Climate-Change Knowledge as Determinants of Vector-Borne Disease Control in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State, Nigeria

Climate-Change Knowledge as Determinants of Vector-Borne Disease Control in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State, Nigeria | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Case Report Climate-Change Knowledge as Determinants of Vector-Borne Disease Control in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State, Nigeria Rihanat Bukola Muhammed, Abdulafeez Oladimeji BUHARI, Lateefah Olabisi OLADIMEJI This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8416702/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study evaluated how climate-change knowledge determine the control of vector-borne diseases (VBDs) among residents of Ilorin East Local Government Area (LGA), Kwara State, Nigeria. Justification for the research arises from accelerating climatic shifts that alter vector ecology and transmission patterns that shape health behaviour and can either facilitate or impede uptake of modern control measures. In a setting where public-health outcomes are strongly influenced by both environmental change, empirical evidence linking climate-change awareness and cultural beliefs to VBD control is urgently needed to inform context-sensitive interventions. The main objective was to examine climate-change knowledge as determinant of VBD control. Specific objectives included assessing residents’ awareness of VBD control; identifying cultural beliefs that influence prevention and treatment behaviours; investigating the role of climate-change knowledge in VBD control; identifying implementation challenges; and testing the individual and joint relationships among climate-change knowledge and VBD control outcomes. A descriptive mixed-methods design was adopted. The study population comprised adult residents of Ilorin East LGA. A sample of 420 respondents participated in the quantitative strand (N = 420), while purposively selected key informants and focus-group participants provided qualitative depth. Data were collected using structured questionnaires and semi-structured interview guides. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means), bivariate correlation tests, ANOVA, and multiple regression to test hypotheses at the 0.05 significance level. Qualitative responses were subjected to thematic analysis and triangulated with survey findings to increase interpretive robustness. Ethical approvals and informed consent procedures were observed. Findings indicated moderate-to-high awareness of common VBDs but limited understanding of how climate change modifies vector habitats and transmission dynamics. Cultural beliefs ranging from spiritual attributions of illness to reliance on traditional remedies and gendered decision-making significantly influenced prevention behaviours and undermined consistent use of modern measures (e.g., insecticide-treated nets, environmental sanitation). Quantitative analysis revealed statistically significant relationships between climate-change knowledge and reported preventive practices, while cultural beliefs showed both direct and moderating effects on acceptance of modern control methods. Key implementation challenges included limited infrastructure for environmental management, gaps in health communication, and insufficient community engagement. The study concludes that improving VBD control in Ilorin East requires integrated strategies that combine climate-change education with culturally sensitive community engagement and strengthened service delivery. Recommendations include targeted public awareness campaigns linking climate change to VBD risk; infrastructural investments for environmental management; and policy measures promoting community-appropriate, climate-resilient vector-control programs. Climate change knowledge VBD Ilorin East LGA Kwara State Nigeria Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Background to the study Vector-Borne Diseases (VBDs) represent a major global health challenge, particularly in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs), especially in tropical and subtropical regions such as sub-Saharan Africa. The World Health Organisation (WHO) classifies these diseases as neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) due to their disproportionate impact on impoverished populations with limited access to healthcare and resources (Mackey & Liang 2012 ). VBDs, including malaria, dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever, and Zika virus, are transmitted through vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, flies, and other arthropods. Collectively, they result in over 700,000 deaths annually, with the majority occurring in African countries where healthcare systems are often overwhelmed (Agache et al., 2022 ). Malaria alone accounts for over 400,000 deaths each year, underscoring the devastating impact of these diseases in the region (Wright et al., 2024 ). Beyond the direct loss of life, VBDs impose substantial social and economic burdens on affected communities, exacerbating cycles of poverty by reducing workforce productivity, escalating healthcare costs, and hindering economic development (Ramon-Torrell, 2023 ). Vulnerable groups, including children, pregnant women, and rural residents, are disproportionately affected due to poor access to healthcare services (Marshall et al., 2020 ). The spread of VBDs has been further amplified by urbanisation, deforestation, and agricultural expansion in LMICs, along with the accelerating effects of climate change (Zain et al., 2024 ). Shifting climate patterns, including rising temperatures and altered precipitation levels, create more favourable conditions for the proliferation of disease vectors, allowing them to expand into new areas (Baker et al., 2022 ). This not only increases the risk of cross-border disease transmission but also complicates global health efforts to contain outbreaks (Olumade et al., 2020 ). The transmission dynamics of VBDs are influenced by a combination of ecological, socioeconomic, and environmental factors. For instance, climate change is significantly altering vector habitats, resulting in the emergence of VBDs in regions that are unprepared to handle such public health challenges (Olmos & Bostik, 2021). Deforestation and urbanisation also bring humans into closer contact with disease vectors, while inadequate public health infrastructure in many LMICs delays the detection and control of outbreaks (Briggs, 2023 ). Furthermore, genetic predispositions, immune responses, and lifestyle choices influence the severity and spread of these diseases (Gabrieli et al., 2021 ). In regions with underdeveloped public health systems, infectious diseases, particularly VBDs, spread rapidly, contributing to the persistent global disease burden (Virolainen et al, 2023 ). The prevention and control of VBDs require comprehensive approaches that include medical, technological, and environmental interventions. Preventive measures such as vaccination, insecticide-treated bed nets, and vector control programs aimed at eliminating breeding sites are critical in reducing transmission rates (Wilson et al., 2020 ). Public health strategies focusing on health education, early diagnosis, and improving healthcare access are essential for mitigating the impact of VBDs (Tahir et al., 2023 ). Additionally, advances in genetic therapies and environmentally sustainable interventions offer promising prospects for disease control (Land et al., 2019 ). Global cooperation is crucial for developing policies that address the long-term challenges posed by these diseases (Omotayo et al ,. 