Tendency to consume alcohol among young Poles in the light of coping with stress and selected socio-demographic factors during the COVID-19 pandemic

Tendency to consume alcohol among young Poles in the light of coping with stress and selected socio-demographic factors during the COVID-19 pandemic | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Tendency to consume alcohol among young Poles in the light of coping with stress and selected socio-demographic factors during the COVID-19 pandemic Paweł Dębski, Monika Garczarczyk, Lidia Lisowska, Dorota Turska-Czyż This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5363562/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in BMC Public Health → Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Introduction : The research aimed to assess the linkages between alcohol propensity and stress and coping styles in young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. The project also focused on investigating the significance of differences in alcohol propensity, taking into account selected sociodemographic characteristics. Material and methods : A total of 1251 people in early adulthood (23.93 ± 2.88 y.o.) participated in the research, including 928 women (23.84 ± 2.89 y.o.), 318 men (24.21 ± 2.85 y.o.) and 5 people of other gender identity (22.20 ± 1.64 y.o.). A self-administered questionnaire, CISS, PSS-10 and AUDIT were used for the study. The statistical procedures used the Pearson correlation coefficient, as well as the Mann-Whitney U test and the Kruskal-Wallis test. Results : Positive correlations were found between the intensity of alcohol use and emotional style (r = 0.111), avoidant style (r = 0.153) and seeking for substitute activities (r = 0.147), as well as a negative relationship with task-focused style (r=-0.076). Among young adults, factors contributed to high-intensity of alcohol propensity included: male gender, childlessness, living in cities of more than 100,000 inhabitants, people with secondary education, lack of a close personal relationship or being in a partnership, as well as a professional situation related to occasional or casual employment. Conclusions :Alcohol consumption is associated with an emotion- and avoidant-oriented stress-coping styles. 28% of the surveyed were among those at risk of developing alcohol addiction. It implies that the age group remains one of the social groups most exposed to the development of alcohol use disorders. Such situation requires development of prevention programmes that take into account the needs of young people. COVID-19 pandemic alcohol stress Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 INTRODUCTION Adolescence often coincides with puberty, which is a biological phenomenon defined by a series of events that are stimulated by an increase in adrenal and gonadal hormones. These events include the development of secondary sexual characteristics and changes in muscle and adipose tissue. This period is also associated with a high propensity to engage in risky behaviour and increased emotional reactivity [ 1 ]. A particularly sensitive period in terms of development according to Havighurst is early adulthood, which falls between the ages of 18 and 35 [ 2 ]. Adulthood is considered a defining period in life because it provides the greatest opportunities for self-discovery in the areas of love, work and views. During the period, individuals begin to develop the qualities essential for independence, engage in serious relationships, take on more responsibilities and assume adult roles. Education and training during adulthood provides solid foundation for future career opportunities and advancements. Research on adulthood facilities the comprehension of social, cognitive and psychological development during the stage of human life [ 3 ]. Moreover, research work has revealed that adolescence affects wellbeing, self-image and relationships with peers and parents [ 4 ]. In every area of life, whether academic, scientific or private, young people encounter many difficulties in achieving their goals. Sometimes they are able to overcome them rationally, but other times they react emotionally. Failure to deal with these obstacles can lead to frustration [ 5 ]. The COVID-19 pandemic can be one of representative examples of such events [ 6 ]. Regular alcohol consumption in early adolescence can lead to serious alcohol problems in the future, such as addiction [ 7 ]. Excessive alcohol use leads to Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD). These disorders affect 10–15% of the population and cause negative health, social and economic consequences [ 8 ]. Health problems arising from alcohol misuse among young people are a crucial issue in many countries. For instance, in Italy in 2014, 25% of deaths involving young adults were consequences of alcohol consumption. In 2015, the Italian Ministry of Health revealed that 15.6% of people between the ages of 18 and 24 had experienced alcohol intoxication. The results of research conducted in 2018–2019 in this country revealed that 53.3% of students consumed alcohol in a risky manner [ 9 ]. Harmful drinking caused diseases in 5.1% of the population. Addicts account for 2–4% of the global population. 20–30% of all hospital admissions resulted from alcohol overdose and 20% of patients with mental health disorders abused alcohol. Furthermore, alcohol consumption increased during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 10 ]. In Poland, it was reported that alcohol was chosen most frequently of all psychoactive substances by 73% of respondents. 28.22% of the respondents were classified as hazardous drinkers [ 11 ]. Alcohol consumption is very popular among young people exposed to stress, as indicated by research conducted among students of several faculties of medicine. In Poland, 94% of the respondents confirmed drinking alcohol during the year, and 50% of them declared that stress reduction was the very reason for their drinking. 2% of surveyed dentists were suspected of addiction to alcohol. At-risk alcohol consumption was declared by 20% of the surveyed students of dentistry, 17% of the surveyed students of dietetics and 16% of students of medicine. 33% of all the respondents were confirmed to have a problem with alcohol in their families [ 12 ]. The tendency to use harmful mechanisms to temporarily help relieve emotional tension, such as alcohol use, may depend on a person's initial psychological resources. Such factors include sense of coherence [ 13 ], psychological resilience [ 14 ], self-efficacy [ 15 ], or stress-coping strategies and styles [ 16 ]. Research on animal models as well as humans has shown that stress affects the body throughout life, from the beginning of prenatal development to old age. Severe early traumas, such as sexual or physical abuse, may have particularly strong effects on stress, which often lead to the development of psychological problems, including addictions [ 17 ]. Endler and Parker distinguished between a task-focused style, an emotion-focused style and an avoidance-focused style, which may be assessed in terms of the intensity of engaging substitute activities or seeking social contacts [ 18 ]. In the ancient to medieval period, it was recognised that a consequence of coping with a pandemic was alcohol consumption [ 6 ]. Coping with the stress of a pandemic is often cited as one of the main reasons for increased alcohol consumption [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ]. For people who had been already abusing alcohol, including those with AUD, drinking became a stress-coping strategy, therefore, alcohol consumption increased during the pandemic in response to frequent pandemic-related stressors [ 22 , 23 ]. A review of the literature indicates that the topic of the relationship between stress, coping styles and the propensity to use alcohol during the COVID-19 pandemic has been of interest to researchers. In the USA, for example, surveys were conducted in a group of students during the COVID-19 pandemic regarding stress and alcohol consumption and compared with pre-pandemic results. The survey respondents reported high levels of perceived stress, alcohol consumption and mood disorders at the start of the pandemic than before it [ 24 ]. Another research on US citizens, revealed that those who suffered from increased pandemic-related stress indicated excessive alcohol consumption and an increased number of drinking days as a result of high levels of stress (45.7% of the respondents) [ 25 ]. Research in Canada demonstrated that during the COVID-19 pandemic, 12% of the surveyed people used to drink excessive amounts of alcohol more frequently due to their loneliness, feelings of hopelessness and stress. Moreover, 25 to 40% of the respondents considered their extreme emotional distress one of the main reasons of their high alcohol consumption [ 26 ]. In the UK, a group of patients who had been diagnosed with an alcohol abuse problem before the pandemic were analysed during telephone interviews. In this group, some people (24%) reported increased alcohol consumption during lockdown, while others (19%) - lower consumption, and 17% of surveyed patients relapsed into drinking alcohol [ 27 ]. A similar result was obtained in China, where 19% of addicts relapsed in the first period of the pandemic [ 28 ]. In Poland, survey results showed that generally alcohol consumption increased by 14%, whereas it decreased in 16% of the survey respondents in 2020 [ 11 ]. Experienced by young adults crises and potentially traumatic events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, may have contributed to the exacerbation of symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression, which in turn may trigger considerable increase in alcohol consumption, one of the most common pathological mechanisms of short-term regulation of emotions. RESEARCH PURPOSES The research aimed to assess the linkages between alcohol propensity and stress and coping styles in young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. The project also focused on investigating the significance of differences in alcohol propensity, taking into account selected sociodemographic characteristics. MATERIAL Involvement in the survey research was fully voluntary and anonymous. The research participants’ task was to complete a self-administrated socio-demographic questionnaire designed for purposes of the research as well as some psychological questionnaires characterized by the recognised psychometric properties. Both types of questionnaires were distributed mainly to undergraduate and graduate students in social sciences, and the survey research was carried out by means of convenience sampling, which was a snowball sampling method [ 29 ]. The study design was assessed by the Bioethics Committee of the Medical University of Silesia in Katowice (BNW/NWN/0052/KB/233/24). A total of 1251 people in early adulthood (average age 23.93 (± 2.88 SD)) participated in the research, including 928 women (at the age of 23.84 (± 2.89 SD)), 318 men (aged 24.21 (± 2.85)) and 5 people of other gender identity (average age 22.20 (± 1.64)). The survey research was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. It was carried out over the period of eight months (from February to September 2022). Information about the voluntary and anonymous nature of the survey research was included in the survey instructions. The respondents could withdraw from the survey research at any time. The survey research was cross-sectional in nature, and no personal data were collected during it. The basic socio-demographic parameters of the surveyed group are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Socio-demographic parameters of the surveyed group (N = 1251) CATEGORY DIVISION INTO CATEGORIES NUMBER NUMBER IN % GENDER WOMAN MAN OTHER SEX 928 318 5 74.18% 25.42% 0.40% AGE 18–35 TOTAL AVERAGE AGE AVERAGE AGE OF WOMEN AVERAGE AGE OF MEN AVERAGE AGE OF PERSONS OF OTHER SEX 23.93 23.84 24.21 22.20 DWELLING PLACE VILLAGE CITY ​​UP TO 50 THOUSAND INHABITANTS CITY ​​UP TO 100 THOUSAND INHABITANTS CITY ​​OVER 100 THOUSAND INHABITANTS 303 189 118 641 24.22% 15.11% 9.43% 51.24% EDUCATION PRIMARY/LOWER SCHOOL VOCATIONAL SECONDARY TERTIARY 7 12 584 648 00.56% 00.96% 46.68% 51.80% PROFESSIONAL SITUATION CONTRACT WORK SELF-EMPLOYED CASUAL WORK (NO CONTRACT) STUDENT/TRAINEE PENSIONER NOT WORKING 534 41 20 606 4 46 42.69% 3.28% 1.60% 48.44% 0.32% 3.68% CLOSE RELATIONSHIP MARITAL PARTNERSHIP SINGLE 114 646 491 9.11% 51.64% 39.25% CHILDREN YES NO 77 1174 6.16% 93.84% METHOD During the survey research a self-administered questionnaire designed for purposes of the survey research was applied, which included instructions and questions on socio-demographic data. Recognised psychological instruments with appropriate psychometric properties were used to measure stress levels, coping styles and alcohol consumption tendencies. The Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS) was developed by N.S. Endler and J.D.A. Parker, and the Polish adaptation was carried out by P. Szczepaniak, J. Strelau and K. Wrześniewski. The questionnaire diagnosing stress-coping styles consists of 48 statements about different behaviors typical for people in distress. Subjects have to determine on a five-point scale the frequency of given behavior in stressful, difficult situations. The results are analyzed using three basic scales i.e. task-oriented coping styles, emotion-oriented coping styles, and avoidance-oriented one which can be of a distraction or social diversion nature, hence it features in the assessment of the tendency to engage in substitute activities or socialising. In each 16-item scale the score ranges from 16 to 80 points. The questionnaire is characterized by high reliability and consistency of individual scales, and the Cronbach's α coefficient ranges from 0.78 to 0.90. Factorial validity analyses of the factor structure and criterion validity were also carried out [ 18 ]. The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) was written by S. Cohen, T. Kamarck and R. Mermelstein, and the Polish adaptation was carried out by Z. Juczyński and N. Ogińska-Bulik [ 30 ]. The 10-item scale includes a number of direct queries about subjective feelings related to stress, personal events, behaviours and ways of coping. It is widely used to evaluate the degree to which individuals have perceived life as stressful a well as their general psychological well-being related to coping with stress. The reliability of the Polish version was assessed by determining internal consistency using the α-Cronbach coefficient, which was 0.86 for the total score. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) was created by Babor et al [ 31 ]. This test has been translated into Polish and recommended for screening, especially by general practitioners in Poland [ 32 , 33 , 34 ]. It is also used to identify alcohol-related problems in specific social groups, such as soldiers [ 35 ]. The method was developed on behalf of the World Health Organisation (WHO) in 1989 [ 36 ]. The test consists of two parts - the first is a 10-item self-assessment questionnaire and the second concerns a clinical assessment by a professional (physician). The first part of the AUDIT questionnaire is the most commonly used and includes questions on drinking patterns (amount, frequency and exceeding the sobriety threshold), negative consequences of alcohol consumption (alcohol-related problems) and symptoms of addiction (e.g. loss of control, alleviation of withdrawal symptoms or appearance of alcohol palimpsests). Its main purpose is to identify people who drink in a hazardous or harmful manner and who are at increased risk of developing alcohol dependence. This test is mainly designed for screening adults, but it is also applied to older adolescents. Moreover, it is used in research on identification of factors contributing to development of alcohol-related problems as well as assessment of the severity or risk of these problems [ 37 , 38 ]. This tool has a limitation in the form of the inability to assess people in the abstinence process. Previous studies have confirmed the satisfactory psychometric properties of the AUDIT test. The Cronbach's α coefficient for this tool was 0.79 [ 39 ]. