due to their exceptional strength, large surface area, and high adsorption capacity [ 24 ]. This study focuses on the development of biodegradable cellulose membranes using cellulose extracted from agricultural waste, specifically bagasse pulp. Nanomaterials like chitosan nanoparticles and naturally activated carbon further enhance the membranes. Two types of membranes are fabricated: commercial membranes composed of cellulose acetate and fabricated membranes derived from cellulose extracted from bagasse pulp. Comparative analysis reveals the advantages of the fabricated membrane over its commercial counterpart. The manufactured membrane exhibits higher water permeability, resulting in improved efficiency for pollutant removal from wastewater. Additionally, the manufactured membrane is more biodegradable and cost-effective, making it a more environmentally friendly option. We conducted various analyses such as Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to characterize the adsorbent bio-composite membrane materials. These characterization techniques provide valuable insights into the structural and surface properties of the membranes, aiding in understanding their performance and potential applications. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Analytical equipment and Apparatus Sugarcane bagasse pulp is purchased from the sugar company in Upper Egypt. Glycerol with a purity of 98% was obtained from Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai. Deionized water was used to prepare the solutions for the analytical determinations. The experiments utilized the following equipment: a grinder, a Sartorius analytical balance, a lab muffle furnace, a magnetic stirrer, an Iris Visible Spectrophotometer model (HI-801-02), laboratory mesh sieves, and a pH 21 Hanna instrument. The surface morphology of the adsorbent was observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM, JEOL JSM-6380), an FTIR spectrophotometer, and a Siemens D500 X-ray diffractometer. A sugarcane bagasse pulp layer supported the adsorbent sheets. The layer acts as a carrier for the activated carbon and chitosan nanoparticles. Raw shrimp shell waste was purchased from a local fish market in Egypt. All shrimp shell waste included distinct species of shrimp. All the reagents used were of a high analytical grade and were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Company, i.e., hydrochloric acid (HCl, 35–38%), sodium hydroxide pellets (NaOH, pure), and acetic acid (CH3COOH, 99%). 2.2 Chemical compounds All the chemicals, including aluminum sulfate and alaime, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium chlorite, hydrogen peroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP), aluminum sulfate, starch, alkyl ketene dimer (AKD), sodium silicate, and hydrochloric acid, were supplied by Sigma-Aldrich. 2.3 Sources of raw wastewater The wastewater used in the study was obtained directly from a wall paint manufacturing facility at the TIGRA factory, located in El-Sadat city. The wastewater was collected without any treatment from the factory wastewater reservoir and stored at 5°C to preserve its characteristics. The water-based acrylic texture of the wastewater was white. 2.4 Cellulose extraction from cotton stalks First the cotton stalk powders were dried at 55°C for 1 hour, then immersed in a 15% (w/w) sodium hydroxide solution with a liquor-to-fiber ratio of 5 ml/g (5:25 w/v cotton stalk powder and sodium hydroxide solution, respectively). Then transferred the resulting suspension to a sealed container and agitated it for 3 hours at a temperature of 100°C. The resultant residue with distilled water was rinsed and then dried for component analysis. Next, a bleaching process was conducted using two distinct methods to eliminate lignin from the alkali-treated cotton stalks. The first method involved heating 5 g of dried, already-treated cotton stalks in a solution with 162.5 ml of water, 1.6 g of sodium chlorite, and 1.25 ml of glacial acetic acid at 75°C for one hour. The cotton stalks were then cooled in icy water and rinsed with deionized water [ 25 ]. The bleaching step was repeated twice, with component analysis being conducted after each interaction. The second method involved soaking a specific quantity of pre-treated cotton stalks in a 1.5 wt% hydrogen peroxide solution for 6 hours at a temperature of 80°C, followed by component analysis of the resulting residue [ 26 ]. 2.5. Cellulose extraction from sugarcane bagasse As shown in Fig. 2, to prepare sugarcane bagasse to produce cellulose nanofibers, an alkali-hydrolyzed treatment was conducted by adding 10 g of sugarcane bagasse to 100 mL of NaOH (6%) at 60°C for 4 hours in a shaker. The resulting mixture was then filtered, and the bagasse was neutralized with distilled water. The bagasse was then subjected to bleaching in a solution of 200 mL of NaClO2 (30%) and shaken for 24 hours at room temperature. The bleached sample was then filtered and neutralized with distilled water. To remove any remaining moisture, the sample was dried, and cellulose nanofibers were formed. To produce high-quality cellulose nanofibers from sugarcane bagasse for various applications, these steps are crucial [ 16 ]. 2.6 Synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles The preparation of chitosan nanoparticles was conducted using the ionic gelation method. In this method, a chitosan solution was prepared by dissolving 0.3% (w/v) chitosan in 2% (v/v) acetic acid. Sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) at a concentration of 1% w/v served as the ionic cross-linker. The chitosan used in this study was extracted from crimp, sourced naturally, as detailed in our previous research [ 27 ]. 2.7 Synthesis of activated carbon from sugarcane bagasse Activated carbon is prepared from natural sources, including sugarcane bagasse. The activated carbon was prepared from sugarcane bagasse via a physically activated method called pyrolysis preparation. The samples were then pyrolyzed by burning (carbonizing) them in a tube-shaped furnace for four hours. The carbonization temperature was set to 400 degrees Celsius. The pyrolysis byproduct ash was removed from the carbonized samples, which were then rewashed with distilled water to remove the hydrochloric acid and re-dried at 110°C for three hours to remove the moisture and produce prepared activated carbon (PAC). To determine the influence of activation on pyrolysis, SCB powder was carbonized without impregnation for evaluation [ 28 ]. 2.8 Fabrication of an activated carbon-enhanced chitosan-cellulose membrane For cellulose, an aqueous solvent comprising NaOH, aluminum sulfate, and water (4.6:15:80.4 w/w) was prepared and frozen for dissolution. Then, 2 g of cellulose was dispersed with extensive stirring in 96 g of thawed NAOH or aluminum sulfate solvent. To make chitosan nanoparticles, 4 grams of nano-chitosan were mixed with 96 grams of NaOH, KOH, aluminum sulfate, or water (4.6:7:8:80.4 w/w). To promote the dissolution of chitosan, KOH was used. Then 0,9 ml of chitosan nanoparticles (v/v) were added to 50% of the cellulose solution. If you want to create a membrane with comparable properties to a cellulose-chitosan membrane with a 50:50 ratio, we can use that membrane's composition as a starting point and adjust the amounts of each component accordingly. Weight typically determines the proportions of each component in a 50:50 cellulose-chitosan membrane. For example, if we start with a total weight of 10 grams, we will use 5 grams of cellulose and 5 grams of chitosan nanoparticles. To create a filter membrane using activated carbon, glycerol, starch, EKD, sodium silicate, and chitosan nanoparticles, we can use the following recipe as a starting point: Additives are added to the cooking mixture before heating [ 29 ]. These amounts are based on a total weight of 10 grams, which is like the weight used for the cellulose-chitosan membrane. However, keep in mind that this recipe serves merely as a foundation, and you may need to modify it according to the unique characteristics of the membrane you aim to produce. The preparation process for this membrane involves steps, such as mixing the components, casting the mixture onto a substrate, and allowing it to dry or cure. The specific details of this process would depend on the final membrane's desired properties and should be carefully considered during the design process. The fabrication process of the membrane is illustrated in Fig. 3 . 2.9. Preparation of commercial cellulose acetate membrane For many years, people have used the membrane phase inversion method to fabricate flat sheet polymeric membranes. The previously prepared blank cellulose acetate and composite cellulose acetate/activated carbon dope solutions were poured at room temperature onto a spotless glass plate. The following technique was used to incorporate chitosan nanoparticles and ethanol into the filter membrane: For instance, we calculated the required 1.96 grams of activated carbon, 0.98 grams of chitosan nanoparticles, 17.64 grams of cellulose acetate, 0.98 grams of ethanol, and 78.4 grams of DCM to include 1% chitosan nanoparticles and 1% ethanol. Next, the components were combined in the correct proportions in a glass beaker. To ensure uniform mixing, a magnetic stirrer was then used to agitate the mixture. The resultant mélange was then cast to produce the filter membrane. Pouring the mixture onto a horizontal surface and allowing it to dry at room temperature was required for casting. After the membrane was fabricated, its filtration efficacy and other pertinent properties were evaluated [ 30 ]. 2.10. Removal efficiency of the fabricated membrane. This study investigated the effectiveness of the fabricated nano-chitosan cellulose membranes in removing organic paint. Firstly, the treated paint solution is prepared after 1 h of settling, and the sludge production is determined by direct reading as ml of sludge per liter of wastewater treated as an initial amount. The final amount is taken as permeating manufactured cellulose membranes. The permeation is estimated at 100 liters per day. The spectrophotometer detects the paint solution both before and after treatment. The absorbance values measure the prototype's final efficiency at 99.16%. The prototype used in this study consisted of three stages, each equipped with a pump. However, for the adsorption process, only one pump was required. We designed the prototype to apply a pressure of 8.62 bar to the polyamide membrane and the 5-micron filter ceramic. The same pressure was applied to the adsorbent in the prototype membranes. To determine the removal efficiency of the prototype, treated paint industry wastewater was used as the test solution. The wastewater was first passed through the polyamide membrane and the 5-micron filter ceramic to remove any large particles and impurities. The treated wastewater was then passed through the adsorbent, which was contained in a column. A pump fitted the column to ensure a steady flow rate. The concentration of pollutants in the treated wastewater was measured before and after passing through the absorbent. The removal efficiency was calculated using the formula: Removal efficiency (%) = (Co − Ce)/Co ∗ 100. (1) The experiment was repeated three times, and the average removal efficiency was calculated. The results showed that the fabricated cellulose membrane was effective in removing pollutants from treated paint industry wastewater, with a removal efficiency of up to 99.1%. 