2024). As climate change continues to impact the spread of VBDs, there is a growing emphasis on integrating climate change adaptation into public health strategies (Rocklöv & Dubrow, 2020 ). Collaborative efforts between policymakers, healthcare professionals, and researchers are necessary to strengthen health security, enhance healthcare system resilience, and implement sustainable solutions to reduce the burden of VBDs worldwide (Wilcox et al., 2019 ). In Africa, particularly in Nigeria, VBDs have been shaped by ecological, social, and economic factors. Over time, their prevalence and impact have evolved, influenced by changes in healthcare systems, environmental conditions, and global health initiatives (Bull et al., 2020 ). Diseases like malaria and sleeping sickness were historically widespread, with traditional medicine often used to manage symptoms due to limited access to modern healthcare services (Dagen, 2020 ). Early control efforts focused on interventions like quinine for malaria and colonial campaigns against sleeping sickness, though these strategies often prioritised colonial economic interests and failed to adequately address the health needs of local populations (Dagen, 2020 ). Statement of the Problem VBDs, such as malaria, dengue, and Zika virus, continue to pose a significant public health threat, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. In Ilorin East Local Government Area LGA, Kwara State, Nigeria, the burden of these diseases is growing, partly due to the effects of climate change (Ahmed et al., 2021 ). Climate change is shifting the ecological dynamics of vectors such as mosquitoes by creating favourable conditions for their survival and increasing the transmission of diseases in regions that were previously unaffected. Rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events such as floods create new breeding grounds for disease-carrying vectors, leading to an increase in disease outbreaks (Yadav & Upadhyay, 2023 ). Furthermore, there is often a lack of awareness or understanding of how climate change is directly influencing the spread of VBDs. Without adequate knowledge of the link between climate change and disease patterns, communities may be slow to adopt necessary preventive measures (Rasul et al., 2020 ). Thus, there is an urgent need to evaluate how climate-change knowledge influence vector-borne disease control in the region. Understanding these factors is critical for developing effective, and climate-resilient public health strategies (Aziz & Anjum, 2024 ). Without this understanding, interventions may fail to adequately address the root causes of disease transmission, leading to continued outbreaks and poor health outcomes in the community (World Health Organisation, 2020 ). This study seeks to bridge these gaps by assessing the knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to climate change and disease control, to propose strategies that incorporate both scientific understanding and cultural sensitivity (Neira et al., 2023 ). Objectives of the Study The main objective of the study is to examine climate change knowledge as determinants of VBDs control in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State. While the specific objectives are to: assess residents' awareness of the control of VBDs in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State. investigate the role of climate change knowledge in the control of VBDs among residents of Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State. identify the challenges faced by residents in implementing vector-borne disease control measures in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State. Literature Review The warming of the climate system is clear and unequivocal, as highlighted in the recent IPCC report (Allan et al., 2023 ). Climate change, a complex phenomenon, significantly influences the emergence of VBDs such as malaria, dengue, and yellow fever (Abdulwahab et al., 2024 ). VBDs are dynamic systems characterised by complex ecological interactions that continually adapt to environmental changes. While various factors affect the distribution of VBDs, climate remains a primary driver influencing their epidemiology (Ma et al., 2022 ). The life cycle dynamics of vector species, pathogens, and reservoir organisms are sensitive to weather conditions, which impact survival and reproduction rates, habitat suitability, geographical distribution, and seasonal intensity (Yadav & Upadhyay, 2023 ). Climatic factors also affect the development and survival rates of pathogens within vectors (Caminade et al., 2019 ). Given that climatic conditions strongly influence diseases transmitted through insects, climate change is likely to alter the geographic range of VBDs across Africa, extend their transmission seasons, and modify existing seasonal patterns (Ma et al., 2022 ). In recent years, numerous outbreaks of various VBDs have been documented across Africa. Some outbreaks have been linked to local climatic changes, while for others, it is reasonable to assume that observed climatic trends will contribute to their transmission potential (Negev et al., 2015 ). Africa's climate is shaped by the interaction between arid regions and temperate zones, creating a complex environment vulnerable to climatic changes. The continent has been identified as a significant climate change hotspot and one of the most responsive areas to global warming (Fan et al., 2021 ). Since the 1960s, Africa has experienced increased temperatures alongside more frequent and intense heatwaves. Additionally, there has been a notable reduction in potable water availability due to decreased precipitation and changing rainfall patterns exacerbated by population growth (Mishra, 2023 ). In Africa, the mutual enhancement (positive feedback) between droughts and heatwaves has been increasingly acknowledged (Miralles et al., 2019 ). The continent is home to over 1.3 billion individuals and comprises 54 countries, exhibiting significant socio-economic disparities, particularly between the northern and southern regions. This disparity, along with high population density and escalating water demand, exacerbates the vulnerability of African nations to shifting climatic conditions (Grasham et al., 2019 ). Evidence from literature indicates that certain VBDs (VBDs) have already demonstrated associations with recent climatic fluctuations across various African countries (Abdulwahab et al., 2024 ). Projections suggest that climate suitability for vectors will expand into new areas as a result of climate change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2022; Caminade et al., 2019 ). This study aims to analyse and compare adaptation policies across a representative selection of African countries, focusing on key policy categories: monitoring and surveillance, environmental management, health system preparedness, and public education. Additionally, existing mechanisms for regional collaboration on environmental and health issues will be identified. The tropical climate of Africa is conducive to numerous major VBDs, including malaria, schistosomiasis, and Rift Valley fever (Caminade et al., 2019 ). The continent's high diversity of vector species facilitates potential redistribution into new habitats driven by climate change, resulting in altered disease patterns. By 2050, it is projected that regions such as the Sahara may experience temperature increases of approximately 1.6°C (Bouramdane, 2022 ). Current episodes of climate variability are likely to intensify malaria transmission in the eastern and southern highlands of Africa. However, the effects on other less climate-sensitive VBDs remain uncertain (Caminade et al., 2019 ). While climate is a significant factor in malaria epidemiology, other elements such as drug resistance and inadequate health infrastructure may play more critical roles in shaping disease dynamics (Obeagu & Obeagu, 2024 ). The ecology, development, behaviour, and survival of insects, along with the transmission dynamics of the diseases they carry, are significantly influenced by climatic factors. Key elements such as temperature, rainfall, and humidity are particularly important, although other factors like wind can also play a significant role. These climatic conditions are crucial for the survival and transmission rates of pathogens. Temperature is the primary parameter affecting the multiplication rate of insects; as temperatures rise, there tends to be an increase in mosquito population growth rates, a decrease in the interval between blood meals, a shortening of the incubation time from infection to infectiousness in mosquitoes, and an acceleration of virus evolution rates (Brackney et al., 2021 ). Above-average precipitation has been shown to lead to higher mosquito abundance, thereby increasing the potential for disease outbreaks in humans (Paz, 2019 ). This correlation has been observed in several vector-borne disease (VBD) outbreaks, including West Nile virus, dengue, and malaria. However, while patterns of disease incidence can be influenced by rainfall amounts, responses may vary across large geographic regions due to differences in mosquito vector ecology (Bartlow et al., 2019 ). For instance, heavy rainfall creates standing water necessary for mosquito larval development. Conversely, drought conditions can facilitate population outbreaks of certain mosquito species by disrupting aquatic food-web interactions that normally limit larval populations (Harvey et al., 2023 ). As Africa