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Data were processed using computer programmes such as Excel 2019 and Statistica version 13.3. Normality of distributions was assessed using skewness and kurtosis. A correlation matrix was prepared using the Pearson correlation coefficient. The significance of differences between groups distinguished on the basis of socio-demographic factors was tested, in the case of dichotomized groups, with the Mann-Whitney U test, and regarding groups of more categories, with the Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA rank test. The level of statistical significance was assumed to be α ≤ 0.05. RESULTS Descriptive statistics of variables The basic descriptive properties of the study variables - intensity of alcohol consumption, severity of stress symptoms and stress-coping styles - are presented in Table 2 . Table 2 Descriptive statistics of variables (N = 1251) n = 1251 Mean Median Min. Max. Standard deviation Skewness Kurtosis AUDIT 5.925 4.000 0.000 33.000 9.466 1.470 1.965 PSS 10 21.771 22.000 0.000 39.000 11.338 -0.213 0.104 CISS TOS 57.976 58.000 17.000 80.000 10.196 -0.409 0.371 CISS EOS 55.263 56.000 17.000 85.000 6.679 -0.336 -0.253 CISS AOS 48.011 48.000 16.000 80.000 4.350 -0.079 0.086 CISS ESA 22.125 23.000 8.000 40.000 6.566 0.030 -0.445 CISS SSC 16.757 17.000 5.000 25.000 5.418 -0.282 -0.380 AUDIT – recognition of alcohol use disorders, PSS 10 – perceived stress scale, CISS TOS – task-oriented style, CISS EOS – emotion-oriented style, CISS AOS – avoidance-oriented style, CISS ESA – engaging in substitute activities, CISS SSC – seeking social contacts. 2. Prevalence of propensity for alcohol consumption among young adults In the surveyed group, the majority of people did not disclose risky drinking behaviour. However, the percentage of those who may be at risk of developing alcohol use disorders reaches 28%. Levels of intensity of tendencies for alcohol consumption are presented in Table 3 . Table 3 Prevalence of propensity for alcohol consumption among young adults (N = 1251) Results in AUDIT Number of people % ≤ 7 Norm 900 71.9 FROM 8 TO 15 POINTS: Risky drinking 246 19.7 FROM 16 TO 19 POINTS: Harmful drinking 59 4.7 MORE THAN 20 POINTS: Probable alcohol addiction 46 3.7 3. Linkages between the propensity for alcohol consumption and the severity of stress symptoms and coping styles in a group of young adults The analysis of the linkages between the variables in the early adulthood group showed that there was a significant correlation between severity of alcohol use (AUDIT) and stress-coping styles. A tendency for alcohol consumption was found to be negatively associated with task-oriented style (TOS), and positively associated with emotion-oriented style (EOS) and avoidance-oriented style (AOS), as well as tendency to engage in substitute activities, (ESA). However, these linkages were found to be weak. There was no statistically significant linkage between AUDIT and severity of stress symptoms (PSS 10). Negative correlations were observed between PSS 10 and TOS and the tendency to seek social contact (SSC). Associations of PSS 10 with EOS, AOS and ESA were found to be positive. The strongest linkage was between PSS 10 and EOS. Table 4 Correlation between variables using Pearson's correlation coefficient (N = 1251) n = 1251 AUDIT PSS 10 CISS TOS CISS EOS CISS AOS CISS ESA CISS SSC AUDIT r p 1 0.020 .480 -0.076 .007 0.111 .000 0.153 .000 0.147 .000 0.039 .168 PSS 10 r p 1 -0.287 0.00 0.578 0.00 0.097 .001 0.193 .000 -0.117 .000 CISS TOS r p 1 -0.129 .000 0.072 .011 -0.102 .000 0.290 0.00 CISS EOS r p 1 0.357 0.00 0.421 0.00 0.040 .159 CISS AOS r p 1 0.854 0.00 0.674 0.00 CISS EBS r p 1 0.240 .000 CISS SSC r p 1 AUDIT – recognition of alcohol use disorders, PSS 10 – perceived stress scale, CISS TOS – task-oriented style, CISS EOS – emotion-oriented style, CISS AOS – avoidance-oriented style, CISS ESA – engaging in substitute activities, CISS SSC – seeking social contacts. 4. Socio-demographic determinants of tendencies for alcohol consumption among young adults The survey research on differences in the inclination for alcohol consumption among young adults conducted on the basis of socio-demographic characteristics of the surveyed group revealed the existence of significant differences taking into account the gender of the respondents, having offspring, dwelling place, education, professional situation and type of marital relationship. A higher intensity of the tendency for alcohol consumption was identified in young men (n = 318, median = 7) in comparison to women (n = 928, median = 4, Fig. 1 ), childless persons (n = 1174, median = 4) compared to parents (n = 77, median = 2, Fig. 2 ), young adults living in cities with more than 100 000 inhabitants (n = 641, median = 4) compared to rural residents (n = 303, median = 3, Fig. 3 ), respondents with secondary education (n = 584, median = 5) compared to respondents with tertiary education (n = 648, median = 4, Fig. 4 ), those working under employment contracts (n = 534, median = 4) and casual employees (n = 20, median = 6) compared to the unemployed (n = 46, median = 2, Fig. 5 ), as well as respondents in a partnered relationship (n = 646, median = 4) and single people (n = 491, median = 4) in relation to those married (n = 114, median = 3, Fig. 6). No statistically significant differences were revealed taking into account the age of the respondents (Stage I of early adulthood, i.e. 18–24 years compared to Stage II of early adulthood, i.e. 25–35 years). DISCUSSION The survey research indicates that 28% of the surveyed may be at risk of developing alcohol use disorders, which is a high rate of risky drinking among young adults. The results of our research are in accordance with data presented in national reports. The results of research presented in a report by Polska Agencja Rozwiązywania Problemów Alkoholowych (PARPA) [the State Agency for the Prevention of Alcohol-Related Problems ] , conducted in September and October 2020 on a sample of 2,000 people, showed that 80.55% of the respondents were alcohol consumers. In this group, as many as 31.6% of people admitted consuming alcohol at least once a week. Men were three times more likely to use alcohol than women. 14.2% revealed at least one symptom of risky drinking [ 40 ]. The increase in alcohol consumption is also evidenced by data revealed in a report of the Jagiellonian Institute ‘Poland flooded with beer’, the analysis of the evolution of the alcohol consumption model in Poland. Due to the prevalence of beer in Poland, its consumption had risen alarmingly from 38.6 litres per person in 1992 to 97.1 litres per person in 2019. In the European Union, apart from Poland, high beer consumption is also recorded in Germany, the Czech Republic and Belgium [ 41 ]. According to survey carried out by Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej (CBOS) [the Public Opinion Research Centre] before the pandemic and published in 2019, alcohol consumption in Poland has been still growing. At the time, the research proved that people aged 25–34 were the most frequent alcohol consumers compared to other age groups. 9% of the age group drank frequently, 65% occasionally and only 7% were abstainers. The COVID-19 pandemic generated many stressful situations - including prolonged isolation, which may have led to increased alcohol consumption [ 42 , 23 ]. It has been observed that increased alcohol consumption as a means of coping may be associated with social isolation, boredom and lack of routine. However, heavy and frequent drinking was not only related to stress-coping methods, but was associated with more serious alcohol-related problems [ 43 , 44 ]. Stressful, traumatic and anxiety-producing events can lead to the the onset of problematic alcohol use [ 45 , 46 , 47 ]. A longitudinal research carried out during the pandemic period revealed that students who experienced lower rate of life satisfaction suffered from higher general COVID-19-related stress level and showed stronger inclination to increased alcohol consumption [ 48 ]. The COVID-19 pandemic, being a traumatic and stressful occurrence for many people, was a trigger for the prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms [ 49 , 50 , 51 ], which may have influenced changes in alcohol consumption. According to a survey of French students, 61.6% of them experienced moderate to severe life stress. Specifically, students who remained in their temporary accommodation during lockdown had higher stress levels compared to those who moved to their family homes [ 52 ]. Higher stress levels were reported among students compared to the employees, however, students of arts, humanities, social sciences and law students presented higher levels of stress than those of engineering and architecture [ 53 ]. In 2020, research was conducted to understand how students cope with stress through alcohol consumption [ 12 ]. Students from three different fields of study were examined: medicine, dentistry, and dietetics. The research results revealed that medical students more often preferred an avoidance-oriented coping style, including avoiding social contacts, compared to dentistry students. In the group of dentistry students, 2% may have been addicted to alcohol, and 20% showed risky and harmful alcohol drinking patterns. In contrast, among dietetics students, the results were 18%, and in the group of medical students 16%. In a comparative study, which included resident physicians, it was found that 9% of them showed risky and harmful alcohol consumption. When analysing the motivation for drinking alcohol, the most common response (over 50% of respondents) was to use alcohol as a coping mechanism to deal with stress. Another survey research conducted in 2020, this time among students, demonstrated that more than half of the respondents lacked coping skills to deal with stressful situations, which was more common among women than men [ 54 ]. With regard to coping strategies, young adults were less likely to use a task-oriented approach, which resulted in exacerbated feelings of loneliness and reinforced experienced stress. Taking into consideration a review of the literature, it can be concluded that most of the research on the psychological determinants of adolescent drinking focused on experienced stress levels, as well as stress-coping styles [ 55 ]. Research indicates that task-oriented style is negatively associated with the tendency to drink alcohol, whereas emotion- and avoidance-oriented styles are positively associated with this tendency [ 56 ]. The same trends were observed in our research. Psychological factors are an important group of elements that may induce/influence the manifestation of risky alcohol use behaviour among adolescents. Therefore, activities that develop stress-coping strategies and psychological resilience should be included into as a part of prevention programmes aimed at schoolchildren. Socio-demographic characteristics also play an essential role in shaping the tendency to drink alcohol [ 57 ]. Our research demonstrated the importance of such predisposing factors as male gender, residence in a large city, lower education level, no children and no close relationship, as well as being in a relationship other than a formal one. Moreover, we also found that intensification of tendency to consume alcohol occurred more often among the employed than among the unemployed. Considering the gender of the respondents, a higher intensity of the tendency to drink alcohol applies to men, which is mainly culturally determined. In Poland, for centuries, alcohol consumption has been a male attribute, whereas women's overuse of it has been negatively assessed by society. The PARPA report from 2020 shows that men drink three times more often than women [ 40 , 41 ], and this is also confirmed by other researches [ 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 ]. Our research results proved higher alcohol consumption among residents of cities. Furthermore, the results of the survey presented in the CBOS report confirmed that increased alcohol consumption during the pandemic was declared by residents of cities [ 41 ]. Living in an urban area may contribute to increased alcohol consumption due to, among other things, greater availability of alcohol, as well as greater exposure of residents to alcohol advertising or a large number of bars, shops and restaurants. Similar research results on alcohol consumption as a result of place of residence were reported by Chinese researchers [ 65 ]. Educational background is another factor that plays an essential role in shaping alcohol-related behaviour. A review of the literature suggests that both work and educational attainment may be involved in shaping behaviour related to alcohol consumption [ 66 , 67 ]. Our research produced findings about a significantly higher inclination for alcohol consumption among people with a secondary education compared to those with academic educational background. This may be due to the fact that the experience gained during the period of academic study, as well as the subsequent professional tasks undertaken, make graduates ‘equipped’ with numerous psychological resources such as intrapsychic potential (psychological flexibility) and interpersonal one increasing their resilience and thus their abilities may influence their lower alcohol consumption. Research indicates that people with higher levels of education are characterised by stronger psychological resources which help them cope with crises, compared to those with lower levels of education [ 39 ]. Moreover, people with higher education seem to be less inclined to abuse alcohol, which has been confirmed by research [ 68 , 21 , 69 , 70 ]. Our research also indicates that being parents also predispose people to consume less alcohol compared to childless ones. Being a parent, especially a mother, may influence lower alcohol consumption due to increased responsibility and childcare commitments. Most pregnant women eliminate alcohol consumption altogether for health reasons and to protect the health of the child. It can also be assumed that having children may be a reason for limiting social gatherings and thus may be a culturally protective factor against increased alcohol consumption [ 71 , 72 , 73 ]. A type of close relationship is a significant socio-demographic factor, which may demonstrate an existence of a correlation with the pattern of alcohol use. Research reveals that young women reduce their alcohol consumption after marriage. Similarly, men who are in a close relationship are less likely to increase the number of alcohol-related behaviors, compared to men with other living arrangements. Data also indicate that, in comparison with a marriage, an engagement exerts a similar, although weaker, effect on alcohol consumption [ 74 ]. In contrast, divorce results in increased number of alcohol-related behaviours [ 75 ]. Some results of our research proved to be controversial, indicating that the lack of paid employment effects on lowering alcohol consumption. This observation is at variance with other reports, as employment is considered a protective factor against alcohol consumption [ 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 ]. The observation made in our research may be explained by the fact that unemployed people may have fewer financial resources to purchase alcohol, and also by the fact that working in the precarious situation, caused by the COVID-19 virus pandemic, may have generated significant stress, which affects increased alcohol consumption. In the light of other research, however, this observation becomes questionable, and research on the relationship between professional situation and alcohol consumption should be continued. The results of our research indicate that alcohol consumption among the surveyed group of young adults is related to, among others, stress-coping styles and may depend on a number of socio-demographic factors. Therefore, development of task-oriented coping strategies among young adults may be of value. Female gender, having a long-lasting close relationship, having offspring, as well as living outside a large city and having a tertiary education may also be considered as factors associated with lower alcohol consumption in this sample group. Locally based alcohol prevention programmes can include education and awareness-raising about the mechanisms of alcohol addiction, social campaigns in local schools, institutions, and events that raise awareness about the negative effects of excessive alcohol consumption. An integrated approach, taking into account educational, social and environmental aspects, is crucial to achieving positive prevention outcomes. Local programmes that comprise the unique characteristics and needs of a community can contribute to reducing alcohol-related problems among young adults as well as at improving public health in the future. LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH Our survey research has some limitations resulting from the applied methodology. First of all, the research was conducted with the use of psychological questionnaires, which only allows us to determine the subjective feelings of the respondents related to the aspects raised in the work. There could have been some attempts to improve their image and increase their self-esteem by omitting the truth. This is a significant limitation, especially in relation to estimating the actual tendencies of the respondents in terms of alcohol consumption. A certain limitation of the present research is also the gender disproportion of the surveyed group, with a predominance of women. Moreover, the surveyed group comprises mainly people with secondary and tertiary education. The small proportion of the respondents with primary and vocational education makes it difficult to assess the phenomena researched in groups of people with such education, while the level of education may have a significant impact on alcohol consumption. Another limitation of our research is the convenience sampling applied, which makes it difficult to control the completion of questionnaires by respondents, as well as the socio-demographic distribution of the sample group. CONCLUSIONS Twenty-eight per cent of the young adults in the surveyed group were at risk of developing alcohol use disorders. The tendency to drink alcohol among young adults is slightly negatively associated with a task-oriented coping style and positively associated with an emotional- and avoidant-oriented coping styles. Socio-demographic factors that may be associated with lower alcohol consumption among young adults include female gender, being in a stable close relationship, having children, as well as living outside a large city and having a higher education. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate – The study design was assessed by the Bioethics Committee of the Medical University of Silesia in Katowice (BNW/NWN/0052/KB/233/24) Consent for publication – Not applicable Availability of data and materials – The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests – Not applicable Funding – Not applicable Authors' contributions – P.D and M.G responsible for the main manuscript, P.D and D.T-C data interpretation , M.G and L.L data collection/entry, D.T-C prepared figures, L.L literature analysis/search. All authors reviewed the manuscript Acknowledgments – Not applicable References Jaworska N, MacQueen G. Adolescence as a unique developmental period. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2015; doi: 10.1503/jpn.150268 Klimczuk A. Adulthood. W: The SAGE Encyclopedia of Theory in Psychology, Miller HL, editor. Psychology. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications; 2016. s. 15-18. doi: http://doi.org/10.4135/9781483346274.n11. Wood D, Crapnell T, Lau L, Bennet A, Lotstein D, Ferris M, et al. Emerging Adulthood as a Critical Stage in the Life Course. W: Handbook of Life Course Health Development, Halfon N, Forrest CB, Lerner RM, et al., editors. Cham (CH): Springer; 2018. s. 123-143. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47143-3_7. Sandhya P, Bimala P. Awareness and attitude on pubertal changes among community adolescents. Int J Caring Sci. 2017;10:1255. Tomcheva S, Arabadzhiev Z. Frustration Reactions Spectrum During the Crisis of Puberty. The Global Psychotherapist. 2021 Jul; 1(2): 27-35; doi:10.52982/lkj148. Heitzman, J. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health. Psychiatria Polska. 2020; 54(2), 187-198; doi:https://doi.org/10.12740/PP/120373. Shuai R, Bravo AJ, Anker JJ, Kushner MG, Hogarth L. The direct effect of drinking to cope on alcohol problems is not mediated by alcohol consumption: Invariance across gender and countries. Addict Behaviorst Reporst. 2022; doi: 10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100469. Egervai G, Siciliano C, Whiteley E, Ron D. Alcohol and the brain: from genes to circuits.Trends Neurosci. 2021; doi:10.1016/j.tins.2021.09.006. Messina MP, Battagliese G, D’Angelo A, Ciccarelli R, Pisciotty F, Tramonte L, et al. Knowledge and Practice towards Alcohol Consumption in a Sample of University Students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022; doi:10.3390/ijerph19148833. Fakhari S, Waszkiewicz N. Old and New Biomarkers of Alcohol Abuse: Narrative Review. J Clinical Medicine. 2023; doi:10.3390/jcm12062124. Chodkiewicz J, Talarowska M, Miniszewska J, Nawrocka N, Biliński P. Alcohol Consumption Reported during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Initial Stage. Res. Public Health. 2020; doi:doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134677. Bryl N, Czarnecka-Iwańczuk M, Romanowska M, Stanišić M, Michalak M, Posadzy-Małaczyńska A. Drinking alcohol as a way of coping with stress in students of medical faculties. Psychiatria Polska. 2020; doi:https://doi.org/10.12740/PP/99029. Larm P, Åslund C, Starrin B, Nilsson KW. How are social capital and sense of coherence associated with hazardous alcohol use? Findings from a large population-based Swedish sample of adults. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. 2016; doi:10.1177/1403494816645221. Cusack SE, Bountress KE, Sheerin, Dick DM, Amstadter AB. The longitudinal buffering effects of resilience on alcohol use outcomes. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2023; doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001156. Kruger ES, Serier KN, Pfund RA, McKay JR, Witkiewitz K. Integrative data analysis of self-efficacy in 4 clinical trials for alcohol use disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2021; doi:10.1111/acer.14713. Lucke HR, Carey CN, Griffith EL, Mathes EW, Lane DJ, Boals A. Self-control, coping styles, and alcohol outcomes in college students. J Am Coll Health. 2023; doi:10.1080/07448481.2022.2160260. Buchanan TW, Lovallo W R. The role of genetics in stress effects on health and addiction. Current opinion in psychology. 2019; doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.09.005. Strelau J, Jaworowska A, Wrześniewski K, Szczepaniak, P. Kwestionariusz Radzenia Sobie w Sytuacjach Stresowych. Podręcznik. 3 wyd. Warszawa: Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych; 2013. Bramness JG, Bye EK, Moan IS, Rossow I. Alcohol use during the COVID‐19 pandemic: self‐reported changes and motives for change. Eur Addict Res. 2021; doi:10.1159/000515102. Hepatology TLG. Drinking alone: COVID‐19, lockdown, and alcohol‐related harm. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020;5:625. Vanderbruggen N, Matthys , Van Laere S, Zeeuws D, Santrmans L, Van Den Ameele S, et al . Self‐reported alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis use during COVID‐19 lockdown measures: results from a web‐based survey. Eur Addict Res. 2020; doi: 10.1159/000510822. Wardell JD, Kempe T, Rapinda KK, Single A, Bilevicius E, Frohlich JR, et al . Drinking to cope during COVID‐19 pandemic: the role of external and internal factors in coping motive pathways to alcohol use, solitary drinking, and alcohol problems. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2020; doi: 10.1111/acer.14425. Clay JM, Parker MO. Alcohol use and misuse during the COVID‐19 pandemic: a potential public health crisis? Lancet Public Health. 2020; doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30088-8. Charles N, Strong S, Burns L, Bullerjahn M Serafine K. Increased mood disorder symptoms, perceived stress, and alcohol, use among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatria Res. 2021; doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113706. Grossman ER, Benjamin-Neelon SE, Sonnenschein S. Alcohol Consumption during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Survey of US Adults. Int J Environ Res Public Healt. 2020; doi: 10.3390/ijerph17249189. Thomson K, Dutton D, MacNabb K, Liu T, Blades S, Asbridge M. . Changes in alcohol consumption during the COVID-19 pandemic: exploring gender differences and the role of emotional distress. Healt Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada. 2021; doi: 10.24095/hpcdp.41.9.02. Kim JU, Majid A, Judge R, Crook P, Nathwani R, Selvapatt N, et al. Effect of COVID-19 lockdown on alcohol consumption in patients with pre-existing alcohol use disorder. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020; doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30251-X. Sun Y, Li Y, Bao Y, Meng S, Sun Y, Schumann G, et al. Brief report: Increased addictive internet and substance use behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. Am J Addict. 2020; doi: 10.1111/ajad.13066. Baltar F, Brunet I. Social Research 2.0: Virtual Snowball Sampling Method Using Facebook. Internet Research, 2012. doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/10662241211199960. Juczyński Z, Ogińska-Bulik N. Narzędzia pomiaru stresu i radzenia sobie ze stresem. Warszawa: Polskie Towarzystwo Psychologiczne; 2009. Babor TF, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test. Guidelines for use in primary care wyd. 2. England: World Health Organization. Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence; 2001. Habrat B. Szkody zdrowotne spowodowane alkoholem. Warszawa: Springer PWN; 1996. Cherpitel CJ, Ye Y, Moskalewicz J, Świątkiewicz G. Screening for alcohol problems in two emergency service samples in Poland: comparison of the RAPS4, CAGE and AUDIT. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2005; doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.03.025. Fudała J. Czy twoje picie jest bezpieczne? Warszawa: PARPAMEDIA. 2007. Taracha E, Habrat B, Smela J, Gruszczyński. Badania przesiewowe żołnierzy zasadniczej służby wojskowej w kierunku nadużywania alkoholu. Próba zastosowania oznaczania aktywności ®-heksozoaminidazy w moczu jako markera przewlekłego picia alkoholu. Alkoholizm i Narkomania. 2002; 15(1):83-94. Babor TF, de la Fuente RJ., Saunders J, Grant M. Test rozpoznawania zaburzeń związanych z piciem alkoholu – AUDIT. Przewodnik dla podstawowej opieki zdrowotnej. Warszawa: PARPA; 1996. Whiteside SP, Lynam DR. Understanding the role of impulsivity and externalizing psychopathology in alcohol abuse: Application of the UPPS Impulsive Behavior Scale. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 2003; doi: 10.1037/1064-1297.11.3.210. George SM, Connor JP, Gullo MJ, Young R. A prospective study of personality features predictive of early adolescent alcohol misuse. Personality and Individual Differences. 2010; doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.036. Dębski P, Florek S, Piegza M, Pudlo R, Gorczyca P. Is it good to be resilient during the COVID. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health. 2021; doi: 10.13075/ijomeh.1896.01766. Rowicka M, Postek S, Zin-Sędek M. Wzory konsumpcji alkoholu w Polsce. Raport z badań kwestionariuszowych 2020 r. W: PARPA Państwowa Agencja Rozwiązywania Problemów Alkoholowych editors. 1 wyd. Warszawa: PARPA; 2021. Polska zalana piwem: https://www.cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2019/K_151_19.PDF. 2019. Koob G, Kreek MJ. Stress, dysregulation of drug reward pathways, and the transition to drug dependence. Am J Psychiatry. 2007; doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.05030503. Skrzynski CJ, Creswell KG. Associations between solitary drinking and increased alcohol consumption, alcohol problems, and drinking to cope motives in adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction. 2020; doi: 10.1111/add.15055. Creswell KG. Drinking together and drinking alone: a social-contextual framework for examining alcohol use disorder risk. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2020; DOI: 10.1177/0963721420969406. Park CL, Armeli S, Tennen H. The daily stress and coping process and alcohol use among college students. J Stud Alcohol. 2004; doi: 10.15288/jsa.2004.65.126. Elsayed NM, Kim MJ, Fields KM. Trajectories of alcohol initiation and use during adolescence: the role of stress and amygdala reactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2018; doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2018.05.011. Cloutier RM, Blumenthal H, Trim RS, Douglas ME, Anderson KG. Real-time social stress response and subsequent alcohol use initiation among female adolescents. Psychol Addict Behav. 2019; doi: 10.1037/adb0000454. Jaffe AE, Kumar SA, Ramirez JJ, DiLillo. Is the COVID-19 pandemic a high-risk period for college student alcohol use? A comparison of three Spring semesters. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2021; doi: 10.1111/acer.14572. Liao YH, Fan BF, Zhang HM, Guo L, Lee Y, Wang WX, et al. The impact of COVID-19 on subthreshold depressive symptoms: a longitudinal study. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2021; doi: 10.1017/S2045796021000044. Thorisdottir IE, Asgeirsdottir BB, Kristjansson AL, Valdimarsdottir HB, Jonsdottir Tolgyes EM, Sigfusson J et al. Depressive symptoms, mental wellbeing, and substance use among adolescents before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in Iceland: a longitudinal, population-based study. Lancet Psychiatry. 2021; doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00156-5. Varma P, Junge M, Meaklim H, Jackson ML. Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: a global cross-sectional survey. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2021; doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110236. Husky MM, Koyess-Masfety V, Swendsen JD. Stress and anxiety among university students in France during Covid-19 mandatory confinement. Compr Psychiatry. 2020; doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2020.152191. Odriozola-González P, Planchuelo-Gómez Á, Irurtia M.J, de Luis-García R. Psychological effects of the COVID-19 outbreak and lockdown among students and workers of a Spanish university. Psychiatry Res. 2020; doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113108. Karmolińska-Jagodzik, E. Stres a picie alkoholu wśród studentek i studentów w Polsce. Przegląd Pedagogiczny. 2020; doi: 10.34767/PP.2020.02.19. Manthey J, Klinger S, Carr S, Kilian C, Kraus L, Kuitunen-Paul S, Schomerus G, Spearforck S. Alkohol und Covid-19: ein Update aus 2021. W: Alternativer Drogen- und Suchtbericht 2021, Stöver h, Werse B, Kluge Haberkorn C, editors. Berlin: Pabsc Science Publishers; 2021. s. 56-67. Opalach C, Romaszko J, Jaracz M, Kuchta R, Borkowska A, Buciński A. Coping Styles and Alcohol Dependence among Homeless People. PLoS ONE. 2016; doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162381. Postawy wobec alkoholu. Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej CBOS. 2010. https://www.cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2010/K_116_10.PDF. Erol A, Karpyak V M (2015). Sex and gender-related differences in alcohol use and its consequences: Contemporary knowledge and future research considerations. Drug and alcohol dependence. 2015; doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.023. White AM. Gender Differences in the Epidemiology of Alcohol Use and Related Harms in the United States. Alcohol research : current reviews. 2020; doi:https://doi.org/10.35946/arcr.v40.2.01. World Health Organization. Global status report on alcohol and health 2018. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/274603/9789241565639-eng.pdf?sequence=1. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. Christensen ASP, Pisinger V, Krarup AF, Dalum P, Thygesen LC, Tolstrup JS. Alcohol consumption and well-being among 25,000 Danish high school students. Preventive medicine reports. 2023; doi: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.102072. Ritchie H, Roser M. Alcohol consumption. 2020. Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: https://ourworldindata.org/alcohol-consumption. Wilsnack RW, Vogeltanz ND, Wilsnack SC, Harris TR, Ahlström S, Bondy S, et al. Gender differences in alcohol consumption and adverse drinking consequences: cross‐cultural patterns. Addiction. 2000; doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.95225112.x. Wilsnack RW, Wilsnack SC, Kristjanson AF, Vogeltanz‐Holm ND, Gmel G. Gender and alcohol consumption: patterns from the multinational GENACIS project. Addiction. 2009; doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02696.x. Im PK, Millwood IY, Guo Y, Du H, Chen Y, Bian Z, et al.. Patterns and trends of alcohol consumption in rural and urban areas of China: findings from the China Kadoorie Biobank. BMC Public Health. 2019; doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6502-1. Green MJ, Leyland AH, Sweeting H, Benzeval M. Adolescent smoking and tertiary education: opposing pathways linking socio‐economic background to alcohol consumption. Addiction. 2016; doi: 10.1111/add.13365. D'Alessandro S, Carter L, Webster C. Binge drinking: A review and research agenda. Journal of Consumer Behaviour. 