2.11 Treatment of paint by coagulation method Coagulation-flocculation tests were performed in a Jar test device (Etik® 163) with 164 2 L vats. A rotation speed of 100 rpm was applied for 1 minute, followed by slow 165 rpm mixing for 20 minutes at 40 rpm. At the end of the assays, the resulting flakes were left at 166°C for 30 min to ensure sedimentation. Different volumes of a stock solution of 167 aluminum sulfate (50 g/L) were added to the raw effluent to obtain the best dosage (168 mL/L) of the coagulant. Performance testing of the activated-carbon-enhanced chitosan-cellulose-based membranes. 2.12 Characterization techniques The selected adsorbent materials are characterized using a variety of techniques, including Zeta potential, FT-IR analysis, BET, XRD, and SEM. 2.12.1 X-ray diffraction X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) is a non-destructive technique that provides detailed information about the crystallographic structure, chemical composition, and physical properties of a material. It is based on the constructive interference of monochromatic X-rays with a crystalline sample. This method was for empirical measurements to allow rapid comparison of cellulose samples to know their quantity. 2.12.2 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis The specific surface area is defined as the surface area per unit mass of the material and is typically expressed in units of m 2 /g. BET analysis is useful for characterizing porous materials and provides information on the material's porosity, surface area, and pore size distribution. 2.12.3 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) FTIR was used to analyze the chemical bonds in wastewater samples. The samples are analyzed at ambient temperature by acquiring FTIR spectra with 128 scans at a resolution of 4 cm1. The collected spectra are then vector-normalized over the entire 4000 − 400 cm1 wavelength range. The FTIR technique is useful for identifying various chemical functional groups present in wastewater, such as hydroxyl groups, carboxylic acids, and amines, which are indicative of various sources of pollution. FTIR analysis of wastewater can provide valuable information for monitoring and controlling water quality, as well as assessing the environmental impact of various industrial processes. 2.12.4 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) SEM imaging analyzes the morphology of the prepared sheets. The samples were cooled down to a solid nitrogen temperature under vacuum and then fractured with a platinum-coated blade from the side. Subsequently, the fractured surface is imaged using SEM. This technique is useful in determining the surface topography of the sheets, including their size, shape, and distribution. The well-defined and evenly spaced pores suggest a consistent manufacturing process. The high voltage of 30000 kV and a dwell time of 10 is used in the imaging process contributed to high-quality SEM images with a resolution of up to 10 nm. The working distance of 9.2 mm and the spot size of 3.0 further contributed to a clear and focused image, with a high horizontal field width of 82.9 µm. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 (XRD) analysis of extracted cellulose from bagasse and cotton stalks cellulose Figure 5 represents the XRD result for extracted cellulose from bagasse and cotton stalk. Figure 5a reveals an X-ray diffraction (XRD) of cellulose extracted from bagasse. The data obtained approved the semi-crystalline nature of the samples, with two halos around 15, 25, and 94.14%. Figure 5b, on the other hand, displays the XRD data of prepared cellulose extracted from cotton stalk. It clearly shows a change in the 2-angle seen at maximum intensity in samples that were synthesized and had a cellulose content of 87.22%. 3.2 XRD analysis of the fabricated and commercial membrane The X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies were conducted commercially and fabricated membrane from chitosan nanoparticles and activated carbon and revealed several distinct peaks, indicating a crystalline structure (as shown in Figs. 6a, b). Figure 6(a) illustrates the XRD pattern for a commercial membrane coating. An overview of the diffraction results suggests that all the samples have a crystalline nature because of the presence of Bragg diffractions. The appearance of broad beaks ranging from 22 to 24 indicates the presence of activated carbon. obtained a similar structure. Figure 6b of fabricated membranes, on the other hand, shows the appearance of broad beaks from 26 to 30, indicating the presence of chitosan nanoparticles. Additionally, the appearance of a broad peak in the range of 34 and 34.15 indicates the presence of cellulose crystals in the membranes. In agree, these results suggest that the sample has potential applications in wastewater paint industry treatment, particularly in removing different pollutants from water [ 31 ]. 3.3 (BET) analysis for fabricated membrane before and after wastewater treatment The BET method was used to figure out the specific surface area of a manufactured cellulose membrane that was coated with activated carbon and chitosan nanoparticles. As shown in Figure (7a), the manufactured membrane was characterized using the BET method, which revealed a high surface area of 30.5719 m2/g before water treatment. This suggests that the membrane has the potential for a high adsorption capacity for paint particles [ 30 ]. However, the average particle residue and total pore volume after water treatment were found to be 46.6 m2/g, which may indicate that the membrane is not highly effective at capturing and retaining particles (as shown in Fig. 7 b) [ 32 ]. 3.4 Zeta Potential The zeta potential provides a comprehensive method for measuring the electrostatic charge of dispersed particles, making it ideal for examining the stability of nanoparticle suspensions. Ansari et al. [ 33 ] utilizes the zeta potential to characterize the surface properties of nanoparticles and determine their stability. Figure 8 shows the potential zeta value of chitosan nanoparticles. Chitosan nanoparticles that have a potential zeta above ± 40 mV show excellent stability in suspension; this is because surface loads will prevent aggregation between particles. Also, a zeta sizer is used to measure the particle size of dispersed systems from sub-nanometers to several micrometers in diameter using the technique of dynamic light scattering (DLS). As shown in Fig. 9 , the zeta size distribution of chitosan nanoparticles has a mean diameter of 483.4–3568 nm and a PDI value of 0.675. 3.5 Fourier transmission electron microscope (FTIR) As shown in Fig. 10 a, The FTIR spectrum of the manufactured cellulose membrane, coated with activated carbon and chitosan nanoparticles for water filtration, displays peaks at various wavenumbers, signifying the existence of functional groups within the coated membrane. The broad peak at around 3500–3700 cm-1 corresponds to the O-H stretching vibration in alcohols and phenols, suggesting the presence of hydroxyl groups within the coated membrane. The peak at around 2900 cm-1 corresponds to the C-H stretching vibration in alkanes and alkenes, indicating the presence of these functional groups in the coated membrane. Additionally, peaks in the fingerprint region between 800 and 1800 cm-1 correspond to various functional groups, such as C-H bending, C-O stretching, and C = C stretching vibrations. The specific location and intensity of these peaks provide information about the chemical composition of the coated membrane. These results give us a better understanding of the functional groups in the coated membrane, but more research is needed to find out what these results mean for the membrane's ability to filter water well in different experimental conditions. As shown in Fig. 10 c, the FTIR spectrum obtained from the commercial cellulose membrane coated with activated carbon and chitosan nanoparticles evaluated for its water filtration ability show peaks at different wavenumbers, indicating the presence of functional groups within the coated membrane. The broad peak at around 3455 cm-1 corresponds to the O-H stretching vibration in alcohols and phenols, suggesting the presence of hydroxyl groups within the coated membrane. The peak at around 2975 cm-1 corresponds to the C-H stretching vibration in alkanes and alkenes, indicating the presence of these functional groups in the coated membrane. Additionally, peaks in the fingerprint region between 800 and 1800 cm-1 correspond to various functional groups, such as C-H bending, C-O stretching, and C = C stretching vibrations. However, there are differences in the specific peak positions and intensities, which may indicate differences in the chemical composition of the two samples. For cellulose extraction, the FTIR spectra of the sample indicate two main absorbency regions in the range of (800–1800) cm − 1 and (2700–3500) cm − 1. The peak at 1042 cm − 1 is related to C-O stretching in the plane due to aromatic C-H deformation of cellulose and lignin [ 16 ]. The absorption peaks at 1200 cm − 1 are in the O-H deformation vibration mode of cellulose. peak at 1320 cm − 1 is assigned to the CH2 wagging frequency of cellulose. The absorbance peak around 2900 cm − 1 is due to the C-H stretching vibration of methyl and methylene groups in cellulose [ 34 ]. In a previous study, the characteristic peaks of CA material and CA membrane were observed, including those at 3500 cm − 1 (hydroxyl group), 1740 cm − 1 (carbonyl group), 1368 cm − 1 (methyl group), and 1228 cm − 1 (ether group). This test also shows that after enough exchange of solvent and non-solvent, there are almost no traces of the solvent and additive left in the separation membrane [ 34 ]. For example, the broad peak at around 3500–3700 cm-1 for the fabricated membrane is located slightly higher than the peak at around 3455 cm-1 for the commercial membrane. This difference may be due to variations in the chemical composition or coating thickness between the two samples. Additionally, the peak at around 2900 cm-1 for the fabricated membrane is slightly more intense than the peak at around 2975 cm-1 for the commercial membrane, which may suggest differences in the relative amounts of C-H functional groups in the two samples. In addition to chitosan nanoparticles, there is a broad absorption spectrum between 3650 and 3250 cm-1 that indicates hydrogen bonding. This band indicates the presence of hydrate (H2O), hydroxyl (- OH), or amino. A narrow band below 3000 cm-1 indicates aliphatic compounds. Figure 10 b represents the FTIR graph for the manufactured sheet. The x-axis represents the wave number, which is a measure of the infrared radiation frequency used in the analysis, and the y-axis represents the intensity of the absorption peaks. As a result, fabricated sheets have functional groups available for adsorbing contaminant ions. The absorption of contaminating ions is significantly influenced by these functional groups [ 1 , 2 ]. By analyzing the peaks and their corresponding wave numbers in the FTIR spectrum, it can determine the presence of specific chemical bonds or functional groups in a substance, such as hydroxyl groups (OH), carbonyl groups (C = O), or amine groups (NH). The vibration band characteristics of all spectra exhibits the same shapes. 