experiences a warming trend characterised by increased warm days and nights, longer summers, more frequent and severe heatwaves, and reduced rainfall amounts, it is anticipated that VBDs will be exacerbated by climate change (Abdulwahab et al., 2024 ). Furthermore, many urban areas in Africa are densely populated. While air conditioning is prevalent in regions with higher socio-economic status, windows often remain open during hot months as part of local customs. Social activities frequently occur outdoors, such as on shaded balconies or in courtyards, creating ideal conditions for contact with vectors. Warmer summers not only extend the potential range of diseases but also pose heightened risks for poorer countries in North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa (Opoku et al., 2021 ). Currently, the main VBDs transmitted by mosquitoes and potentially influenced by changing climatic conditions in the Mediterranean basin and parts of Africa include: West Nile Fever, the West Nile virus (WNV) is a globally significant vector-borne pathogen, primarily transmitted by mosquito species from the genus Culex (family Culicidae). These mosquitoes function as both amplification and bridge vectors, facilitating the transmission of the virus to susceptible bird species through blood meals, leading to virus amplification (Armstrong et al., 2020 ). In recent years, there has been an increase in WNF cases across Mediterranean countries, notably severe outbreaks in Israel during the hot summers of 2000 and 2010. Changes in seasonality have been observed, with outbreaks beginning earlier in the year (Stencel, 2021 ). The re-emergence of WNV has been consistently noted from 2011 to 2014 in these regions (Habarugira et al., 2020 ). In Africa, the spread of WNV has raised concerns, particularly in regions with conducive climatic conditions, potentially leading to increased human and animal infections (Habarugira et al., 2020 ). Dengue fever, caused by a virus from the Flavivirus genus, is transmitted through the bites of Aedes mosquitoes. It ranks among the most prevalent VBDs globally, affecting approximately 390 million people annually (Manikandan et al., 2023 ). Climate change is one of the most significant challenges of the 21st century with major implications for public health (Goniewicz et al., 2025 ). Numerous studies have shown how climate change impacts human health through a variety of environmental transformations (Zhou et al., 2023 ). These include deforestation, which alters natural habitats and increases interactions between humans and disease vectors; emissions of greenhouse gases that intensify global warming; industrial activities and changes in land use that impair natural ecosystems; the combustion of fossil fuels, resulting in air pollution; and the depletion of the ozone layer, which enhances exposure to damaging ultraviolet radiation. Collectively, these factors create a complex web of health vulnerabilities (Katz et al., 2020 ). Climate change is one of the greatest threats to human health in the 21st century. Climate directly impacts health through climatic extremes, air quality, sea-level rise, and multifaceted influences on food production systems and water resources. The climate also affects infectious diseases, which have played a significant role in human history, impacting the rise and fall of civilisations and facilitating the conquest of new territories. This review highlights significant regional changes in vector and pathogen distribution reported in temperate, peri-Arctic, Arctic, and tropical highland regions during recent decades, changes that have been anticipated by scientists worldwide. Further future changes are likely if we fail to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Many key factors affect the spread and severity of human diseases, including the mobility of people, animals, and goods; control measures in place; availability of effective drugs; quality of public health services; human behaviour; and political stability and conflicts. With drug and insecticide resistance on the rise, significant funding and research efforts must be maintained to continue the battle against existing and emerging diseases, particularly those that are vector-borne. Climate change is considered one of the greatest threats to human health by the World Health Organisation. The rate of global warming, which has occurred during recent decades, has been unprecedented over the past millennium, and there is consensus in the scientific community that the cause is increasing anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases. Climate change directly impacts health through long-term changes in rainfall and temperature, climatic extremes (heatwaves, hurricanes, and flash floods), air quality, sea-level rise in lowland coastal regions, and multifaceted influences on food production systems and water resources. Since 2016, the Lancet Countdown initiative has been tracking progress on health and climate change issues related to the implementation of the Paris Climate Agreement, providing a broad overview of climate change impacts on health. The negative impact of infectious diseases on health and well-being is intrinsically linked to a combination of multiple stressors or drivers such as poor sanitation, access to clean water and food, the quality of public health services, political instability and conflict, drug resistance, and animal and/or human population movements. How we shape and adapt to the environment, through our impact on land use (deforestation/afforestation and agricultural activities), the building of artificial water bodies or dams, and the measures undertaken to control infectious diseases such as vaccine and drug development, insecticide spraying, distribution of impregnated bed nets, and development of rapid diagnostic tests, are also critical factors affecting infectious disease transmission. Climate has a direct impact on the dynamics of a subset of infectious diseases, including VBDs, some water-borne diseases such as cholera, and other soil-borne and food-borne pathogens. Climate also has multiple indirect effects through socioeconomic factors; as one example, flooding can hamper disease control measures in place, including vector control. Infectious VBDs are mainly transmitted by arthropod vectors, which are particularly sensitive to changes in climate, for several reasons. Arthropods are ectothermic, with their internal temperature regulated by external environmental conditions. Their larval development stage generally requires the presence of bodies of water and/or specific humidity conditions. Vector biting rates tend to increase with temperature up to an upper threshold, after which they decrease. The development and replication of pathogens transmitted within vectors (the extrinsic incubation period or EIP) or in the environment also occur faster at high temperatures. Furthermore, vector development and survival are significantly affected by temperature conditions. The entomological parameters affected by rainfall and temperature can be summarised using the maximum daily reproductive rate of the disease: the vectorial capacity. The optimal temperature range for disease transmission varies depending upon the vector–pathogen combination being studied; however, vectorial capacities of the most harmful tropical VBDs consistently peak at relatively high temperatures. The evidence suggests that future climate change, if not mitigated, will very likely impact the length of the transmission season and the geographical range of a significant proportion of infectious diseases. On a broader scale, climate change will reshuffle the geographical distribution of animal species, and one of the most prominent illustrations of this is an image of a starving polar bear, released by the National Geographic Society in December 2017. The direct impact of climate change on habitat, and therefore ecosystem change, combined with increasing anthropogenic pressure on the natural environment, is severely affecting biodiversity, further impacting the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. An important point to emphasise is that of attribution and detection: how can recent spatiotemporal changes in infectious diseases be attributed, wholly or in part, to long-term anthropogenic climate change? This is a complicated question to answer, hindered by the lack of good quality health and climate datasets over long periods, by the various non-climatic factors at play and by the influence of natural climate variability modes that are now occurring in a warmer