2023; doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.2102 . Cutler DM, Lleras-Muney A. Education and Health: Evaluating Theories and Evidence. Making Americans Healthier: Social and Economic Policy as Health Policy. 2006; doi: 10.3386/w12352. Probst C., Roerecke M, Behrendt S, Rehm J. Socioeconomic differences in alcohol-attributable mortality compared with all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International journal of epidemiology. 2014; doi: 10.1093/ije/dyu043. Rosoff DB, Clarke TK, Adams MJ, McIntosh A M, Davey Smith G, Jung J, et al. Educational attainment impacts drinking behaviors and risk for alcohol dependence: results from a two-sample Mendelian randomization study with ~780,000 participants. Molecular psychiatry. 2021; doi: 10.1038/s41380-019-0535-9. Levy F, Le Strat Y, Hoertel N, Ancelet C, Dubertret C. Childbirth and alcohol consumption impact of recent childbirth on alcohol consumption. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 2018; doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1070-z . Bowden JA, Delfabbro P, Room R, Miller C, Wilson C. Parental drinking in Australia: Does the age of children in the home matter?. Drug and alcohol review. 2019; doi: 10.1111/dar.12875. Little M, Handley E, Leuthe E, Chassin L. The impact of parenthood on alcohol consumption trajectories: variations as a function of timing of parenthood, familial alcoholism, and gender. Development and psychopathology. 2009; doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409000352. Bachman JG, Wadsworth KN, O’Malley PM, Johnston LD, Schulenberg JE. Smoking, Drinking, and Drug Use in Young Adulthood: The Impacts of New Freedoms and New Responsibilities. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1997; doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203763797. Kenneth S, Kendler MD, Lönn SL, Salvatore J, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Divorce and the Onset of Alcohol Use Disorder: A Swedish Population-Based Longitudinal Cohort and Co-Relative Study. Published Online. 2017; doi: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16050589. Virtanen M, Jokela M, Nyberg ST, Madsen I E, Lallukka, T, Ahola K, Alfredsson L, et al. Long working hours and alcohol use: systematic review and meta-analysis of published studies and unpublished individual participant data. Bmj. 2015; doi: 10.1136/bmj.g7772. Bufquin D, Park JY, Back RM, de Souza Meira J V, Hight SK. Employee work status, mental health, substance use, and career turnover intentions: An examination of restaurant employees during COVID-19. International Journal of Hospitality Management. 2021; doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102764. Murakami K, Obara T, Ishikuro M, Ueno F, Noda A, Kuriyama S. Associations of education and work status with alcohol use and cessation among pregnant women in Japan: the Tohoku Medical Megabank Project Birth and Three-Generation Cohort Study. BMC Public Health. 2021; doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11461-w. De Sio S, Tittarelli R, Di Martino G, Buomprisco G, Perri R, Bruno G. Alcohol consumption and employment: a cross-sectional study of office workers and unemployed people. PeerJ. 2020; doi: 10.7717/peerj.8774. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in BMC Public Health → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 11 Nov, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 05 Nov, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 05 Nov, 2024 First submitted to journal 30 Oct, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5363562","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":376479894,"identity":"4791b414-a05a-4869-9666-8a2d651c61f1","order_by":0,"name":"Paweł Dębski","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAy0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFCCBDYGhgMSchAOkM3ATqQWY4QWZuK0MCQ2EK3FnD352MMfZyzS58/ITmD4UHaYwZyQFsueZ+nGPDckcjfcyN3AOOPcYQbLZgJaDG7kmEkzfABqASJm3rbDDAaHCWrJ/yb544NEuvwMoJa/xGnJYZMAOiyBAegwZkZitAD9Ym7Mc0bCcMOZtxsO9pxL5yHoF2CIPXv441idvHx77sYHP8qs5czZGwg4DJlzAIh5DLArxKEFh8goGAWjYBSMdAAALm5E2QQDDAMAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Zabrze, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Paweł","middleName":"","lastName":"Dębski","suffix":""},{"id":376479895,"identity":"c0b88c98-68df-4841-a1ce-6864d0d167e6","order_by":1,"name":"Monika Garczarczyk","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Faculty of Psychology, Humanitas University in Sosnowiec","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Monika","middleName":"","lastName":"Garczarczyk","suffix":""},{"id":376479896,"identity":"1c100f14-5ac0-41fc-bf33-e343957b88e5","order_by":2,"name":"Lidia Lisowska","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Faculty of Psychology, Humanitas University in Sosnowiec","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lidia","middleName":"","lastName":"Lisowska","suffix":""},{"id":376479897,"identity":"23901c46-b685-4a0e-a834-7c4aeddbe6d3","order_by":3,"name":"Dorota Turska-Czyż","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health Sciences in Katowice, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dorota","middleName":"","lastName":"Turska-Czyż","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-30 21:53:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5363562/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5363562/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-24016-0","type":"published","date":"2025-08-02T16:38:12+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":69281163,"identity":"c662f9be-7776-41c6-8d22-3cbe7e46c3b0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 18:43:39","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28017,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTendency to use alcohol vs. gender of the respondents (p=0.000)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: 1 - women, 2 - man\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5363562/v1/3e724ffe837d59ee004efc8c.png"},{"id":69281270,"identity":"9e3af58d-e982-40ca-b21b-1242aec2a4fb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 18:44:45","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27774,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTendency to use alcohol vs. having children (p=0.000)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: 1 - yes, 2 - no\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5363562/v1/d9b21573adaab28398d8002d.png"},{"id":69281169,"identity":"b9dc9ffe-26f1-481c-83ab-11b5792284f2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 18:43:52","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31516,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTendency to use alcohol vs. dwelling place (p=0.001)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: 1 - city with up to 100,000 inhabitants, 2 - city with over 100,000 inhabitants, 3 - village, 4 - city ​​up to 50,000 inhabitants\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5363562/v1/37c0f8e69c2cb2931dafa132.png"},{"id":69281273,"identity":"e933d7db-721d-456f-a2c7-4e44f02b1389","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 18:44:52","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27800,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTendency to use alcohol vs. education (p=0.027)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: 1 – secondary, 2 – higher, 3 – vocational, 4 - primary\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5363562/v1/667889f331b6530674472e67.png"},{"id":69281310,"identity":"1eac71b3-29be-4681-97b3-bd494b7cf926","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 18:45:39","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":34533,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTendency to use alcohol vs. professional situation (p=0.001)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: 1 - part-time job, 2 - employment contract, 3 - student, 4 - unemployed, 5 - own business, 6 - pension\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5363562/v1/ab8b932a57341183c691381c.png"},{"id":69281271,"identity":"32e0dd40-3723-4b0b-8311-c131929c03dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 18:44:46","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":30811,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFig. 5. Tendency to use alcohol vs. marital relationship (p=0.000)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: 1 - marriage, 2 - single, 3 - partnership\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5363562/v1/70bc978dc380601a58c35faa.png"},{"id":88268451,"identity":"cf025d57-550b-4e2c-addb-14219dfd0ef1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-04 16:51:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1003881,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5363562/v1/37d05644-9eed-496a-9eb0-d63761c96650.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTendency to consume alcohol among young Poles in the light of coping with stress and selected socio-demographic factors during the COVID-19 pandemic\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eAdolescence often coincides with puberty, which is a biological phenomenon defined by\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea series of events that are stimulated by an increase in adrenal and gonadal hormones. These events include the development of secondary sexual characteristics and changes in muscle and adipose tissue. This period is also associated with a high propensity to engage in risky behaviour and increased emotional reactivity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. A particularly sensitive period in terms of development according to Havighurst is early adulthood, which falls between the ages of 18 and 35 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Adulthood is considered a defining period in life because it provides the greatest opportunities for self-discovery in the areas of love, work and views. During the period, individuals begin to develop the qualities essential for independence, engage in serious relationships, take on more responsibilities and assume adult roles. Education and training during adulthood provides solid foundation for future career opportunities and advancements. Research on adulthood facilities the comprehension of social, cognitive and psychological development during the stage\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eof human life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, research work has revealed that adolescence affects wellbeing, self-image and relationships with peers and parents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. In every area of life, whether academic, scientific or private, young people encounter many difficulties in achieving their goals. Sometimes they are able to overcome them rationally, but other times they react emotionally. Failure to deal with these obstacles can lead to frustration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The COVID-19 pandemic can be one of representative examples of such events [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegular alcohol consumption in early adolescence can lead to serious alcohol problems in\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe future, such as addiction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Excessive alcohol use leads to Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD). These disorders affect 10\u0026ndash;15% of the population and cause negative health, social and economic consequences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Health problems arising from alcohol misuse among young people are\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea crucial issue in many countries. For instance, in Italy in 2014, 25% of deaths involving young adults were consequences of alcohol consumption. In 2015, the Italian Ministry of Health revealed that 15.6% of people between the ages of 18 and 24 had experienced alcohol intoxication. The results of research conducted in 2018\u0026ndash;2019 in this country revealed that\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.3% of students consumed alcohol in a risky manner [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Harmful drinking caused diseases in 5.1% of the population. Addicts account for 2\u0026ndash;4% of the global population. 20\u0026ndash;30% of all hospital admissions resulted from alcohol overdose and 20% of patients with mental health disorders abused alcohol. Furthermore, alcohol consumption increased during the COVID-19 pandemic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. In Poland, it was reported that alcohol was chosen most frequently of all psychoactive substances by 73% of respondents. 28.22% of the respondents were classified as hazardous drinkers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Alcohol consumption is very popular among young people exposed to stress, as indicated by research conducted among students of several faculties of medicine.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Poland, 94% of the respondents confirmed drinking alcohol during the year, and 50%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eof them declared that stress reduction was the very reason for their drinking. 2% of surveyed dentists were suspected of addiction to alcohol. At-risk alcohol consumption was declared by 20% of the surveyed students of dentistry, 17% of the surveyed students of dietetics and 16% of students of medicine. 33% of all the respondents were confirmed to have a problem with alcohol in their families [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe tendency to use harmful mechanisms to temporarily help relieve emotional tension, such as alcohol use, may depend on a person's initial psychological resources. Such factors include sense of coherence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], psychological resilience [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], self-efficacy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], or stress-coping strategies and styles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Research on animal models as well as humans has shown that stress affects the body throughout life, from the beginning of prenatal development to old age. Severe early traumas, such as sexual or physical abuse, may have particularly strong effects on stress, which often lead to the development of psychological problems, including addictions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Endler and Parker distinguished between a task-focused style, an emotion-focused style and an avoidance-focused style, which may be assessed in terms of the intensity of engaging substitute activities or seeking social contacts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the ancient to medieval period, it was recognised that a consequence of coping with\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea pandemic was alcohol consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Coping with the stress of a pandemic is often cited as one of the main reasons for increased alcohol consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. For people who had been already abusing alcohol, including those with AUD, drinking became a stress-coping strategy, therefore, alcohol consumption increased during the pandemic in response to frequent pandemic-related stressors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. A review of the literature indicates that the topic of the relationship between stress, coping styles and the propensity to use alcohol during\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe COVID-19 pandemic has been of interest to researchers. In the USA, for example, surveys were conducted in a group of students during the COVID-19 pandemic regarding stress and alcohol consumption and compared with pre-pandemic results. The survey respondents reported high levels of perceived stress, alcohol consumption and mood disorders at the start\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eof the pandemic than before it [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Another research on US citizens, revealed that those who suffered from increased pandemic-related stress indicated excessive alcohol consumption and an increased number of drinking days as a result of high levels of stress (45.7% of\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe respondents) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Research in Canada demonstrated that during the COVID-19 pandemic, 12% of the surveyed people used to drink excessive amounts of alcohol more frequently due to their loneliness, feelings of hopelessness and stress. Moreover, 25 to 40% of the respondents