3.6 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) This study used a 5000X SEM in the secondary electron (SE) imaging mode and a low-frequency detector (LFD) to examine the commercial cellulose membrane [ 35 ]. As shown in Fig. 11 b, the membrane without extract (the cellulose acetate membrane) showed smooth morphology in the SEM without the presence of pores or wefts, as shown in Fig. 11 a. In comparison with the previous study, the pores of most obtained membranes were not visible in the SEM micrographs at a magnification of × 8000, except those containing high nanochitosan content (CA-2, CA-4). The results indicated that the CA blend membranes appeared more porous, with slightly larger pores than the blank membranes. The addition of chitosan nanoparticle content caused an increase in flux, indicating an increase in the porosity of the membrane surface. The presence of activated carbon pores. Therefore, physical adsorption takes place on the sheet's surface, showing the high removal efficiency of paint particles. Figure 11 c represents the SEM analysis of the manufactured sheet after treatment; it provides information about the micro-surface morphology and structure of the membrane. The results indicated that the composite membrane exhibited leaf-like and ridge-and-valley surface structures, which may indicate surface irregularities or protrusions. These structures, resembling leaves, can contribute to the total surface area and potentially improve the absorption properties. The ridge-and-valley pattern indicates that the sheet's surface has alternating ridges and valleys. This pattern has the potential to increase surface area, facilitate better interaction with pollutants, and enhance mechanical properties. We conducted scanning electron microscopy on SCB before and after metal uptake, in agreement with the previous study, to examine the surface morphology for any potential changes caused by metal uptake. The surface morphology revealed that SCB before metal uptake had larger pore sizes than the sugarcane bagasse after metal uptake, which had few pores. This might be because the pores were occupied by the metals and other generated small complex compounds [ 36 ][ 37 ]. 4. Conclusion In conclusion, this study presents a novel and environmentally friendly approach for the fabrication of biodegradable cellulose membranes derived from sugarcane bagasse and cotton stalks, intending to efficiently remove pollutants from paint industry wastewater. The use of agricultural waste materials as raw materials for membrane synthesis not only provides a sustainable solution to address water pollution challenges associated with the paint industry but also contributes to the utilization of biomass resources. The experimental results demonstrated the superiority of bagasse-derived cellulose in terms of yield compared to cotton stalks, making it the preferred source for membrane production. The membranes that were made with chitosan nanoparticles and activated carbon from bagasse had great adsorption properties. They were able to remove 99.1% of paint industry contaminants, which is an impressive result. With such high removal efficiency, these membranes have a huge amount of potential as highly effective sorbents for taking pollutants out of water solutions. FT-IR, XRD, ZETA, BET, and SEM were used to fully characterize the manufactured membranes. This gave us useful information about their structure and surface features. The analyses confirmed the presence of cellulose as well as the successful integration of chitosan nanoparticles and activated carbon, which significantly contributed to the membranes' enhanced adsorption capabilities. The development of these biodegradable cellulose membranes offers advantages, including their eco-friendly nature, cost-effectiveness, and scalability for large-scale production. Moreover, the utilization of biomass materials as alternative raw materials for activated carbon generation presents a sustainable approach to effectively address the issue of heavy metal pollution in wastewater. Overall, this study strongly shows that green-synthesized biodegradable cellulose membranes have a huge amount of potential as very effective sorbents for cleaning up wastewater from the paint industry. The fact that these membranes were successfully made and fully characterized, along with their amazing ability to remove substances, clearly shows that they are suitable for a wide range of industrial uses. Further research aimed at optimizing the synthesis process and fine-tuning the membrane properties will undoubtedly contribute to the advancement of advanced and sustainable water treatment technologies. Declarations Data Availability Data is provided within the manuscript. Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations Not applicable Consent to Publish declaration Not applicable Funding This research was not supported by grants from any funding agency in the public, private, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Author information Authors and Affiliations Director of Smart Engineering Systems Research Center (SESC), Nile university Irene S. Fahim Smart Engineering Systems Research Center (SESC), Nile university Khlood A. Alrefaey, Nabila A. Sallam Ethics declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Additional information Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. References Bashir I, Lone FA, Bhat RA, Mir SA, Dar ZA, Dar SA. Concerns and Threats of Contamination on Aquatic Ecosystems. In: Hakeem KR, Bhat RA, Qadri H, editors. in Bioremediation and Biotechnology: Sustainable Approaches to Pollution Degradation. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2020. pp. 1–26. 10.1007/978-3-030-35691-0_1 . Chowdhary P, Bharagava RN, Mishra S, Khan N. Role of Industries in Water Scarcity and Its Adverse Effects on Environment and Human Health. In: Shukla V, Kumar N, editors. in Environmental Concerns and Sustainable Development: Volume 1: Air, Water and Energy Resources. Singapore: Springer; 2020. pp. 235–56. 10.1007/978-981-13-5889-0_12 . Viktoryová N, Szarka A, Hrouzková S. 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Bhatt P, Joshi S, Urper Bayram GM, Khati P, Simsek H. Developments and application of chitosan-based adsorbents for wastewater treatments. Environ Res. Jun. 2023;226:115530. 10.1016/j.envres.2023.115530 . Khan Z. Cleaner production: an economical option for ISO certification in developing countries. J Clean Prod. Jan. 2008;16(1):22–7. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2006.06.007 . Abioye AM, Ani FN. Recent development in the production of activated carbon electrodes from agricultural waste biomass for supercapacitors: A review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. , vol. 52, pp. 1282–1293, Dec. 2015, 10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.129 Soni B, Hassan EB, Mahmoud B. Chemical isolation and characterization of different cellulose nanofibers from cotton stalks, Carbohydr. Polym. , vol. 134, pp. 581–589, Dec. 2015, 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.08.031 El-saied HA, Ibrahim AM. Effective Fabrication and Characterization of Eco-friendly Nano Chitosan Capped Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles for Effective Marine Fouling Inhibition. J Environ Chem Eng. Aug. 2020;8(4):103949. 10.1016/j.jece.2020.103949 . Divya K, Jisha MS. Chitosan nanoparticles preparation and applications, Environ. Chem. Lett. , vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 101–112, Mar. 2018, 10.1007/s10311-017-0670-y Kakom SM, Abdelmonem NM, Ismail IM, Refaat AA. Activated Carbon from Sugarcane Bagasse Pyrolysis for Heavy Metals Adsorption, Sugar Tech , vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 619–629, Jun. 2023, 10.1007/s12355-022-01214-3 Sun JX, Sun XF, Zhao H, Sun RC. Isolation and characterization of cellulose from sugarcane bagasse. Polym Degrad Stab. May 2004;84(2):331–9. 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2004.02.008 . Olivera S, Muralidhara HB, Venkatesh K, Guna VK, Gopalakrishna K, Kumar Y. K., Potential applications of cellulose and chitosan nanoparticles/composites in wastewater treatment: A review, Carbohydr. Polym. , vol. 153, pp. 600–618, Nov. 2016, 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.08.017 Ali F, Khan SB, Kamal T, Anwar Y, Alamry KA, Asiri AM. Bactericidal and catalytic performance of green nanocomposite based-on chitosan/carbon black fiber supported monometallic and bimetallic nanoparticles, Chemosphere , vol. 188, pp. 588–598, Dec. 2017, 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.08.118 Gorgieva S, Vogrinčič R, Kokol V. The Effect of Membrane Structure Prepared from Carboxymethyl Cellulose and Cellulose Nanofibrils for Cationic Dye Removal. J Polym Environ. Feb. 2019;27(2):318–32. 10.1007/s10924-018-1341-1 . Ansari MJ, Jasim SA, Bokov DO, Thangavelu L, Yasin G, Khalaji AD. Preparation of new bio-based chitosan/Fe2O3/NiFe2O4 as an efficient removal of methyl green from aqueous solution, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. , vol. 198, pp. 128–134, Feb. 2022, 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.12.082 Tesema BD, Chamada TA. Analysis of Bagasse Cellulose-Based Hydrogel for Methylene Blue Removal from Textile Industry Wastewater, Int. J. Chem. Eng. , vol. 2023, p. e2313874, Mar. 2023. 