background, such as the crucial El Niño Southern Oscillation. The latter issue led to controversy over the attribution of climate change effects on recent malaria changes observed in the East African highlands. However, there is clear evidence that climate change has already affected the latitudinal and altitudinal ranges of avian malaria in wild birds. The health of wild animals, particularly birds, is assumed to be a better indicator of early climate change effects because very little or no control measures are undertaken to protect them. VBDs seriously affect the health of domestic animals and livestock (e.g., trypanosomiasis, Rift Valley Fever, and bluetongue), and consequently, climate change will also indirectly affect our health through its multifaceted impacts on food security, including livestock and plant crops. There is a need to pragmatically estimate and discuss the importance of climate concerning other critical factors affecting the spatiotemporal dynamics of infectious diseases. In this review, we discuss recent trends and advances in our understanding of the impact of recent and future climate change on VBD dynamics. We mainly focus on VBDs, as they are expected to be the most climate-sensitive subset of all infectious diseases and have sensitivity to the greatest number of climate drivers. As quantitative detection and attribution of climate change impacts is impossible for most infectious diseases, we highlight recently observed trends in temperate, Arctic, and tropical-altitude regions, which have already experienced significant climate changes, and for which one would consequently expect some evidence of early climate change impacts on VBD burden. We also discuss progress in state-of-the-art future risk scenarios for VBDs, methodological issues, and the relevance of this research to policy makers and governmental health agencies. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), VBDs account for more than one-sixth of all illnesses and disabilities globally (Abdulwahab et al., 2024 ). A growing portion of the world's population is at risk due to these diseases, exacerbated by climate change and its impact on the environment (Yadav & Upadhyay, 2023 ). Vectors, primarily arthropods like mosquitoes and ticks, are important in the transmission of these diseases (Ramalho-Ortigao & Gubler, 2020 ). They act as carriers, transmitting pathogens from an infected host (human or animal) to an uninfected individual (Socha et al., 2022 ). The mode of transmission of VBDs varies and can be vertical, horizontal, or mechanical (Abdulwahab et al., 2024 ). Climate change is profoundly transforming the geographic distribution of VBDs, exacerbating their impact on global public health. Factors such as rising temperatures, high humidity, and extreme weather events favour the proliferation of vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks, increasing the risk of outbreaks in previously unaffected regions. Specific climate variables such as average temperature, relative humidity index, cumulative rainfall, frequency of heavy rainfall, and length of wet seasons have been identified as key predictors for the proliferation of diseases such as dengue (Bhatia et al., 2022 ). In sub-Saharan Africa, climate change significantly affects diseases such as dengue as it expands the geographic range of vectors, such as dengue fever, Aedes aegypti, especially in West and Central Africa. This increase in geographic distribution also affects other species, such as Aedes vittatus and Aedes luteocephalus, which thrive in warmer and wetter climate conditions, exacerbating challenges in countries such as Cameroon and the northern Democratic Republic of Congo (Chikezie et al., 2024 ). On the other hand, in Southeast Asia, densities are expected to increase Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus significantly, with projections of up to a 46% increase by the end of the century in highly vulnerable areas. This increase not only increases dengue transmission but also the risk of co-infection with other pathogens, complicating control efforts in countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines (Wiyono et al.,2021). The coexistence of multiple VBDs, such as dengue, Zika, and chikungunya, poses unique challenges for diagnosis and treatment. Since these diseases share similar initial symptoms, such as fever, headache, and rashes, healthcare professionals face difficulties differentiating them, which can delay proper treatment. This complexity is exacerbated in areas with limited resources, where diagnostic tools are scarce or non-existent. Co-infections also create therapeutic uncertainties, as treatments for one disease may not be equally effective or even harmful to others (Devi et al., 2023 ). For example, during arbovirus outbreaks in Latin America and Southeast Asia, cases of simultaneous transmission of dengue and Zika have been documented, increasing the burden on health systems. This highlights the need to strengthen diagnostic capacity through specific tests, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) methods, as well as the implementation of more robust epidemiological surveillance systems. In sub-Saharan Africa, improved entomological surveillance, along with educational campaigns on preventive measures, could mitigate the impact of these diseases (Lindsay et al., 2021 ). Malaria cases are projected to increase in regions previously too cold to host transmitting vectors, such as the northern United States, Scandinavia, and northern Europe. These areas, where malaria outbreaks were atypical, now, with the increases in global temperature experienced in recent decades, present favourable conditions due to the increase in temperatures and rainfall (Gething et al., 2010 ). In regions such as Costa Rica, elimination is close to being achieved, thanks to effective health policies that include the introduction of supervised treatments with chloroquine and primaquine since 2006. This has reduced annual malaria cases by 98% between 2009 and 2018 (Nnamonu et al.,2025). However, malaria transmission remains sensitive to extreme weather events and natural disasters, underscoring the importance of timely diagnosis and treatment, as well as improving living conditions in affected areas (Abdul-Rahman et al., 2025 ). Similarly, Lyme disease has shown a significant increase in Canada, driven by the expansion of the tick's range, Ixodes scapularis. Warmer temperatures have prolonged their active season and favoured their survival in more northern latitudes. This change has increased the risk to human populations in these areas, where cases were previously sporadic (Zavaleta-Monestel et al., 2025 ). These examples underscore the importance of comprehensive strategies that combine environmental management, entomological surveillance, and access to timely diagnostics to address the challenges posed by climate change in the global dynamics of VBDs (Zhang et al., 2024 ). VBDs continue to pose formidable challenges to global health, particularly in the implementation and sustainability of control measures. One major issue lies in the limited capacity to assess the long-term effectiveness and scalability of interventions. Many vector control programmes are designed around isolated or single-point activities, with inadequate integration or systematic evaluation frameworks, thereby impeding their overall impact and sustainability. As the incidence and geographical spread of VBDs increase, driven by factors such as urbanisation, globalisation, and climate change, a more coordinated and strategic public health response is urgently required. This includes strengthening disease surveillance systems, improving diagnostic capabilities, and deploying comprehensive prevention strategies (Petersen, Beard, & Visser, 2018 ). Furthermore, conventional control methods are increasingly undermined by emerging challenges such as insecticide resistance, behavioural adaptations in vectors (e.g., shifts in biting times or locations), and environmental changes that create new breeding habitats. In response, researchers have advocated for the development and deployment of novel tools, including advanced insecticide formulations, genetically modified mosquitoes, and innovative strategies such as attractive toxic sugar baits, all of which show potential in disrupting vector populations more effectively (Kumar et al., 2024 ). In addition, the "One Health" paradigm has gained prominence as a holistic approach to VBD control, recognising the intrinsic links between human, animal, and environmental health. Alterations in