considered their extreme emotional distress one of the main reasons of their high alcohol consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. In the UK, a group of patients who had been diagnosed with an alcohol abuse problem before the pandemic were analysed during telephone interviews. In this group, some people (24%) reported increased alcohol consumption during lockdown, while others (19%) - lower consumption, and 17% of surveyed patients relapsed into drinking alcohol [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. A similar result was obtained in China, where 19% of addicts relapsed in the first period of\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe pandemic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. In Poland, survey results showed that generally alcohol consumption increased by 14%, whereas it decreased in 16% of the survey respondents in 2020 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperienced by young adults crises and potentially traumatic events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, may have contributed to the exacerbation of symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression, which in turn may trigger considerable increase in alcohol consumption, one of\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe most common pathological mechanisms of short-term regulation of emotions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESEARCH PURPOSES","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe research aimed to assess the linkages between alcohol propensity and stress and coping styles in young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. The project also focused on investigating the significance of differences in alcohol propensity, taking into account selected sociodemographic characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMATERIAL\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvolvement in the survey research was fully voluntary and anonymous. The research participants\u0026rsquo; task was to complete a self-administrated socio-demographic questionnaire designed for purposes of the research as well as some psychological questionnaires characterized by the recognised psychometric properties. Both types of questionnaires were distributed mainly to undergraduate and graduate students in social sciences, and the survey research was carried out by means of convenience sampling, which was a snowball sampling method [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. The study design was assessed by the Bioethics Committee of the Medical University of Silesia in Katowice (BNW/NWN/0052/KB/233/24).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 1251 people in early adulthood (average age 23.93 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.88 SD)) participated in the research, including 928 women (at the age of 23.84 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.89 SD)), 318 men (aged 24.21 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.85)) and 5 people of other gender identity (average age 22.20 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.64)).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The survey research was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. It was carried out over the period of eight months (from February to September 2022). Information about the voluntary and anonymous nature of the survey research was included in the survey instructions. The respondents could withdraw from the survey research at any time. The survey research was cross-sectional in nature, and no personal data were collected during it. The basic socio-demographic parameters of the surveyed group are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocio-demographic parameters of the surveyed group (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1251)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCATEGORY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDIVISION INTO CATEGORIES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNUMBER\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNUMBER\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIN %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGENDER\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWOMAN\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAN\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOTHER SEX\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e928\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e318\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.18%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.42%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAGE 18\u0026ndash;35\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTOTAL AVERAGE AGE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAVERAGE AGE OF WOMEN\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAVERAGE AGE OF MEN\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAVERAGE AGE OF PERSONS OF OTHER SEX\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDWELLING PLACE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVILLAGE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCITY ​​UP TO 50 THOUSAND INHABITANTS\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCITY ​​UP TO 100 THOUSAND INHABITANTS CITY ​​OVER 100 THOUSAND INHABITANTS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e303\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e189\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e118\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e641\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.22%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.43%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.24%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEDUCATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePRIMARY/LOWER SCHOOL\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVOCATIONAL\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSECONDARY\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTERTIARY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e584\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e648\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.56%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.96%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.68%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.80%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePROFESSIONAL SITUATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCONTRACT WORK\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSELF-EMPLOYED\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCASUAL WORK (NO CONTRACT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTUDENT/TRAINEE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePENSIONER\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNOT WORKING\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e534\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e606\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.69%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.28%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.60%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.44%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.68%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCLOSE RELATIONSHIP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMARITAL\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePARTNERSHIP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSINGLE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e114\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e646\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e491\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.11%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.64%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCHILDREN\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1174\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.16%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.84%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"METHOD","content":"\u003cp\u003eDuring the survey research a self-administered questionnaire designed for purposes of the survey research was applied, which included instructions and questions on socio-demographic data. Recognised psychological instruments with appropriate psychometric properties were used to measure stress levels, coping styles and alcohol consumption tendencies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThe Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS) was developed by N.S. Endler and J.D.A. Parker, and the Polish adaptation was carried out by P. Szczepaniak, J. Strelau and K. Wrześniewski. The questionnaire diagnosing stress-coping styles consists of 48 statements about different behaviors typical for people in distress. Subjects have to determine on a five-point scale the frequency of given behavior in stressful, difficult situations. The results are analyzed using three basic scales i.e. task-oriented coping styles, emotion-oriented coping styles, and avoidance-oriented one which can be of a distraction or social diversion nature, hence it features in the assessment of the tendency to engage in substitute activities or socialising. In each 16-item scale \u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003ethe score ranges from 16 to 80 points. The questionnaire is characterized by high reliability and consistency of individual scales, and the Cronbach\u0026apos;s \u0026alpha; coefficient ranges from 0.78 to 0.90. Factorial validity analyses of the factor structure and criterion validity were also carried out [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThe Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) was written by S. Cohen, T. Kamarck and R. Mermelstein, and the Polish adaptation was carried out by Z. Juczyński and N. Ogińska-Bulik [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. The 10-item scale includes a number of direct queries about subjective feelings related to stress, personal events, behaviours and ways of coping. It is widely used to evaluate the degree to which individuals have perceived life as stressful a well as their general psychological well-being related to coping with stress. The reliability of the Polish version was assessed by determining internal consistency using the \u0026alpha;-Cronbach coefficient, which was 0.86 for the total score.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThe Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) was created by Babor et al [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. This test has been translated into Polish and recommended for screening, especially by general practitioners in Poland [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. It is also used to identify alcohol-related problems in specific social groups, such as soldiers [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. The method was developed on behalf of the World Health Organisation (WHO) in 1989 [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. The test consists of two parts - the first is a 10-item self-assessment questionnaire and the second concerns a clinical assessment by\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003ea professional (physician). The first part of the AUDIT questionnaire is the most commonly used and includes questions on drinking patterns (amount, frequency and exceeding the sobriety threshold), negative consequences of alcohol consumption (alcohol-related problems) and symptoms of addiction (e.g. loss of control, alleviation of withdrawal symptoms or appearance of alcohol palimpsests). Its main purpose is to identify people who drink in a hazardous or harmful manner and who are at increased risk of developing alcohol dependence. This test is mainly designed for screening adults, but it is also applied to older adolescents. Moreover, it is used in research on identification of factors contributing to\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003edevelopment of alcohol-related problems as well as assessment of the severity or risk of these problems [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. This tool has a limitation in the form of the inability to assess people in the abstinence process. Previous studies have confirmed the satisfactory psychometric properties of the AUDIT test. The Cronbach\u0026apos;s \u0026alpha; coefficient for this tool was 0.79 [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eSTATISTICAL ANALYSIS\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were processed using computer programmes such as Excel 2019 and Statistica version 13.3. Normality of distributions was assessed using skewness and kurtosis. A correlation matrix was prepared using the Pearson correlation coefficient. The significance of differences between groups distinguished on the basis of socio-demographic factors was tested, in the case of dichotomized groups, with the Mann-Whitney U test, and regarding groups of more categories, with the Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA rank test. The level of statistical significance was assumed to be \u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDescriptive statistics of variables\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe basic descriptive properties of the study variables - intensity of alcohol consumption, severity of stress symptoms and stress-coping styles - are presented in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics of variables (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1251)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1251\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMin.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMax.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStandard deviation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSkewness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKurtosis\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAUDIT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.925\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.466\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.470\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.965\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePSS 10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.771\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.338\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.213\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCISS TOS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.976\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.196\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.409\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.371\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCISS EOS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.263\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.679\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.336\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.253\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCISS AOS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.350\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.079\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.086\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCISS ESA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.566\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.445\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCISS SSC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.757\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.418\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.282\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.380\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAUDIT \u0026ndash; recognition of alcohol use disorders, PSS 10 \u0026ndash; perceived stress scale, CISS TOS \u0026ndash; task-oriented style, CISS EOS \u0026ndash; emotion-oriented style, CISS AOS \u0026ndash; avoidance-oriented style, CISS ESA \u0026ndash; engaging in substitute activities, CISS SSC \u0026ndash; seeking social contacts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2. Prevalence of propensity for alcohol consumption among young adults\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the surveyed group, the majority of people did not disclose risky drinking behaviour. However, the percentage of those who may be at risk of developing alcohol use disorders reaches 28%. Levels of intensity of tendencies for alcohol consumption are presented\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ein Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrevalence of propensity for alcohol consumption among young adults (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1251)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResults in AUDIT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of people\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;7 \u003cstrong\u003eNorm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e900\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFROM 8 TO 15 POINTS: \u003cstrong\u003eRisky drinking\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e246\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFROM 16 TO 19 POINTS: \u003cstrong\u003eHarmful drinking\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMORE THAN 20 POINTS: \u003cstrong\u003eProbable alcohol addiction\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3. Linkages between the propensity for alcohol consumption and the severity of stress symptoms and coping styles in a group of young adults\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of the linkages between the variables in the early adulthood group showed that there was a significant correlation between severity of alcohol use (AUDIT) and stress-coping styles. A tendency for alcohol consumption was found to be negatively associated with task-oriented style (TOS), and positively associated with emotion-oriented style (EOS) and avoidance-oriented style (AOS), as well as tendency to engage in substitute activities, (ESA). However, these linkages were found to be weak. There was no statistically significant linkage between AUDIT and severity of stress symptoms (PSS 10). Negative correlations were observed between PSS 10 and TOS and\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ethe tendency to seek social contact (SSC). Associations of PSS 10 with EOS, AOS and ESA were found to be positive. The strongest linkage was between PSS 10 and EOS.