10.1155/2023/2313874 Bhattacharjee S. DLS and zeta potential – What they are and what they are not? J Controlled Release. Aug. 2016;235:337–51. 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.06.017 . Ezeonuegbu B, Machido D, Clement M, Wisdom S, Yaro C, Batiha G. Agricultural Waste of Sugarcane Bagasse as Efficient Adsorbent for Lead and Nickel Removal from untreated Wastewater: Biosorption, Equilibrium Isotherms, Kinetics and Desorption studies, Biotechnol. Rep. , p. e00614, Jun. 2021, 10.1016/j.btre.2021.e00614 Wang J, Song H, Ren L, Talukder ME, Chen S, Shao J. Study on the Preparation of Cellulose Acetate Separation Membrane and New Adjusting Method of Pore Size, Membranes , vol. 12, no. 1, Art. no. 1, Jan. 2022, 10.3390/membranes12010009 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6296543","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":455309223,"identity":"753aa729-5f9c-49d3-8a24-1f483019bad1","order_by":0,"name":"Khlood A. Alrefaey","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nile University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Khlood","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Alrefaey","suffix":""},{"id":455309224,"identity":"f78476cd-f95b-484e-b251-d85eb3d0c8da","order_by":1,"name":"Nabila A. 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Fahim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nile University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Irene","middleName":"S.","lastName":"Fahim","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-24 14:53:23","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6296543/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6296543/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":82639554,"identity":"28ab90ea-922c-46f8-b322-6bbe8633fbb2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:00:50","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67920,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeneral paint composition\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/b361e9ffece9dc52d8509e73.png"},{"id":82639559,"identity":"b14f70f8-9605-4d31-b9c3-99420d1f552e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:00:51","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":73968,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic Representation of cellulose extraction from sugarcane bagasse\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/5a3833b746a605afc9689142.png"},{"id":82639546,"identity":"930fc6f9-2f48-44a4-837c-a1e4ec4cf173","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:00:50","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":215230,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFabrication of an activated carbon-enhanced chitosan-cellulose membrane.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/e51c28a438228b6c1f1ad4b0.png"},{"id":82639574,"identity":"7f4e3c9f-7515-437e-bd31-76b921d6ea01","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:00:51","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":61212,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure (5a): \u003c/strong\u003eCellulose after extraction from sugarcane bagasse.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 5b: \u003c/strong\u003eCellulose extractions from cotton stock.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/77542224bf7885f92fff9bfb.png"},{"id":82640691,"identity":"222c43f9-a495-437f-aebe-8eacfc59d61e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:08:51","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53068,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 6a: \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eXRD for commercial membrane.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 6b: \u003c/strong\u003eXRD for cellulose fabricated membrane.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/71f762c8c9e93b7e99e9ffc1.png"},{"id":82639557,"identity":"d3e78bc8-5601-4b93-bd44-f5223ccfc4b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:00:51","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59594,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 7a: \u003c/strong\u003eBET of the fabricated cellulose membrane before treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 7b:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003eBET of the fabricated cellulose membrane after treatment\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/4484b868718f493d1b01ef7b.png"},{"id":82639552,"identity":"f4e427ac-7ea9-44da-a949-0e056da8b877","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:00:50","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31017,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 8: \u003c/strong\u003eZeta potential of chitosan nanoparticles.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/f25f50ea197d596520651c0a.png"},{"id":82639577,"identity":"24dd566a-8455-4660-a4e1-4546d3407491","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:00:51","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":85869,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 9: \u003c/strong\u003ezeta sizer distribution of chitosan nanoparticles with mean diameter 483.4-3568 nm, PDI value of 0.675.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/8b33205ab01219d5c8dcf560.png"},{"id":82640689,"identity":"6879dbd5-4e28-48fa-9965-6a01fbecefb6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:08:50","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":113468,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure10a: \u003c/strong\u003eFIR analysis of fabricated membrane before treatment,\u003cstrong\u003e Figure10b:\u003c/strong\u003e FIR analysis of fabricated membrane after wastewater treatment,\u003cstrong\u003e Figure 10c:\u003c/strong\u003e FIR analysis of commercial membrane, \u003cstrong\u003eand Figure 10d:\u003c/strong\u003e FIR analysis of chitosan nanoparticles\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/e406fb69601c7e2c26255a92.png"},{"id":82639556,"identity":"769aee27-f578-4376-88da-78ee30201b1c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:00:51","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":488197,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 11a: \u003c/strong\u003efabricated\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003emembrane coated with activated carbon, \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 11b: \u003c/strong\u003eCommercial cellulose membrane respectively coated with activated carbon and chitosan nanoparticles before treatment. \u0026amp; \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 11c: \u003c/strong\u003eSEM analysis for fabricated cellulose membrane coated with activated carbon and nano-chitosan after treatment.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/14f9ab8eedce8abdb700c86a.png"},{"id":83746798,"identity":"11ecedb0-6c5c-4804-9c8e-11aa419b7f92","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 04:53:50","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2434120,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/a6550ac4-d8c1-4693-b577-14940cf8c664.pdf"},{"id":82639547,"identity":"677fec3c-a7fc-4277-b29d-ae706fa6de24","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:00:50","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":187055,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGraphical abstract\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"GA.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6296543/v1/e37fb636622ce5e243811e35.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eEco-Friendly Cellulose-Based Membranes Derived from Sugarcane Bagasse for Efficient Industrial Paint Wastewater Treatment\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater pollution is a significant global environmental challenge that poses a threat to aquatic ecosystems and the well-being of living organisms. The paint industry generates a considerable number of pollutants that create challenges in their removal from wastewater [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. These pollutants include organic solvents, heavy metals, pigments, and resins. These pollutants, including organic solvents, heavy metals, pigments, and resins, are often toxic and can have adverse effects on the environment and human health if not effectively eliminated from wastewater [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The paint manufacturing industry relies heavily on water, consuming 75\u0026ndash;85\u0026nbsp;million gallons per day from public or municipal sources, with the remaining portion primarily obtained from wells and surface water. Only a small percentage (approximately 4%) of the water used in paint production is recycled globally [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. The wastewaters of the paint industry are characterized by elevated levels of organic matter, salinity, sulfate content, and suspended solids. Untreated or inadequately treated paint industrial effluents contain variable amounts of heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, nickel, cadmium, copper, mercury, zinc, and chromium, which can contaminate crops irrigated with such water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Dovletoglou et al.,[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] we discharge approximately 70% of the total effluent without treatment and dispose of the remaining 25% through evaporation or other methods. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e illustrates that most white paints consist of a mixture of pigments (suspended solids) in a liquid medium, volatile solvents, binders (polymeric materials), extenders, and suitable additives. Pigments can be natural or synthetic and are classified based on their production method, chemical structure, and application [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effluent from the paint industry is characterized by high concentrations of suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), heavy metals, and hazardous chemicals. The presence of organic contaminants in the wastewater degrades water quality and complicates water treatment processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Microbial contamination occurs during paint manufacturing and storage, as indicated by the fact that 80% of paint industry effluents originate from equipment washing, which contains both inorganic and organic components (Khan, 2008). Therefore, proper treatment of paint industry effluents is necessary, and innovative ecological methods are required to effectively remove color, microbes, COD, and BOD [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConventional wastewater treatment processes often fail to adequately remove these pollutants, resulting in their release into the environment. This emphasizes the need for the development of effective treatment technologies to remove these pollutants from paint industry wastewater and mitigate their negative impact on the environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Researchers have explored various methods, including physical, chemical, and biological technologies, for treating paint industry wastewater. These methods include coagulation, adsorption, photolysis, electrochemical treatment, biological treatment, and membrane processes. The treatment process is complex and involves multiple steps, primarily aimed at reducing COD and BOD levels by efficiently eliminating various contaminants. Conventional industrial water treatment methods do not effectively remove the pollutants entering watercourses, making industrial wastewater potentially hazardous to freshwater ecosystems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, each method has its limitations in terms of effectiveness and cost. Therefore, the selection of an appropriate treatment method depends on the specific pollutants present in the wastewater, the desired effluent quality, and the treatment cost. Effective treatment technologies are crucial for mitigating the negative impact of paint industry wastewater on the environment and safeguarding public health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Adsorption has been extensively studied as a cost-effective and efficient method for removing pollutants from paint industry wastewater. Additionally, researchers have explored synthetic membranes like reverse osmosis and nanofiltration for their high efficiency and low energy consumption. However, these methods have limitations and drawbacks, such as membrane fouling and low adsorption capacity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. In response to these challenges, researchers have developed hybrid adsorptive membranes that combine the benefits of adsorption and membrane processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. To make these membranes, adsorptive nanoparticles are mixed in with synthetic membranes. This makes membranes that can both absorb and filter substances. This approach has shown promising results in removing pollutants from paint industry wastewater [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe development of low-cost and effective methods for removing heavy metals from contaminated water sources is crucial for mitigating the harmful effects of heavy metal pollution on human health and the environment. The use of biomass materials as an alternative method for removing heavy metals from contaminated wastewater is a promising approach that can reduce process costs and eliminate the disposal of chemical sludge, making it a sustainable solution for addressing heavy metal pollution. Therefore, the development of sustainable and cost-effective methods for removing heavy metals from contaminated water sources is essential for mitigating the adverse effects of heavy metal pollution on human health and the environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Effective and sustainable methods for removing heavy metals from contaminated water sources are crucial for mitigating the adverse impact of heavy metal pollution on human health and the environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Tropical countries extensively cultivate sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), with global sugarcane production reaching approximately 1.84\u0026nbsp;billion tons in 2017 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. The residue from sugarcane, known as bagasse, can be utilized to produce biodegradable membranes (Khulbe \u0026amp; Matsuura, 2021). Sugarcane bagasse consists of lignin (14\u0026ndash;30%), cellulose (35\u0026ndash;50%), hemicelluloses (22\u0026ndash;26%), and ash (10%). Cellulose, being the most abundant renewable biopolymer, has emerged as a promising and cost-effective material for developing various structural polymers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Researchers have focused on using different biopolymers such as cellulose, chitin, starch, and alginate to create fully or partially biodegradable membranes for wastewater treatment applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have successfully developed cellulose composite membranes by employing trimethylsilyl cellulose (TMSC) as a precursor, followed by a simple cellulose regeneration process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Cellulose possesses unique properties such as a large surface area, good mechanical strength, and natural biodegradability, making it an attractive material for water treatment applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The use of conventional and non-conventional adsorbents has gained significant attention in the past few decades [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Particularly, chemical and physical methods can prepare activated carbon, a widely recognized and efficient adsorbent, for use in the adsorption process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Biomass derived from living organisms and agricultural waste, including sugarcane bagasse pulp waste, holds enormous potential as an alternative raw material for generating activated carbon due to their abundance and renewability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. The ability of activated carbon to hold organic molecules is greatly affected by things like the size, location, shape, and surface properties of the pores [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Activated carbon derived from various sources has been employed for removing heavy metals from aqueous solutions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The production of activated carbon has utilized the high carbon content, availability, and low cost of sugarcane bagasse pulp waste. The prepared composite membranes, incorporating activated carbon, have been synthesized and investigated for the removal of pollutants such as methyl orange, crystal violet dyes, and chromium heavy metals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChitosan, a by-product extracted from chitin using different biological and chemical methods, has been used in composite materials for wastewater treatment to adsorb dyes and heavy metals. Researchers have combined chitosan with various substances such as montmorillonite, polyurethane, activated earth, bentonite, zeolites, oil palm detritus, calcium alginate, polyvinyl alcohol, cellulose, magnetite, sand, cotton filaments, perlite, and alumina to form composite materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, chitosan exhibits antibacterial properties against microorganisms, and its transparency, antibacterial characteristics, and film-forming ability make it suitable for food packaging materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Chitosan, in combination with nanoparticles, has also been explored for applications such as drug delivery, vaccine transport, antibacterial agents, and wound healing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Its high surface area makes it an efficient adsorbent for removing toxic metal ions, disease-causing microorganisms, and organic and inorganic solutes from water. Nano-chitosan membranes have shown promise for the removal of dyes from wastewater due to their exceptional strength, large surface area, and high adsorption capacity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on the development of biodegradable cellulose membranes using cellulose extracted from agricultural waste, specifically bagasse pulp. Nanomaterials like chitosan nanoparticles and naturally activated carbon further enhance the membranes. Two types of membranes are fabricated: commercial membranes composed of cellulose acetate and fabricated membranes derived from cellulose extracted from bagasse pulp. Comparative analysis reveals the advantages of the fabricated membrane over its commercial counterpart. The manufactured membrane exhibits higher water permeability, resulting in improved efficiency for pollutant removal from wastewater. Additionally, the manufactured membrane is more biodegradable and cost-effective, making it a more environmentally friendly option.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted various analyses such as Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to characterize the adsorbent bio-composite membrane materials. These characterization techniques provide valuable insights into the structural and surface properties of the membranes, aiding in understanding their performance and potential applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Analytical equipment and Apparatus\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSugarcane bagasse pulp is purchased from the sugar company in Upper Egypt. Glycerol with a purity of 98% was obtained from Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai. Deionized water was used to prepare the solutions for the analytical determinations. The experiments utilized the following equipment: a grinder, a Sartorius analytical balance, a lab muffle furnace, a magnetic stirrer, an Iris Visible Spectrophotometer model (HI-801-02), laboratory mesh sieves, and a pH 21 Hanna instrument. The surface morphology of the adsorbent was observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM, JEOL JSM-6380), an FTIR spectrophotometer, and a Siemens D500 X-ray diffractometer. A sugarcane bagasse pulp layer supported the adsorbent sheets. The layer acts as a carrier for the activated carbon and chitosan nanoparticles. Raw shrimp shell waste was purchased from a local fish market in Egypt. All shrimp shell waste included distinct species of shrimp. All the reagents used were of a high analytical grade and were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Company, i.e., hydrochloric acid (HCl, 35\u0026ndash;38%), sodium hydroxide pellets (NaOH, pure), and acetic acid (CH3COOH, 99%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Chemical compounds\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll the chemicals, including aluminum sulfate and alaime, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium chlorite, hydrogen peroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP), aluminum sulfate, starch, alkyl ketene dimer (AKD), sodium silicate, and hydrochloric acid, were supplied by Sigma-Aldrich.