ecosystems through deforestation, agricultural expansion, or urban encroachment can facilitate the emergence and spread of novel pathogens, while simultaneously expanding the habitats of disease-carrying vectors. As such, addressing VBDs requires not only biomedical and technological innovations, but also multidisciplinary collaboration that integrates ecological, veterinary, and social science perspectives to achieve sustainable and inclusive health outcomes. The study by Petersen, Beard, and Visser ( 2018 ) investigated the rising incidence of VBDs in the United States and the systemic challenges impeding effective public health responses. The research was conducted in the context of increasing tick-borne infections and sporadic outbreaks of mosquito-borne diseases such as Zika, West Nile, and chikungunya viruses. The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of existing public health infrastructure in mitigating VBD risks and to advocate for a comprehensive national vector-borne disease prevention and control strategy. It employed a policy-oriented analytical review, drawing on surveillance data, national health reports, and case analyses to highlight systemic gaps and emerging threats such as Haemaphysalis longicornis , an invasive tick species newly reported in the U.S. The findings revealed a threefold increase in reported VBD cases between 2004 and 2016, exacerbated by climate change, urbanisation, international travel, land use change, and population growth. The study emphasised deficiencies in public health surveillance, diagnostic testing, therapeutic development, and vector control capacities across state and local health systems. Notably, 84% of surveyed vector control organisations lacked at least one of the five core operational capacities required for effective VBD control. The study concluded that without coordinated national efforts and investment in innovation, diagnostics, and workforce development, particularly in medical entomology, the United States would remain vulnerable to escalating VBD incidence and mortality. The emergence of H. longicornis exemplified the urgency of this issue, given its potential to transmit lethal pathogens similar to those found in Asia and North America. The study recommended the development of a national vector-borne disease prevention and control system grounded in strong federal-state partnerships. Strategic priorities should include enhanced vector surveillance, sustainable vector control practices, improved diagnostic and treatment tools, and capacity-building initiatives such as the establishment of Centres of Excellence in VBDs. The study also encouraged greater investment in research, innovation, and cross-border collaboration to preempt future outbreaks and reduce public health burdens. Kumar et al. ( 2024 ) conducted a comprehensive review aimed at evaluating current vector control strategies and identifying innovative tools necessary for overcoming persistent and emerging challenges in India’s fight against VBDs. The study addressed major public health concerns, including malaria, chikungunya, dengue, lymphatic filariasis, Japanese encephalitis, and visceral leishmaniasis diseases which continue to impose a significant disease burden across India. The review assessed the efficacy of traditional vector control methods such as indoor residual spraying (IRS), treated bed nets, larvicides, space spraying, fogging, and biological agents like larvivorous fish. Despite their historical utility, the study found that these methods are increasingly undermined by growing insecticide resistance, behavioural shifts in vectors (including outdoor biting and altered resting habits), climate variability, urban expansion, population mobility, and vector adaptation to new geographic regions. In response to these limitations, the study highlighted a set of emerging tools and technologies that show promise in enhancing vector control efforts. These include next-generation insecticide-treated nets incorporating synergists (e.g., chlorfenapyr), novel insecticides such as neonicotinoids and clothianidin for IRS, advanced larvicides like Bacillus sphaericus , attractive toxic sugar baits for outdoor transmission control, and endectocides such as ivermectin for both human and animal use. Additionally, spatial repellents, insecticide-treated clothing, and insecticidal paints were identified as useful supplementary strategies. The study also discussed the potential of genetic modification techniques such as the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT), Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT), and Wolbachia transfection, which offer long-term, sustainable approaches to vector population suppression. These technologies are in varying stages of development and deployment, but offer considerable hope for breaking the transmission cycle of VBDs. Kumar et al. concluded that India’s goal to eliminate malaria, lymphatic filariasis, and visceral leishmaniasis requires urgent investment in both established and novel vector control tools. While the focus of the study was India, the study noted that the insights and interventions described could be adapted and scaled in other countries facing similar ecological and epidemiological profiles. The study recommended that governments, researchers, and public health stakeholders prioritise operational research, field-based trials, and regulatory support for the deployment of novel tools. A coordinated national strategy integrating both conventional and innovative approaches is deemed essential for achieving sustainable VBD control and eventual elimination. In a study conducted by Km et al. (2024), titled Understanding the Progress and Challenges of Vector Control Strategies W.S.R.T. Filariasis , the researchers reviewed existing strategies employed in India to control lymphatic filariasis a debilitating vector-borne disease primarily transmitted by mosquitoes. The review highlighted that lymphatic filariasis remains a significant public health concern due to its potential to cause permanent disability and social stigma, thereby affecting individuals’ quality of life and productivity. The study discussed multiple vector control strategies adopted in India, including source reduction, the use of insecticide-treated nets, indoor residual spraying, and larviciding. Despite these interventions, the paper identified persistent challenges such as mosquito resistance to insecticides, inconsistent implementation of control measures, poor community engagement, and lack of sustained funding. Additionally, environmental conditions, urbanisation, and climate change were noted as complicating factors in vector control efforts. The study concluded that while progress has been made in reducing transmission rates, achieving total elimination of lymphatic filariasis requires innovative approaches and strengthened public health infrastructure. The study recommended the integration of new vector control tools, community-based strategies, and continuous surveillance systems to overcome current limitations. Furthermore, it emphasised the importance of public education and intersectoral collaboration in sustaining long-term disease control outcomes. Theoretical Framework A theoretical framework serves as the conceptual foundation for any research inquiry, offering a structured lens through which to examine the relationships among key variables (Creswell, 2018 ). It provides a scholarly scaffold for developing hypotheses, designing research methodologies, and interpreting findings (Trochim, 2006 ). Theories enable researchers to frame questions more precisely, guide the selection of variables, and synthesise the findings within broader disciplinary conversations (Salkind, 2017 ). Additionally, a sound theoretical framework enriches a study by integrating diverse perspectives and directing attention to the most relevant dimensions of the problem under investigation (Yin, 2018 ). In public health research, particularly studies concerned with disease prevention, the role of theory is indispensable. It helps to explain why individuals engage or fail to engage in health-promoting behaviours, especially when environmental and cultural factors intersect. This study, which investigates the relationship between climate change knowledge and cultural beliefs in the control of VBDs in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State, draws on two widely recognised behavioural models: the Health Belief Model (HBM) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). Together, these models offer a holistic perspective for