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorrelation between variables using Pearson\u0026apos;s correlation coefficient (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1251)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1251\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAUDIT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePSS 10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCISS TOS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCISS EOS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCISS AOS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCISS ESA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCISS SSC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAUDIT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.480\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.076\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.111\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.153\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.147\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.039\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.168\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePSS 10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.287\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.578\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.193\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.117\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCISS TOS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.129\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.102\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.290\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCISS EOS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.357\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.421\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.159\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCISS AOS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.854\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.674\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCISS EBS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.240\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCISS SSC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAUDIT \u0026ndash; recognition of alcohol use disorders, PSS 10 \u0026ndash; perceived stress scale, CISS TOS \u0026ndash; task-oriented style, CISS EOS \u0026ndash; emotion-oriented style, CISS AOS \u0026ndash; avoidance-oriented style, CISS ESA \u0026ndash; engaging in substitute activities, CISS SSC \u0026ndash; seeking social contacts.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4. Socio-demographic determinants of tendencies for alcohol consumption among young adults\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe survey research on differences in the inclination for alcohol consumption among young adults conducted on the basis of socio-demographic characteristics of the surveyed group revealed the existence of significant differences taking into account the gender of the respondents, having offspring, dwelling place, education, professional situation and type of marital relationship. A higher intensity of the tendency for alcohol consumption was identified in young men (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;318, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7) in comparison to women (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;928, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4, Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), childless persons (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1174, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4) compared to parents (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;77, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2, Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), young adults living in cities with more than 100 000 inhabitants (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;641, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4) compared to rural residents (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;303, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3, Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), respondents with secondary education (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;584, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5) compared to respondents with tertiary education (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;648, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4, Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), those working under employment contracts (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;534, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4) and casual employees (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6) compared to the unemployed (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;46, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2, Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), as well as respondents in a partnered relationship (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;646, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4) and single people (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;491, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4) in relation to those married (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;114, median\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3, Fig. 6). No statistically significant differences were revealed taking into account the age of the respondents (Stage I of early adulthood, i.e. 18\u0026ndash;24 years compared to Stage II of early adulthood, i.e. 25\u0026ndash;35 years).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe survey research indicates that 28% of the surveyed may be at risk of developing alcohol use disorders, which is a high rate of risky drinking among young adults. The results of our research are in accordance with data presented in national reports.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of research presented in a report by Polska Agencja Rozwiązywania Problem\u0026oacute;w Alkoholowych (PARPA) [the State Agency for the Prevention of Alcohol-Related Problems\u003cb\u003e]\u003c/b\u003e, conducted in September and October 2020 on a sample of 2,000 people, showed that 80.55% of the respondents were alcohol consumers. In this group, as many as 31.6% of people admitted consuming alcohol at least once a week. Men were three times more likely to use alcohol than women. 14.2% revealed at least one symptom of risky drinking [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. The increase in alcohol consumption is also evidenced by data revealed in a report of the Jagiellonian Institute \u0026lsquo;Poland flooded with beer\u0026rsquo;, the analysis of the evolution of the alcohol consumption model in Poland. Due to the prevalence of beer in Poland, its consumption had risen alarmingly from 38.6 litres per person in 1992 to 97.1 litres per person in 2019. In the European Union, apart from Poland, high beer consumption is also recorded in Germany, the Czech Republic and Belgium [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. According to survey carried out by Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej (CBOS) [the Public Opinion Research Centre] before the pandemic and published in 2019, alcohol consumption in Poland has been still growing. At the time, the research proved that people aged 25\u0026ndash;34 were the most frequent alcohol consumers compared to other age groups. 9% of the age group drank frequently, 65% occasionally and only 7% were abstainers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe COVID-19 pandemic generated many stressful situations - including prolonged isolation, which may have led to increased alcohol consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. It has been observed that increased alcohol consumption as a means of coping may be associated with social isolation, boredom and lack of routine. However, heavy and frequent drinking was not only related to stress-coping methods, but was associated with more serious alcohol-related problems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. Stressful, traumatic and anxiety-producing events can lead to the the onset of problematic alcohol use [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. A longitudinal research carried out during the pandemic period revealed that students who experienced lower rate of life satisfaction suffered from higher general COVID-19-related stress level and showed stronger inclination to increased alcohol consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. The COVID-19 pandemic, being a traumatic and stressful occurrence for many people, was a trigger for the prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e], which may have influenced changes in alcohol consumption. According to a survey of French students, 61.6% of them experienced moderate to severe life stress. Specifically, students who remained in their temporary accommodation during lockdown had higher stress levels compared to those who moved to their family homes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Higher stress levels were reported among students compared to the employees, however, students of arts, humanities, social sciences and law students presented higher levels of stress than those of engineering and architecture [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. In 2020, research was conducted to understand how students cope with stress through alcohol consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Students from three different fields of study were examined: medicine, dentistry, and dietetics. The research results revealed that medical students more often preferred an avoidance-oriented coping style, including avoiding social contacts, compared to dentistry students. In the group of dentistry students, 2% may have been addicted to alcohol, and 20% showed risky and harmful alcohol drinking patterns. In contrast, among dietetics students, the results were 18%, and in the group of medical students 16%. In\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea comparative study, which included resident physicians, it was found that 9% of them showed risky and harmful alcohol consumption. When analysing the motivation for drinking alcohol, the most common response (over 50% of respondents) was to use alcohol as a coping mechanism to deal with stress. Another survey research conducted in 2020, this time among students, demonstrated that more than half of the respondents lacked coping skills to deal with stressful situations, which was more common among women than men [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. With regard to coping strategies, young adults were less likely to use a task-oriented approach, which resulted in exacerbated feelings of loneliness and reinforced experienced stress. Taking into consideration a review of the literature, it can be concluded that most of the research on\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe psychological determinants of adolescent drinking focused on experienced stress levels, as well as stress-coping styles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. Research indicates that task-oriented style is negatively associated with the tendency to drink alcohol, whereas emotion- and avoidance-oriented styles are positively associated with this tendency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. The same trends were observed in our research. Psychological factors are an important group of elements that may induce/influence the manifestation of risky alcohol use behaviour among adolescents. Therefore, activities that develop stress-coping strategies and psychological resilience should be included into as a part of prevention programmes aimed at schoolchildren.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocio-demographic characteristics also play an essential role in shaping the tendency to drink alcohol [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. Our research demonstrated the importance of such predisposing factors as male gender, residence in a large city, lower education level, no children and no close relationship, as well as being in a relationship other than a formal one. Moreover, we also found that intensification of tendency to consume alcohol occurred more often among the employed than among the unemployed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsidering the gender of the respondents, a higher intensity of the tendency to drink alcohol applies to men, which is mainly culturally determined. In Poland, for centuries, alcohol consumption has been a male attribute, whereas women's overuse of it has been negatively assessed by society. The PARPA report from 2020 shows that men drink three times more often than women [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], and this is also confirmed by other researches [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur research results proved higher alcohol consumption among residents of cities. Furthermore, the results of the survey presented in the CBOS report confirmed that increased alcohol consumption during the pandemic was declared by residents of cities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. Living in an urban area may contribute to increased alcohol consumption due to, among other things, greater availability of alcohol, as well as greater exposure of residents to alcohol advertising or a large number of bars, shops and restaurants. Similar research results on alcohol consumption as\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea result of place of residence were reported by Chinese researchers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducational background is another factor that plays an essential role in shaping alcohol-related behaviour. A review of the literature suggests that both work and educational attainment may be involved in shaping behaviour related to alcohol consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e]. Our research produced findings about a significantly higher inclination for alcohol consumption among people with a secondary education compared to those with academic educational background. This may be due to the fact that the experience gained during the period of academic study, as well as the subsequent professional tasks undertaken, make graduates \u0026lsquo;equipped\u0026rsquo; with numerous psychological resources such as intrapsychic potential (psychological flexibility) and interpersonal one increasing their resilience and thus their abilities may influence their lower alcohol consumption. Research indicates that people