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Sources of raw wastewater\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe wastewater used in the study was obtained directly from a wall paint manufacturing facility at the TIGRA factory, located in El-Sadat city. The wastewater was collected without any treatment from the factory wastewater reservoir and stored at 5\u0026deg;C to preserve its characteristics. The water-based acrylic texture of the wastewater was white.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Cellulose extraction from cotton stalks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst the cotton stalk powders were dried at 55\u0026deg;C for 1 hour, then immersed in a 15% (w/w) sodium hydroxide solution with a liquor-to-fiber ratio of 5 ml/g (5:25 w/v cotton stalk powder and sodium hydroxide solution, respectively). Then transferred the resulting suspension to a sealed container and agitated it for 3 hours at a temperature of 100\u0026deg;C. The resultant residue with distilled water was rinsed and then dried for component analysis. Next, a bleaching process was conducted using two distinct methods to eliminate lignin from the alkali-treated cotton stalks. The first method involved heating 5 g of dried, already-treated cotton stalks in a solution with 162.5 ml of water, 1.6 g of sodium chlorite, and 1.25 ml of glacial acetic acid at 75\u0026deg;C for one hour. The cotton stalks were then cooled in icy water and rinsed with deionized water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The bleaching step was repeated twice, with component analysis being conducted after each interaction. The second method involved soaking a specific quantity of pre-treated cotton stalks in a 1.5 wt% hydrogen peroxide solution for 6 hours at a temperature of 80\u0026deg;C, followed by component analysis of the resulting residue [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Cellulose extraction from sugarcane bagasse\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2, to prepare sugarcane bagasse to produce cellulose nanofibers, an alkali-hydrolyzed treatment was conducted by adding 10 g of sugarcane bagasse to 100 mL of NaOH (6%) at 60\u0026deg;C for 4 hours in a shaker. The resulting mixture was then filtered, and the bagasse was neutralized with distilled water. The bagasse was then subjected to bleaching in a solution of 200 mL of NaClO2 (30%) and shaken for 24 hours at room temperature. The bleached sample was then filtered and neutralized with distilled water. To remove any remaining moisture, the sample was dried, and cellulose nanofibers were formed. To produce high-quality cellulose nanofibers from sugarcane bagasse for various applications, these steps are crucial [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6 Synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe preparation of chitosan nanoparticles was conducted using the ionic gelation method. In this method, a chitosan solution was prepared by dissolving 0.3% (w/v) chitosan in 2% (v/v) acetic acid. Sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) at a concentration of 1% w/v served as the ionic cross-linker. The chitosan used in this study was extracted from crimp, sourced naturally, as detailed in our previous research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7 Synthesis of activated carbon from sugarcane bagasse\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eActivated carbon is prepared from natural sources, including sugarcane bagasse. The activated carbon was prepared from sugarcane bagasse via a physically activated method called pyrolysis preparation. The samples were then pyrolyzed by burning (carbonizing) them in a tube-shaped furnace for four hours. The carbonization temperature was set to 400 degrees Celsius. The pyrolysis byproduct ash was removed from the carbonized samples, which were then rewashed with distilled water to remove the hydrochloric acid and re-dried at 110\u0026deg;C for three hours to remove the moisture and produce prepared activated carbon (PAC). To determine the influence of activation on pyrolysis, SCB powder was carbonized without impregnation for evaluation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.8 Fabrication of an activated carbon-enhanced chitosan-cellulose membrane\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor cellulose, an aqueous solvent comprising NaOH, aluminum sulfate, and water (4.6:15:80.4 w/w) was prepared and frozen for dissolution. Then, 2 g of cellulose was dispersed with extensive stirring in 96 g of thawed NAOH or aluminum sulfate solvent. To make chitosan nanoparticles, 4 grams of nano-chitosan were mixed with 96 grams of NaOH, KOH, aluminum sulfate, or water (4.6:7:8:80.4 w/w). To promote the dissolution of chitosan, KOH was used. Then 0,9 ml of chitosan nanoparticles (v/v) were added to 50% of the cellulose solution. If you want to create a membrane with comparable properties to a cellulose-chitosan membrane with a 50:50 ratio, we can use that membrane's composition as a starting point and adjust the amounts of each component accordingly. Weight typically determines the proportions of each component in a 50:50 cellulose-chitosan membrane. For example, if we start with a total weight of 10 grams, we will use 5 grams of cellulose and 5 grams of chitosan nanoparticles. To create a filter membrane using activated carbon, glycerol, starch, EKD, sodium silicate, and chitosan nanoparticles, we can use the following recipe as a starting point: Additives are added to the cooking mixture before heating [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese amounts are based on a total weight of 10 grams, which is like the weight used for the cellulose-chitosan membrane. However, keep in mind that this recipe serves merely as a foundation, and you may need to modify it according to the unique characteristics of the membrane you aim to produce. The preparation process for this membrane involves steps, such as mixing the components, casting the mixture onto a substrate, and allowing it to dry or cure. The specific details of this process would depend on the final membrane's desired properties and should be carefully considered during the design process. The fabrication process of the membrane is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.9. Preparation of commercial cellulose acetate membrane\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor many years, people have used the membrane phase inversion method to fabricate flat sheet polymeric membranes. The previously prepared blank cellulose acetate and composite cellulose acetate/activated carbon dope solutions were poured at room temperature onto a spotless glass plate. The following technique was used to incorporate chitosan nanoparticles and ethanol into the filter membrane: For instance, we calculated the required 1.96 grams of activated carbon, 0.98 grams of chitosan nanoparticles, 17.64 grams of cellulose acetate, 0.98 grams of ethanol, and 78.4 grams of DCM to include 1% chitosan nanoparticles and 1% ethanol. Next, the components were combined in the correct proportions in a glass beaker. To ensure uniform mixing, a magnetic stirrer was then used to agitate the mixture. The resultant m\u0026eacute;lange was then cast to produce the filter membrane. Pouring the mixture onto a horizontal surface and allowing it to dry at room temperature was required for casting. After the membrane was fabricated, its filtration efficacy and other pertinent properties were evaluated [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.10. Removal efficiency of the fabricated membrane.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the effectiveness of the fabricated nano-chitosan cellulose membranes in removing organic paint. Firstly, the treated paint solution is prepared after 1 h of settling, and the sludge production is determined by direct reading as ml of sludge per liter of wastewater treated as an initial amount. The final amount is taken as permeating manufactured cellulose membranes. The permeation is estimated at 100 liters per day. The spectrophotometer detects the paint solution both before and after treatment. The absorbance values measure the prototype's final efficiency at 99.16%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe prototype used in this study consisted of three stages, each equipped with a pump. However, for the adsorption process, only one pump was required. We designed the prototype to apply a pressure of 8.62 bar to the polyamide membrane and the 5-micron filter ceramic. The same pressure was applied to the adsorbent in the prototype membranes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo determine the removal efficiency of the prototype, treated paint industry wastewater was used as the test solution. The wastewater was first passed through the polyamide membrane and the 5-micron filter ceramic to remove any large particles and impurities. The treated wastewater was then passed through the adsorbent, which was contained in a column. A pump fitted the column to ensure a steady flow rate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concentration of pollutants in the treated wastewater was measured before and after passing through the absorbent. The removal efficiency was calculated using the formula:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRemoval efficiency (%) = (Co\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;Ce)/Co \u0026lowast; 100. (1)\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experiment was repeated three times, and the average removal efficiency was calculated. The results showed that the fabricated cellulose membrane was effective in removing pollutants from treated paint industry wastewater, with a removal efficiency of up to 99.1%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.11 Treatment of paint by coagulation method\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoagulation-flocculation tests were performed in a Jar test device (Etik\u0026reg; 163) with 164 2 L vats. A rotation speed of 100 rpm was applied for 1 minute, followed by slow 165 rpm mixing for 20 minutes at 40 rpm. At the end of the assays, the resulting flakes were left at 166\u0026deg;C for 30 min to ensure sedimentation. Different volumes of a stock solution of 167 aluminum sulfate (50 g/L) were added to the raw effluent to obtain the best dosage (168 mL/L) of the coagulant. Performance testing of the activated-carbon-enhanced chitosan-cellulose-based membranes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.12 Characterization techniques\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe selected adsorbent materials are characterized using a variety of techniques, including Zeta potential, FT-IR analysis, BET, XRD, and SEM.