understanding how knowledge, belief systems, and perceived control influence behavioural intentions and health outcomes. The Health Belief Model (HBM) stands as one of the most influential and enduring theoretical frameworks in health psychology and public health. Originally developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working within the U.S. Public Health Service, including Rosenstock, Hochbaum, Kegels, and Leventhal, the model emerged as a response to a critical public health concern: why individuals failed to engage with preventive health services such as tuberculosis screenings and immunisation programmes (Rosenstock, 1974; Janz & Becker, 1984). Since then, the HBM has evolved into a widely applied tool for explaining how individuals make decisions about their health and what motivates or hinders them from adopting beneficial behaviours. Central to this, the model is predicated on the belief that a person's actions are driven by their perceptions, how they understand a health threat, how seriously they view it, and how effective they believe a specific action will be in mitigating that threat. These perceptions are not formed in a vacuum; they are shaped by personal experiences, sociocultural influences, and environmental cues. As such, the HBM provides a valuable lens through which to understand the cognitive processes behind health-related behaviour. The HBM has been applied across a wide array of health domains. In the context of this study, the HBM is particularly relevant for understanding how residents in Ilorin East LGA interpret the risks associated with climate-sensitive diseases such as malaria and yellow fever. Their decision to use preventive measures, such as insecticide-treated nets, environmental sanitation, or seeking medical treatment, may depend on their perceptions of disease severity, personal vulnerability, and trust in available control strategies. Additionally, cues to action, such as community education or personal illness experiences, may trigger changes in behaviour. Importantly, the model acknowledges that cultural interpretations of illness can shape beliefs about disease causation, potentially hindering the acceptance of biomedical explanations or interventions. The HBM has also been instrumental during emerging health crises. During the COVID-19 pandemic, research found that individuals who perceived themselves as higher risk and believed in the severity of the disease were more likely to follow public health guidance, including vaccination, mask-wearing, and social distancing (Yenew et al., 2023; Bish & Michie, 2010). A significant strength of the HBM lies in its versatility. It is straightforward enough to be applied in community health settings while also sophisticated enough to inform national and global health campaigns. Its adaptability allows researchers and practitioners to tailor interventions that align with individuals’ cognitive appraisals of health threats and actions (Glanz et al., 2008). Moreover, the inclusion of self-efficacy as a core construct significantly enhanced the model’s explanatory power, especially when dealing with complex behavioural changes such as long-term medication adherence, lifestyle modification, or chronic disease management (Bandura, 2004; Patton et al., 2017). The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), developed by Ajzen ( 1985 , 1991 ), provides a robust framework for predicting and understanding individual behaviour in various health-related and environmental contexts. At its core, TPB posits that an individual's intention to perform a specific behaviour is the most immediate determinant of that behaviour. This intention is influenced by three independent constructs: attitude towards the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1991 ; Madden, Ellen, & Ajzen, 1992). These constructs are underpinned by three types of beliefs: behavioural beliefs, which influence attitudes through expected outcomes of the behaviour; normative beliefs, which shape subjective norms through perceived expectations of important referents; and control beliefs, which inform perceived behavioural control based on the presence of facilitating or hindering factors (Ajzen, 2006 ). Together, these components predict behavioural intentions, and, to the extent that perceived control reflects actual control, they also predict behaviour. In the context of the current study, the TPB offers a valuable lens through which residents’ health-related behaviours can be examined. Specifically, the model helps explain how individuals' attitudes toward climate change and VBDs, social influences shaped by cultural norms and communal beliefs, and their perceived capacity to take preventive actions, interact to determine whether they will engage in control measures against diseases like malaria, dengue, and Lassa fever. For instance, residents who believe that climate change significantly influences the increase of mosquito-borne diseases (behavioural belief) and who perceive that community leaders or health workers expect them to clear stagnant water or use insecticide-treated nets (normative belief) are more likely to adopt such protective behaviours, especially when they feel confident in their ability to do so despite infrastructural or economic limitations (control belief). Moreover, perceived behavioural control is particularly relevant in low-resource settings like Ilorin East LGA, where access to health infrastructure, information, and protective materials may be uneven. Thus, even when attitudes and social norms are supportive, a lack of resources or systemic support may limit actual behavioural performance. This points to the need for both awareness interventions and structural support to promote the uptake of sustainable vector-borne disease control practices. Ajzen ( 2006 ) further argues that interventions targeting these components, especially perceptions of control, can significantly improve behavioural intentions and, by extension, actual behaviours. Therefore, for this study, the TPB not only provides a predictive framework but also guides the design of public health interventions. Therefore, addressing attitudes, reshaping cultural beliefs through education, and enhancing residents’ perceived control (e.g., through access to information or tools), local governments and health authorities can strengthen disease prevention behaviours across the community. Drawing on both the HBM and TPB, this study adopts a dual-theoretical framework that captures both the cognitive and social dimensions of disease prevention. The HBM addresses internal perceptions of vulnerability and benefit, while the TPB expands this understanding to include social norms and perceived agency. When combined, these models allow for a nuanced analysis of how climate change knowledge and cultural beliefs shape residents’ responses to the increasing threat of VBDs. Given the growing influence of climate change on the geographic spread and intensity of VBDs and the persistence of culturally rooted health beliefs in many parts of Nigeria, this integrative approach offers a robust framework for understanding both the facilitators and barriers to disease control at the community level. Methodology This study adopted a mixed-methods approach with a sequential explanatory design, a strategy that allows researchers to first collect and analyse quantitative data, followed by qualitative insights to further explain and interpret statistical findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010). The target population for this study comprised all adult residents of Ilorin East (LGA) in Kwara State, Nigeria. According to data from the National Population Commission (NPC, 2006) and projections from the National Bureau of Statistics (2023), Ilorin East LGA is estimated to have a population of over 404,000 residents. To ensure that the sample is both representative and contextually grounded, this study adopted a multistage sampling technique, which is considered appropriate for large and heterogeneous populations (Creswell & Creswell, 2018 ). The sampling process unfolded in three distinct stages to reflect the geographic diversity and socio-demographic variation within Ilorin East (LGA). The sample size for this study was determined using Cochran’s formula for large populations (Cochran, 1977), which is appropriate for populations exceeding 10,000. At a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error, the minimum required sample size was calculated to be 384 respondents. However, to accommodate potential non-responses and ensure data robustness, the