with higher levels of education are characterised by stronger psychological resources which help them cope with crises, compared to those with lower levels of education [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, people with higher education seem to be less inclined to abuse alcohol, which has been confirmed by research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur research also indicates that being parents also predispose people to consume less alcohol compared to childless ones. Being a parent, especially a mother, may influence lower alcohol consumption due to increased responsibility and childcare commitments. Most pregnant women eliminate alcohol consumption altogether for health reasons and to protect the health of\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe child. It can also be assumed that having children may be a reason for limiting social gatherings and thus may be a culturally protective factor against increased alcohol consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA type of close relationship is a significant socio-demographic factor, which may demonstrate an existence of a correlation with the pattern of alcohol use. Research reveals that young women reduce their alcohol consumption after marriage. Similarly, men who are in a close relationship are less likely to increase the number of alcohol-related behaviors, compared to men with other living arrangements. Data also indicate that, in comparison with a marriage, an engagement exerts a similar, although weaker, effect on alcohol consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast, divorce results in increased number of alcohol-related behaviours [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome results of our research proved to be controversial, indicating that the lack of paid employment effects on lowering alcohol consumption. This observation is at variance with other reports, as employment is considered a protective factor against alcohol consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e]. The observation made in our research may be explained by the fact that unemployed people may have fewer financial resources to purchase alcohol, and also by\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe fact that working in the precarious situation, caused by the COVID-19 virus pandemic, may have generated significant stress, which affects increased alcohol consumption. In the light of other research, however, this observation becomes questionable, and research on\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe relationship between professional situation and alcohol consumption should be continued.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of our research indicate that alcohol consumption among the surveyed group\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eof young adults is related to, among others, stress-coping styles and may depend on a number of socio-demographic factors. Therefore, development of task-oriented coping strategies among young adults may be of value. Female gender, having a long-lasting close relationship, having offspring, as well as living outside a large city and having a tertiary education may also be considered as factors associated with lower alcohol consumption in this sample group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocally based alcohol prevention programmes can include education and awareness-raising about the mechanisms of alcohol addiction, social campaigns in local schools, institutions, and events that raise awareness about the negative effects of excessive alcohol consumption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn integrated approach, taking into account educational, social and environmental aspects, is crucial to achieving positive prevention outcomes. Local programmes that comprise the unique characteristics and needs of a community can contribute to reducing alcohol-related problems among young adults as well as at improving public health in the future.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur survey research has some limitations resulting from the applied methodology. First of all, the research was conducted with the use of psychological questionnaires, which only allows us to determine the subjective feelings of the respondents related to the aspects raised in the work. There could have been some attempts to improve their image and increase their self-esteem by omitting the truth. This is a significant limitation, especially in relation to estimating the actual tendencies of the respondents in terms of alcohol consumption. A certain limitation of\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe present research is also the gender disproportion of the surveyed group, with\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea predominance of women. Moreover, the surveyed group comprises mainly people with secondary and tertiary education. The small proportion of the respondents with primary and vocational education makes it difficult to assess the phenomena researched in groups of people with such education, while the level of education may have a significant impact on alcohol consumption. Another limitation of our research is the convenience sampling applied, which makes it difficult to control the completion of questionnaires by respondents, as well as\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe socio-demographic distribution of the sample group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwenty-eight per cent of the young adults in the surveyed group were at risk of developing alcohol use disorders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe tendency to drink alcohol among young adults is slightly negatively associated with a task-oriented coping style and positively associated with an emotional- and avoidant-oriented coping styles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocio-demographic factors that may be associated with lower alcohol consumption among young adults include female gender, being in a stable close relationship, having children, as well as living outside a large city and having a higher education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u0026nbsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026nbsp;The study design was assessed by the Bioethics Committee of the Medical University of Silesia in Katowice (BNW/NWN/0052/KB/233/24)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication\u0026nbsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026nbsp;Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u0026nbsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026nbsp;The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompeting interests\u0026nbsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026nbsp;Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026nbsp;Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u0026nbsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026nbsp;P.D and M.G responsible for the main manuscript, P.D and D.T-C data interpretation , M.G and L.L data collection/entry, D.T-C prepared figures, L.L literature analysis/search. All authors reviewed the manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgments\u0026nbsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026nbsp;Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJaworska N, MacQueen G. Adolescence as a unique developmental period. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2015; doi: 10.1503/jpn.150268\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKlimczuk A. Adulthood. W: The SAGE Encyclopedia of Theory in Psychology, Miller HL, editor. Psychology. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications; 2016. s. 15-18. doi: http://doi.org/10.4135/9781483346274.n11.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWood D, Crapnell T, Lau L, Bennet A, Lotstein D, Ferris M, et al. Emerging Adulthood as a Critical Stage in the Life Course. W: Handbook of Life Course Health Development, Halfon N, Forrest CB, Lerner RM, et al., editors. Cham (CH): Springer; 2018. s. 123-143. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47143-3_7.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSandhya P, Bimala P. Awareness and attitude on pubertal changes among community adolescents. Int J Caring Sci. 2017;10:1255.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTomcheva S, Arabadzhiev Z. Frustration Reactions Spectrum During the Crisis of Puberty. The Global Psychotherapist. 2021 Jul; 1(2): 27-35; doi:10.52982/lkj148.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHeitzman, J. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health. Psychiatria Polska. 2020; 54(2), 187-198; doi:https://doi.org/10.12740/PP/120373.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShuai R, Bravo AJ, Anker JJ, Kushner MG, Hogarth L. The direct effect of drinking to cope on alcohol problems is not mediated by alcohol consumption: Invariance across gender and countries. Addict Behaviorst Reporst. 2022; doi: 10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100469.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEgervai G, Siciliano C, Whiteley E, Ron D. Alcohol and the brain: from genes to circuits.Trends Neurosci. 2021; doi:10.1016/j.tins.2021.09.006.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMessina MP, Battagliese G, D\u0026rsquo;Angelo A, Ciccarelli R, Pisciotty F, Tramonte L, et al. Knowledge and Practice towards Alcohol Consumption in a Sample of University Students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022; doi:10.3390/ijerph19148833.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFakhari S, Waszkiewicz N. Old and New Biomarkers of Alcohol Abuse: Narrative Review. J Clinical Medicine. 2023; doi:10.3390/jcm12062124.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChodkiewicz J, Talarowska M, Miniszewska J, Nawrocka N, Biliński P. Alcohol Consumption Reported during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Initial Stage. Res. Public Health. 2020; doi:doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134677.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBryl N, Czarnecka-Iwańczuk M, Romanowska M, Stani\u0026scaron;ić M, Michalak M, Posadzy-Małaczyńska A. Drinking alcohol as a way of coping with stress in students of medical faculties. Psychiatria Polska. 2020; doi:https://doi.org/10.12740/PP/99029.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLarm P, \u0026Aring;slund C, Starrin B, Nilsson KW. How are social capital and sense of coherence associated with hazardous alcohol use? Findings from a large population-based Swedish sample of adults. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. 2016; doi:10.1177/1403494816645221.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCusack SE, Bountress KE, Sheerin, Dick DM, Amstadter AB. The longitudinal buffering effects of resilience on alcohol use outcomes. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2023; doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001156.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKruger ES, Serier KN, Pfund RA, McKay JR, Witkiewitz K. Integrative data analysis of self-efficacy in 4 clinical trials for alcohol use disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2021; doi:10.1111/acer.14713.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLucke HR, Carey CN, Griffith EL, Mathes EW, Lane DJ, Boals A. Self-control, coping styles, and alcohol outcomes in college students. J Am Coll Health. 2023; doi:10.1080/07448481.2022.2160260.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBuchanan TW, Lovallo W R. The role of genetics in stress effects on health and addiction. Current opinion in psychology. 2019; doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.09.005.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStrelau J, Jaworowska A, Wrześniewski K, Szczepaniak, P. Kwestionariusz Radzenia Sobie w Sytuacjach Stresowych. Podręcznik. 3 wyd. Warszawa: Pracownia Test\u0026oacute;w Psychologicznych; 2013.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBramness JG, Bye EK, Moan IS, Rossow I. Alcohol use during the COVID‐19 pandemic: self‐reported changes and motives for change. Eur Addict Res. 2021; doi:10.1159/000515102.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHepatology TLG. Drinking alone: COVID‐19, lockdown, and alcohol‐related harm. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020;5:625.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVanderbruggen N, Matthys , Van Laere S, Zeeuws D, Santrmans L, Van Den Ameele S, \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. Self‐reported alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis use during COVID‐19 lockdown measures: results from a web‐based survey. Eur Addict Res. 2020; doi: 10.1159/000510822.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWardell JD, Kempe T, Rapinda KK, Single A, Bilevicius E, Frohlich JR, \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. Drinking to cope during COVID‐19 pandemic: the role of external and internal factors in coping motive pathways to alcohol use, solitary drinking, and alcohol problems. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2020; doi: 10.1111/acer.14425.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eClay JM, Parker MO. Alcohol use and misuse during the COVID‐19 pandemic: a potential public health crisis? Lancet Public Health. 2020; doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30088-8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCharles N, Strong S, Burns L, Bullerjahn M Serafine K. Increased mood disorder symptoms, perceived stress, and alcohol, use among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatria Res. 2021; doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113706.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGrossman ER, Benjamin-Neelon SE, Sonnenschein S. Alcohol Consumption during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Survey of US Adults. Int J Environ Res Public Healt. 2020; doi: 10.3390/ijerph17249189.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThomson K, Dutton D, MacNabb K, Liu T, Blades S, Asbridge M. . Changes in alcohol consumption during the COVID-19 pandemic: exploring gender differences and the role of emotional distress. Healt Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada. 2021; doi: 10.24095/hpcdp.41.9.02.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKim JU, Majid A, Judge R, Crook P, Nathwani R, Selvapatt N, et al. Effect of COVID-19 lockdown on alcohol consumption in patients with pre-existing alcohol use disorder. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020; doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30251-X.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSun Y, Li Y, Bao Y, Meng S, Sun Y, Schumann G, et al. Brief report: Increased addictive internet and substance use behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. Am J Addict. 2020; doi: 10.1111/ajad.13066.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaltar F, Brunet I. Social Research 2.0: Virtual Snowball Sampling Method Using Facebook. Internet Research, 2012. doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/10662241211199960.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJuczyński Z, Ogińska-Bulik N. Narzędzia pomiaru stresu i radzenia sobie ze stresem. Warszawa: Polskie Towarzystwo Psychologiczne; 2009.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBabor TF, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test. Guidelines for use in primary care wyd. 2. England: World Health Organization. Department of Mental Health and Substance Dependence; 2001.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHabrat B. Szkody zdrowotne spowodowane alkoholem. Warszawa: Springer PWN; 1996.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCherpitel CJ, Ye Y, Moskalewicz J, Świątkiewicz G. Screening for alcohol problems in two emergency service samples in Poland: comparison of the RAPS4, CAGE and AUDIT. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2005; doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.03.025.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFudała J. Czy twoje picie jest bezpieczne? Warszawa: PARPAMEDIA. 2007.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTaracha E, Habrat B, Smela J, Gruszczyński. Badania przesiewowe żołnierzy zasadniczej służby wojskowej w kierunku nadużywania alkoholu. Pr\u0026oacute;ba zastosowania oznaczania aktywności \u0026reg;-heksozoaminidazy w moczu jako markera przewlekłego picia alkoholu. Alkoholizm i Narkomania. 2002; 15(1):83-94.