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.12.1 X-ray diffraction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eX-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) is a non-destructive technique that provides detailed information about the crystallographic structure, chemical composition, and physical properties of a material. It is based on the constructive interference of monochromatic X-rays with a crystalline sample. This method was for empirical measurements to allow rapid comparison of cellulose samples to know their quantity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.12.2 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe specific surface area is defined as the surface area per unit mass of the material and is typically expressed in units of m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/g. BET analysis is useful for characterizing porous materials and provides information on the material's porosity, surface area, and pore size distribution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.12.3 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFTIR was used to analyze the chemical bonds in wastewater samples. The samples are analyzed at ambient temperature by acquiring FTIR spectra with 128 scans at a resolution of 4 cm1. The collected spectra are then vector-normalized over the entire 4000\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;400 cm1 wavelength range. The FTIR technique is useful for identifying various chemical functional groups present in wastewater, such as hydroxyl groups, carboxylic acids, and amines, which are indicative of various sources of pollution. FTIR analysis of wastewater can provide valuable information for monitoring and controlling water quality, as well as assessing the environmental impact of various industrial processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.12.4 Scanning electron microscope (SEM)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM imaging analyzes the morphology of the prepared sheets. The samples were cooled down to a solid nitrogen temperature under vacuum and then fractured with a platinum-coated blade from the side. Subsequently, the fractured surface is imaged using SEM. This technique is useful in determining the surface topography of the sheets, including their size, shape, and distribution. The well-defined and evenly spaced pores suggest a consistent manufacturing process. The high voltage of 30000 kV and a dwell time of 10 is used in the imaging process contributed to high-quality SEM images with a resolution of up to 10 nm. The working distance of 9.2 mm and the spot size of 3.0 further contributed to a clear and focused image, with a high horizontal field width of 82.9 \u0026micro;m.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 (XRD) analysis of extracted cellulose from bagasse and cotton stalks cellulose\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure 5 represents the XRD result for extracted cellulose from bagasse and cotton stalk. Figure 5a reveals an X-ray diffraction (XRD) of cellulose extracted from bagasse. The data obtained approved the semi-crystalline nature of the samples, with two halos around 15, 25, and 94.14%. Figure 5b, on the other hand, displays the XRD data of prepared cellulose extracted from cotton stalk. It clearly shows a change in the 2-angle seen at maximum intensity in samples that were synthesized and had a cellulose content of 87.22%.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 XRD analysis of the fabricated and commercial membrane\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies were conducted commercially and fabricated membrane from chitosan nanoparticles and activated carbon and revealed several distinct peaks, indicating a crystalline structure (as shown in Figs.\u0026nbsp;6a, b). Figure\u0026nbsp;6(a) illustrates the XRD pattern for a commercial membrane coating. An overview of the diffraction results suggests that all the samples have a crystalline nature because of the presence of Bragg diffractions. The appearance of broad beaks ranging from 22 to 24 indicates the presence of activated carbon. obtained a similar structure. Figure\u0026nbsp;6b of fabricated membranes, on the other hand, shows the appearance of broad beaks from 26 to 30, indicating the presence of chitosan nanoparticles. Additionally, the appearance of a broad peak in the range of 34 and 34.15 indicates the presence of cellulose crystals in the membranes. In agree, these results suggest that the sample has potential applications in wastewater paint industry treatment, particularly in removing different pollutants from water [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3 (BET) analysis for fabricated membrane before and after wastewater treatment\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe BET method was used to figure out the specific surface area of a manufactured cellulose membrane that was coated with activated carbon and chitosan nanoparticles. As shown in Figure (7a), the manufactured membrane was characterized using the BET method, which revealed a high surface area of 30.5719 m2/g before water treatment. This suggests that the membrane has the potential for a high adsorption capacity for paint particles [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the average particle residue and total pore volume after water treatment were found to be 46.6 m2/g, which may indicate that the membrane is not highly effective at capturing and retaining particles (as shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eb) [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Zeta Potential\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe zeta potential provides a comprehensive method for measuring the electrostatic charge of dispersed particles, making it ideal for examining the stability of nanoparticle suspensions. Ansari et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] utilizes the zeta potential to characterize the surface properties of nanoparticles and determine their stability. Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e shows the potential zeta value of chitosan nanoparticles. Chitosan nanoparticles that have a potential zeta above \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;40 mV show excellent stability in suspension; this is because surface loads will prevent aggregation between particles. Also, a zeta sizer is used to measure the particle size of dispersed systems from sub-nanometers to several micrometers in diameter using the technique of dynamic light scattering (DLS). As shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, the zeta size distribution of chitosan nanoparticles has a mean diameter of 483.4\u0026ndash;3568 nm and a PDI value of 0.675.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Fourier transmission electron microscope (FTIR)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003ea, The FTIR spectrum of the manufactured cellulose membrane, coated with activated carbon and chitosan nanoparticles for water filtration, displays peaks at various wavenumbers, signifying the existence of functional groups within the coated membrane. The broad peak at around 3500\u0026ndash;3700 cm-1 corresponds to the O-H stretching vibration in alcohols and phenols, suggesting the presence of hydroxyl groups within the coated membrane. The peak at around 2900 cm-1 corresponds to the C-H stretching vibration in alkanes and alkenes, indicating the presence of these functional groups in the coated membrane. Additionally, peaks in the fingerprint region between 800 and 1800 cm-1 correspond to various functional groups, such as C-H bending, C-O stretching, and C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C stretching vibrations. The specific location and intensity of these peaks provide information about the chemical composition of the coated membrane. These results give us a better understanding of the functional groups in the coated membrane, but more research is needed to find out what these results mean for the membrane\u0026apos;s ability to filter water well in different experimental conditions. As shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003ec, the FTIR spectrum obtained from the commercial cellulose membrane coated with activated carbon and chitosan nanoparticles evaluated for its water filtration ability show peaks at different wavenumbers, indicating the presence of functional groups within the coated membrane. The broad peak at around 3455 cm-1 corresponds to the O-H stretching vibration in alcohols and phenols, suggesting the presence of hydroxyl groups within the coated membrane. The peak at around 2975 cm-1 corresponds to the C-H stretching vibration in alkanes and alkenes, indicating the presence of these functional groups in the coated membrane. Additionally, peaks in the fingerprint region between 800 and 1800 cm-1 correspond to various functional groups, such as C-H bending, C-O stretching, and C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C stretching vibrations. However, there are differences in the specific peak positions and intensities, which may indicate differences in the chemical composition of the two samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor cellulose extraction, the FTIR spectra of the sample indicate two main absorbency regions in the range of (800\u0026ndash;1800) cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 and (2700\u0026ndash;3500) cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1. The peak at 1042 cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 is related to C-O stretching in the plane due to aromatic C-H deformation of cellulose and lignin [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The absorption peaks at 1200 cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 are in the O-H deformation vibration mode of cellulose. peak at 1320 cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 is assigned to the CH2 wagging frequency of cellulose. The absorbance peak around 2900 cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 is due to the C-H stretching vibration of methyl and methylene groups in cellulose [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn a previous study, the characteristic peaks of CA material and CA membrane were observed, including those at 3500 cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 (hydroxyl group), 1740 cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 (carbonyl group), 1368 cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 (methyl group), and 1228 cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 (ether group). This test also shows that after enough exchange of solvent and non-solvent, there are almost no traces of the solvent and additive left in the separation membrane [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor example, the broad peak at around 3500\u0026ndash;3700 cm-1 for the fabricated membrane is located slightly higher than the peak at around 3455 cm-1 for the commercial membrane. This difference may be due to variations in the chemical composition or coating thickness between the two samples. Additionally, the peak at around 2900 cm-1 for the fabricated membrane is slightly more intense than the peak at around 2975 cm-1 for the commercial membrane, which may suggest differences in the relative amounts of C-H functional groups in the two samples. In addition to chitosan nanoparticles, there is a broad absorption spectrum between 3650 and 3250 cm-1 that indicates hydrogen bonding. This band indicates the presence of hydrate (H2O), hydroxyl (- OH), or amino. A narrow band below 3000 cm-1 indicates aliphatic compounds.