sample size was increased to 420 respondents across the selected communities. In addition to the quantitative survey, the study incorporated a qualitative component to gain deeper insight into climate-related and cultural narratives. Twelve (12) key informants, one from each of the twelve wards, were purposively selected for semi-structured interviews. These informants included community leaders, health workers, traditional healers, and religious figures, all of whom were recognised for their influence on local health practices. The study utilised a researcher-designed open-ended questionnaire alongside a semi-structured interview guide as its primary data collection instruments, both of which were developed in direct alignment with the study’s research objectives. These tools were intended to capture both the breadth and depth of residents’ perspectives on the interrelationship between climate change knowledge, cultural beliefs, and VBD control practices in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State. The questionnaire titled Questionnaire on Climate Change Knowledge and Vector-Borne Disease Control Behaviour among Residents of Ilorin East LGA (QCCK-VBDC) was structured to elicit both demographic information and thematic insights. The data collection process was carefully planned and executed over ten weeks, integrating both quantitative and qualitative components to maximise the depth, validity, and reliability of the findings. The principal researcher, with the support of two trained field assistants, administered both structured questionnaires and open-ended instruments across selected communities in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State. This study adopted a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, facilitating the concurrent but independent collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data strands. This design is well-suited to complex public health investigations, where multiple variables such as climate change knowledge, cultural beliefs, and VBD control interact in deep ways (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). This study was carried out in full compliance with established ethical principles to ensure transparency, academic integrity, and respect for human dignity throughout all phases of the research process. Ethical considerations guided participant recruitment, data collection, data management, and the overall handling of sensitive information. Central to the study is the commitment to upholding the rights, autonomy, and welfare of all participants, in line with best practices in public health research (World Medical Association, 2013). To ensure informed consent, each participant was provided with a detailed consent form clearly outlining the purpose of the study, the procedures involved, the voluntary nature of participation, and the right to withdraw at any stage without penalty. Participants were asked to read, sign, and return the consent form prior to completing either the questionnaire or the interview. For respondents engaged via digital platforms, electronic consent was obtained by recognised ethical protocols. In cases where participants may have limited literacy, the researcher offered verbal explanations in local dialects to ensure full comprehension and informed decision-making. Confidentiality and anonymity were strongly upheld throughout the study. All responses were anonymised, and no personally identifiable information was recorded or disclosed. Data was stored securely in password-protected digital files and remained accessible only to the researcher and authorised academic supervisors. The handling of all information complied with data protection regulations and institutional guidelines. Result and Analysis Age Fig. above shows the age distribution of the respondents, which reveals that the majority of respondents fall within the younger to middle-aged groups (18–40 years), accounting for over half of the population, suggesting that awareness and practices on vector-borne disease control are shaped largely by active youth and working-class individuals. Gender Fig. above showed the distribution of gender, which revealed that Males (55.7%) were more represented than females (41.4%), while only a small fraction (2.9%) preferred not to disclose. This implies that male perspectives dominate the study sample. Religion Fig. above showed the distribution of religion, which revealed that Islam is the dominant religion (52.6%), followed by Christianity (37.4%), with Traditional (6.9%) and Others (3.1%) being minorities. This highlights that religious beliefs in disease control practices are primarily influenced by Islam and Christianity. Education Fig. above showed the distribution of education, which revealed that respondents with tertiary education form the largest group (41.2%), followed by secondary education (32.6%). Only a minority had primary (15.5%) or no formal education (10.7%). This indicates that most participants are relatively well-educated, which may influence their climate-change knowledge and acceptance of scientific disease control methods. Occupation Fig. above showed the distribution of occupation, which revealed that farmers (21.4%) and traders (15.7%) dominate, with civil servants (16.2%) and artisans (12.4%) also forming significant groups. Traditional and religious leaders, health workers, and healers collectively represent smaller segments. This distribution suggested that agricultural and informal sector workers are central in shaping local responses to disease control. Residence Fig. above showed the distribution of residence, which revealed that a large proportion of respondents have lived in their communities for over 10 years (34.5%) or between 6–10 years (31.9%), while fewer had resided for less than 1–5 years (24.3%) or under 1 year (9.3%). This indicates that most respondents are long-term residents, potentially giving them deeper cultural insights into local health practices. Awareness of Vector-Borne Diseases Control Table 1 Awareness of Vector-Borne Diseases Control (N = 420) Item SA (f/%) A (f/%) D (f/%) SD (f/%) Mean SD I am aware that diseases such as malaria and dengue fever are transmitted by insect vectors. 280 (66.7%) 100 (23.8%) 30 (7.1%) 10 (2.4%) 1.45 0.76 I know the common insect vectors responsible for spreading diseases in my community. 240 (57.1%) 120 (28.6%) 40 (9.5%) 20 (4.8%) 1.62 0.89 I understand the role of environmental sanitation in controlling the spread of vector-borne diseases. 300 (71.4%) 90 (21.4%) 20 (4.8%) 10 (2.4%) 1.38 0.70 I am aware of modern preventive tools such as insecticide-treated nets and indoor spraying. 270 (64.3%) 100 (23.8%) 40 (9.5%) 10 (2.4%) 1.50 0.78 I receive regular information about disease prevention from health workers, the media, or community leaders. 220 (52.4%) 120 (28.6%) 60 (14.3%) 20 (4.8%) 1.71 0.93 I have actively participated in community-based vector control activities within the past year. 180 (42.9%) 140 (33.3%) 70 (16.7%) 30 (7.1%) 1.88 1.01 I believe that awareness of disease transmission methods contributes to better preventive practices. 310 (73.8%) 80 (19.0%) 20 (4.8%) 10 (2.4%) 1.35 0.67 Table 1 indicates that respondents demonstrated a high level of awareness of vector-borne diseases. A large majority reported that they were aware that diseases such as malaria and dengue fever are transmitted by insect vectors ( M = 1.45, SD = 0.76). Similarly, many indicated that they understood the role of environmental sanitation in controlling the spread of vector-borne diseases ( M = 1.38, SD = 0.70), and they were aware of modern preventive tools such as insecticide-treated nets and indoor spraying ( M = 1.50, SD = 0.78). In addition, most agreed that awareness of disease transmission methods contributes to better preventive practices ( M = 1.35, SD = 0.67). However, while respondents acknowledged that they received information from health workers, the media, or community leaders ( M = 1.71, SD = 0.93), fewer reported active participation in community-based vector control activities within the past year ( M = 1.88, SD = 1.01). These findings suggest that although knowledge and awareness are widespread, actual participation in control programs remains relatively lower. Qualitative Findings on Awareness and Control of Vector-Borne Diseases All participants expressed awareness of VBDs such as malaria, yellow fever, and dengue, although their depth of knowledge varied. The responses clustered around five themes: use of preventive tools, environmental management, health campaigns and vaccination, community