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBabor TF, de la Fuente RJ., Saunders J, Grant M. Test rozpoznawania zaburzeń związanych z piciem alkoholu \u0026ndash; AUDIT. Przewodnik dla podstawowej opieki zdrowotnej. Warszawa: PARPA; 1996.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWhiteside SP, Lynam DR. Understanding the role of impulsivity and externalizing psychopathology in alcohol abuse: Application of the UPPS Impulsive Behavior Scale. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 2003; doi: 10.1037/1064-1297.11.3.210.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGeorge SM, Connor JP, Gullo MJ, Young R. A prospective study of personality features predictive of early adolescent alcohol misuse. Personality and Individual Differences. 2010; doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.036.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDębski P, Florek S, Piegza M, Pudlo R, Gorczyca P. Is it good to be resilient during the COVID. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health. 2021; doi: 10.13075/ijomeh.1896.01766.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRowicka M, Postek S, Zin-Sędek M. Wzory konsumpcji alkoholu w Polsce. Raport z badań kwestionariuszowych 2020 r. W: PARPA Państwowa Agencja Rozwiązywania Problem\u0026oacute;w Alkoholowych editors. 1 wyd. Warszawa: PARPA; 2021.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePolska zalana piwem: https://www.cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2019/K_151_19.PDF. 2019.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKoob G, Kreek MJ. Stress, dysregulation of drug reward pathways, and the transition to drug dependence. Am J Psychiatry. 2007; doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.05030503.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSkrzynski CJ, Creswell KG. Associations between solitary drinking and increased alcohol consumption, alcohol problems, and drinking to cope motives in adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction. 2020; doi: 10.1111/add.15055.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCreswell KG. Drinking together and drinking alone: a social-contextual framework for examining alcohol use disorder risk. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2020; DOI: 10.1177/0963721420969406.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePark CL, Armeli S, Tennen H. The daily stress and coping process and alcohol use among college students. J Stud Alcohol. 2004; doi: 10.15288/jsa.2004.65.126.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eElsayed NM, Kim MJ, Fields KM. Trajectories of alcohol initiation and use during adolescence: the role of stress and amygdala reactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2018; doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2018.05.011.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCloutier RM, Blumenthal H, Trim RS, Douglas ME, Anderson KG. Real-time social stress response and subsequent alcohol use initiation among female adolescents. Psychol Addict Behav. 2019; doi: 10.1037/adb0000454.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJaffe AE, Kumar SA, Ramirez JJ, DiLillo. Is the COVID-19 pandemic a high-risk period for college student alcohol use? A comparison of three Spring semesters. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2021; doi: 10.1111/acer.14572.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiao YH, Fan BF, Zhang HM, Guo L, Lee Y, Wang WX, et al. The impact of COVID-19 on subthreshold depressive symptoms: a longitudinal study. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2021; doi: 10.1017/S2045796021000044.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThorisdottir IE, Asgeirsdottir BB, Kristjansson AL, Valdimarsdottir HB, Jonsdottir Tolgyes EM, Sigfusson J et al. Depressive symptoms, mental wellbeing, and substance use among adolescents before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in Iceland: a longitudinal, population-based study. Lancet Psychiatry. 2021; doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00156-5.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVarma P, Junge M, Meaklim H, Jackson ML. Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: a global cross-sectional survey. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2021; doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110236.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHusky MM, Koyess-Masfety V, Swendsen JD. Stress and anxiety among university students in France during Covid-19 mandatory confinement. Compr Psychiatry. 2020; doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2020.152191.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOdriozola-Gonz\u0026aacute;lez P, Planchuelo-G\u0026oacute;mez \u0026Aacute;, Irurtia M.J, de Luis-Garc\u0026iacute;a R. Psychological effects of the COVID-19 outbreak and lockdown among students and workers of a Spanish university. Psychiatry Res. 2020; doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113108.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKarmolińska-Jagodzik, E. Stres a picie alkoholu wśr\u0026oacute;d studentek i student\u0026oacute;w w Polsce. Przegląd Pedagogiczny. 2020; doi: 10.34767/PP.2020.02.19.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eManthey J, Klinger S, Carr S, Kilian C, Kraus L, Kuitunen-Paul S, Schomerus G, Spearforck S. Alkohol und Covid-19: ein Update aus 2021. W: Alternativer Drogen- und Suchtbericht 2021, St\u0026ouml;ver h, Werse B, Kluge Haberkorn C, editors. Berlin: Pabsc Science Publishers; 2021. s. 56-67.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOpalach C, Romaszko J, Jaracz M, Kuchta R, Borkowska A, Buciński A. Coping Styles and Alcohol Dependence among Homeless People. PLoS ONE. 2016; doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162381.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePostawy wobec alkoholu. Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej CBOS. 2010. https://www.cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2010/K_116_10.PDF.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eErol A, Karpyak V M (2015). Sex and gender-related differences in alcohol use and its consequences: Contemporary knowledge and future research considerations. Drug and alcohol dependence. 2015; doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.023.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWhite AM. Gender Differences in the Epidemiology of Alcohol Use and Related Harms in the United States. Alcohol research : current reviews. 2020; doi:https://doi.org/10.35946/arcr.v40.2.01.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organization. Global status report on alcohol and health 2018. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/274603/9789241565639-eng.pdf?sequence=1. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChristensen ASP, Pisinger V, Krarup AF, Dalum P, Thygesen LC, Tolstrup JS. Alcohol consumption and well-being among 25,000 Danish high school students. Preventive medicine reports. 2023; doi: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.102072.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRitchie H, Roser M. Alcohol consumption. 2020. Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: https://ourworldindata.org/alcohol-consumption.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWilsnack RW, Vogeltanz ND, Wilsnack SC, Harris TR, Ahlstr\u0026ouml;m S, Bondy S, et al. Gender differences in alcohol consumption and adverse drinking consequences: cross‐cultural patterns. Addiction. 2000; doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.95225112.x.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWilsnack RW, Wilsnack SC, Kristjanson AF, Vogeltanz‐Holm ND, Gmel G. Gender and alcohol consumption: patterns from the multinational GENACIS project. Addiction. 2009; doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02696.x.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIm PK, Millwood IY, Guo Y, Du H, Chen Y, Bian Z, et al.. Patterns and trends of alcohol consumption in rural and urban areas of China: findings from the China Kadoorie Biobank. BMC Public Health. 2019; doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6502-1.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGreen MJ, Leyland AH, Sweeting H, Benzeval M. Adolescent smoking and tertiary education: opposing pathways linking socio‐economic background to alcohol consumption. Addiction. 2016; doi: 10.1111/add.13365.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eD\u0026apos;Alessandro S, Carter L, Webster C. Binge drinking: A review and research agenda. Journal of Consumer Behaviour. 2023; doi: \u003cstrong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/cb.2102\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCutler DM, Lleras-Muney A. Education and Health: Evaluating Theories and Evidence. Making Americans Healthier: Social and Economic Policy as Health Policy. 2006; doi: 10.3386/w12352.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProbst C., Roerecke M, Behrendt S, Rehm J. Socioeconomic differences in alcohol-attributable mortality compared with all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International journal of epidemiology. 2014; doi: 10.1093/ije/dyu043.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRosoff DB, Clarke TK, Adams MJ, McIntosh A M, Davey Smith G, Jung J, et al. Educational attainment impacts drinking behaviors and risk for alcohol dependence: results from a two-sample Mendelian randomization study with ~780,000 participants. Molecular psychiatry. 2021; doi: 10.1038/s41380-019-0535-9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLevy F, Le Strat Y, Hoertel N, Ancelet C, Dubertret C. Childbirth and alcohol consumption impact of recent childbirth on alcohol consumption. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 2018; doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1070-z .\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBowden JA, Delfabbro P, Room R, Miller C, Wilson C. Parental drinking in Australia: Does the age of children in the home matter?. Drug and alcohol review. 2019; doi: 10.1111/dar.12875.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLittle M, Handley E, Leuthe E, Chassin L. The impact of parenthood on alcohol consumption trajectories: variations as a function of timing of parenthood, familial alcoholism, and gender. Development and psychopathology. 2009; doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409000352.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBachman JG, Wadsworth KN, O\u0026rsquo;Malley PM, Johnston LD, Schulenberg JE. Smoking, Drinking, and Drug Use in Young Adulthood: The Impacts of New Freedoms and New Responsibilities. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1997; doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203763797.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKenneth S, Kendler MD, L\u0026ouml;nn SL, Salvatore J, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Divorce and the Onset of Alcohol Use Disorder: A Swedish Population-Based Longitudinal Cohort and Co-Relative Study. Published Online. 2017; doi: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16050589.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVirtanen M, Jokela M, Nyberg ST, Madsen I E, Lallukka, T, Ahola K, Alfredsson L, et al. Long working hours and alcohol use: systematic review and meta-analysis of published studies and unpublished individual participant data. Bmj. 2015; doi: 10.1136/bmj.g7772.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBufquin D, Park JY, Back RM, de Souza Meira J V, Hight SK. Employee work status, mental health, substance use, and career turnover intentions: An examination of restaurant employees during COVID-19. International Journal of Hospitality Management. 2021; doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102764.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMurakami K, Obara T, Ishikuro M, Ueno F, Noda A, Kuriyama S. Associations of education and work status with alcohol use and cessation among pregnant women in Japan: the Tohoku Medical Megabank Project Birth and Three-Generation Cohort Study. BMC Public Health. 2021; doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11461-w.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDe Sio S, Tittarelli R, Di Martino G, Buomprisco G, Perri R, Bruno G. Alcohol consumption and employment: a cross-sectional study of office workers and unemployed people. PeerJ. 2020; doi: 10.7717/peerj.8774.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"COVID-19 pandemic, alcohol, stress","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5363562/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5363562/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eIntroduction\u003c/b\u003e: The research aimed to assess the linkages between alcohol propensity and stress and coping styles in young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. The project also focused on investigating the significance of differences in alcohol propensity, taking into account selected sociodemographic characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMaterial and methods\u003c/b\u003e: A total of 1251 people in early adulthood (23.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.88 y.o.) participated in the research, including 928 women (23.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.89 y.o.), 318 men (24.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.85 y.o.) and 5 people of other gender identity (22.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.64 y.o.). A self-administered questionnaire, CISS, PSS-10 and AUDIT were used for the study. The statistical procedures used the Pearson correlation coefficient, as well as the Mann-Whitney U test and the Kruskal-Wallis test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eResults\u003c/b\u003e: Positive correlations were found between the intensity of alcohol use and emotional style (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.111), avoidant style (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.153) and seeking for substitute activities (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.147), as well as a negative relationship with task-focused style\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(r=-0.076). Among young adults, factors contributed to high-intensity of alcohol propensity included: male gender, childlessness, living in cities of more than 100,000 inhabitants, people with secondary education, lack of a close personal relationship or being in a partnership, as well as a professional situation related to occasional or casual employment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eConclusions\u003c/b\u003e:Alcohol consumption is associated with an emotion- and avoidant-oriented stress-coping styles. 28% of the surveyed were among those at risk of developing alcohol addiction. It implies that the age group remains one of the social groups most exposed to the development of alcohol use disorders. Such situation requires development of prevention programmes that take into account the needs of young people.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Tendency to consume alcohol among young Poles in the light of coping with stress and selected socio-demographic factors during the COVID-19 pandemic","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-18 17:22:51","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5363562/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-11-11T07:09:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-11-05T06:08:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-11-05T06:08:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Public Health","date":"2024-10-30T21:40:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c5e413df-4063-4cf0-8e77-2cd1f22b1be5","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 18th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-04T16:46:36+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5363562","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-24016-0","journal":{"identity":"bmc-public-health","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BMC Public Health"},"publishedOn":"2025-08-02 16:38:12","publishedOnDateReadable":"August 2nd, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-18 17:22:51","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s12889-025-24016-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-24016-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5363562","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5363562","identity":"rs-5363562","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}