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eb represents the FTIR graph for the manufactured sheet. The x-axis represents the wave number, which is a measure of the infrared radiation frequency used in the analysis, and the y-axis represents the intensity of the absorption peaks. As a result, fabricated sheets have functional groups available for adsorbing contaminant ions. The absorption of contaminating ions is significantly influenced by these functional groups [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. By analyzing the peaks and their corresponding wave numbers in the FTIR spectrum, it can determine the presence of specific chemical bonds or functional groups in a substance, such as hydroxyl groups (OH), carbonyl groups (C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;O), or amine groups (NH). The vibration band characteristics of all spectra exhibits the same shapes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.6 Scanning electron microscope (SEM)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study used a 5000X SEM in the secondary electron (SE) imaging mode and a low-frequency detector (LFD) to examine the commercial cellulose membrane [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. As shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003eb, the membrane without extract (the cellulose acetate membrane) showed smooth morphology in the SEM without the presence of pores or wefts, as shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003ea. In comparison with the previous study, the pores of most obtained membranes were not visible in the SEM micrographs at a magnification of \u0026times; 8000, except those containing high nanochitosan content (CA-2, CA-4). The results indicated that the CA blend membranes appeared more porous, with slightly larger pores than the blank membranes. The addition of chitosan nanoparticle content caused an increase in flux, indicating an increase in the porosity of the membrane surface.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe presence of activated carbon pores. Therefore, physical adsorption takes place on the sheet\u0026apos;s surface, showing the high removal efficiency of paint particles. Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003ec represents the SEM analysis of the manufactured sheet after treatment; it provides information about the micro-surface morphology and structure of the membrane. The results indicated that the composite membrane exhibited leaf-like and ridge-and-valley surface structures, which may indicate surface irregularities or protrusions. These structures, resembling leaves, can contribute to the total surface area and potentially improve the absorption properties. The ridge-and-valley pattern indicates that the sheet\u0026apos;s surface has alternating ridges and valleys. This pattern has the potential to increase surface area, facilitate better interaction with pollutants, and enhance mechanical properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWe conducted scanning electron microscopy on SCB before and after metal uptake, in agreement with the previous study, to examine the surface morphology for any potential changes caused by metal uptake. The surface morphology revealed that SCB before metal uptake had larger pore sizes than the sugarcane bagasse after metal uptake, which had few pores. This might be because the pores were occupied by the metals and other generated small complex compounds [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, this study presents a novel and environmentally friendly approach for the fabrication of biodegradable cellulose membranes derived from sugarcane bagasse and cotton stalks, intending to efficiently remove pollutants from paint industry wastewater. The use of agricultural waste materials as raw materials for membrane synthesis not only provides a sustainable solution to address water pollution challenges associated with the paint industry but also contributes to the utilization of biomass resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experimental results demonstrated the superiority of bagasse-derived cellulose in terms of yield compared to cotton stalks, making it the preferred source for membrane production. The membranes that were made with chitosan nanoparticles and activated carbon from bagasse had great adsorption properties. They were able to remove 99.1% of paint industry contaminants, which is an impressive result. With such high removal efficiency, these membranes have a huge amount of potential as highly effective sorbents for taking pollutants out of water solutions. FT-IR, XRD, ZETA, BET, and SEM were used to fully characterize the manufactured membranes. This gave us useful information about their structure and surface features. The analyses confirmed the presence of cellulose as well as the successful integration of chitosan nanoparticles and activated carbon, which significantly contributed to the membranes' enhanced adsorption capabilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe development of these biodegradable cellulose membranes offers advantages, including their eco-friendly nature, cost-effectiveness, and scalability for large-scale production. Moreover, the utilization of biomass materials as alternative raw materials for activated carbon generation presents a sustainable approach to effectively address the issue of heavy metal pollution in wastewater. Overall, this study strongly shows that green-synthesized biodegradable cellulose membranes have a huge amount of potential as very effective sorbents for cleaning up wastewater from the paint industry. The fact that these membranes were successfully made and fully characterized, along with their amazing ability to remove substances, clearly shows that they are suitable for a wide range of industrial uses. Further research aimed at optimizing the synthesis process and fine-tuning the membrane properties will undoubtedly contribute to the advancement of advanced and sustainable water treatment technologies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData is provided within the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and Consent to Participate declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was not supported by grants from any funding agency in the public, private, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors and Affiliations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDirector of Smart Engineering Systems Research Center (SESC), Nile university\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIrene S. Fahim\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSmart Engineering Systems Research Center (SESC), Nile university\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhlood A. Alrefaey, Nabila A. Sallam\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdditional information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePublisher\u0026apos;s Note\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBashir I, Lone FA, Bhat RA, Mir SA, Dar ZA, Dar SA. Concerns and Threats of Contamination on Aquatic Ecosystems. 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Study on the Preparation of Cellulose Acetate Separation Membrane and New Adjusting Method of Pore Size, \u003cem\u003eMembranes\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 12, no. 1, Art. no. 1, Jan. 2022, \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/membranes12010009\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/membranes12010009\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Biodegradable cellulose membranes, paint industry wastewater, green synthesis, sorbents, pollutants removal","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6296543/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6296543/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of biodegradable membranes produced from agricultural waste in eliminating pollutants from paint industry wastewater. The data was gathered to investigate sustainable green synthesis techniques and evaluate the efficacy of cellulose based membranes integrated with chitosan nanoparticles and derived activated carbon. The objective is to establish if these eco-friendly materials may function as effective sorbents for modifying water pollution from the paint industry.The research focuses on cellulose extraction from cotton stalks and bagasse, with bagasse exhibiting the highest cellulose concentration at 94.14%, in contrast to 87.22% from cotton stalks. Characterization techniques, such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), zeta potential analysis, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller surface area analysis (BET), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), were utilized to assess material properties. Spectroscopic investigation revealed a maximum pollutant removal efficiency of 99.1%. The fabricated membranes demonstrated a surface area of 30.5719 m²/g, with particle sizes varying from 483.4 to 3568 nm. These findings highlight the potential of biodegradable membranes as effective sorbents for removing white paint pollutants from water, providing significant insights into sustainable wastewater treatment.","manuscriptTitle":"Eco-Friendly Cellulose-Based Membranes Derived from Sugarcane Bagasse for Efficient Industrial Paint Wastewater Treatment","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-13 15:00:45","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6296543/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0c0c282b-a018-40a5-8a2f-4c15574b35a1","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-02T04:53:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-13 15:00:45","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6296543","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6296543","identity":"rs-6296543","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}