mobilisation, and cultural/traditional methods. Participants highlighted reliance on mosquito nets, insecticides, and repellents. P1 (student) stated, “Yes, I am aware of malaria and yellow fever. I sleep under a treated net every night.” Similarly, P5 (civil servant) remarked, “We use insecticides and mosquito coils at home to reduce mosquito bites.” These actions demonstrate a strong recognition of personal protective measures. Several respondents linked environmental hygiene to disease prevention. P3 (farmer) explained, “I know malaria is from mosquitoes. That is why I clear bushes and drain stagnant water around my house.” P9 (artisan) confirmed, “We participate in monthly sanitation, especially clearing gutters.” This indicates that awareness translates into proactive household and community sanitation practices. Many participants described exposure to government or NGO health initiatives. P6 (trader) recalled, “Health workers came to our area for yellow fever vaccination; we participated because they told us it spreads easily.” P10 (student) added, “We had health talks in school about malaria prevention and the need to seek treatment early.” These responses suggest that awareness is reinforced by institutional interventions. Community leaders also play an important role in strengthening preventive action. P12 (religious leader) shared, “I use Friday sermons to remind people about covering water containers and sleeping under nets.” Likewise, P14 (traditional leader) said, “During our community meetings, I always emphasise mosquito control and encourage people to accept spraying programs.” These highlight how awareness is amplified through trusted voices. A smaller group mentioned indigenous practices alongside modern prevention. P7 (farmer) observed, “Some still burn herbs or leaves to drive mosquitoes, but the younger people prefer nets.” P15 (artisan) added, “We sometimes rub local mixtures on the body as repellents.” While not scientifically proven, these practices reveal how cultural beliefs influence preventive behaviour. Triangulation of Findings on Awareness and Control of Vector-Borne Diseases The findings revealed both areas of convergence and points of divergence, thereby offering a more comprehensive understanding of VBD awareness and control in Ilorin East LGA. Across both data sources, there was broad agreement that malaria and yellow fever were the most recognised diseases, confirming a strong level of awareness within the community. This was not only reflected in the high percentage of survey respondents identifying these diseases but also reinforced through qualitative testimonies, where participants described personal experiences of malaria as an everyday health challenge. Preventive measures such as environmental sanitation, including bush clearing and the removal of stagnant water, were also strongly validated across datasets. Farmers, artisans, and students recounted routine practices to reduce breeding sites, aligning with survey findings that emphasised these as the most effective strategies. Likewise, the widespread use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), indoor insecticide sprays, and mosquito coils featured prominently in both the statistical evidence and the lived experiences of participants, highlighting the dominance of household-level biomedical interventions. However, the triangulation also revealed notable contradictions that complicated the initial survey picture. While quantitative findings suggested relatively high participation in government and institutional campaigns, qualitative accounts pointed to uneven implementation. Some respondents recalled vaccination drives, health talks, and awareness campaigns, yet others lamented their irregularity or complete absence in certain communities. This discrepancy indicates that the survey findings may have overstated the effectiveness of institutional outreach. Similarly, cultural and traditional practices, which were underemphasised in the quantitative data, emerged more strongly in the qualitative narratives. Several participants described the use of herbs, smoke, and local remedies as alternative or complementary methods of mosquito control. These practices not only reflect the persistence of indigenous knowledge but also reveal subtle tensions between biomedical approaches and cultural traditions. Community-level mobilisation provided another point of divergence. Although survey responses suggested moderate participation in collective control efforts, qualitative evidence challenged this, with traditional and religious leaders pointing to weak enforcement, poor coordination, and limited government involvement. This suggests that while individuals take responsibility for prevention within their households, collective action remains fragmented and inconsistent. As a result, the triangulated analysis both validates and challenges the findings in important ways. It confirms that knowledge and household-level preventive practices are well established across the community, while also exposing limitations in institutional interventions, underreported reliance on cultural remedies, and weaknesses in collective action. These areas of convergence and divergence highlight the value of combining quantitative with qualitative, ensuring that the conclusions drawn reflect not only statistical patterns but also the lived realities and cultural contexts of the people most affected. Role of Climate Change Knowledge in VBD Control Table 2 Role of Climate Change Knowledge in VBD Control (N = 420) Item SA (f/%) A (f/%) D (f/%) SD (f/%) Mean SD I understand that climate change can contribute to the spread of diseases like malaria or cholera. 260 (61.9%) 110 (26.2%) 30 (7.1%) 20 (4.8%) 1.55 0.82 I have noticed changes in mosquito prevalence during unusually hot or rainy seasons. 240 (57.1%) 120 (28.6%) 40 (9.5%) 20 (4.8%) 1.62 0.87 Poor drainage and increased flooding in my area have led to more standing water and disease risks. 270 (64.3%) 100 (23.8%) 30 (7.1%) 20 (4.8%) 1.53 0.81 I believe climate variability has increased the number and intensity of disease outbreaks in recent years. 230 (54.8%) 120 (28.6%) 50 (11.9%) 20 (4.8%) 1.66 0.88 I have received information about how climate change affects health from the media or health campaigns. 200 (47.6%) 140 (33.3%) 50 (11.9%) 30 (7.1%) 1.78 0.94 Climate change awareness affects how people in my community take precautions against disease. 210 (50.0%) 130 (31.0%) 60 (14.3%) 20 (4.8%) 1.74 0.92 People who are informed about climate risks are more likely to adopt preventive health behaviours. 260 (61.9%) 110 (26.2%) 30 (7.1%) 20 (4.8%) 1.55 0.82 In Table 2 above, Respondents strongly agreed that climate change contributes to the spread of diseases such as malaria and cholera ( M = 1.55, SD = 0.82). They also reported noticing changes in mosquito prevalence during unusually hot or rainy seasons ( M = 1.62, SD = 0.87), and many indicated that poor drainage and increased flooding in their area had created more standing water and disease risks ( M = 1.53, SD = 0.81). In addition, respondents agreed that climate variability has increased the number or intensity of disease outbreaks in recent years ( M = 1.66, SD = 0.88). Although most reported receiving some information about how climate change affects health through the media or campaigns ( M = 1.78, SD = 0.94), their personal experiences of weather-related changes seemed to have a stronger impact. A majority agreed that climate change awareness influences how people take precautions against disease ( M = 1.74, SD = 0.92) and that individuals who are informed about climate risks are more likely to adopt preventive health behaviours ( M = 1.55, SD = 0.82). These findings indicate that communities recognise the link between climate change and disease spread, even if formal campaigns have not been highly effective. Qualitative Report on Role of Climate Change Knowledge in VBD Control The accounts of participants reflected strong awareness that changing weather patterns are shaping the frequency and severity of vector-borne diseases (VBDs) such as malaria, yellow fever, and dengue. Their responses was categorized into four themes: seasonal changes, environmental conditions, increased disease burden, and livelihood-related impacts. Several participants observed that irregular rainfall and prolonged wet seasons have worsened mosquito breeding. P1 (student) explained, “The rains now last longer, and that means stagnant water stays in our compounds, bringing more mosquitoes.” Likewise, P5 (farmer) added, “Planting seasons have shifted, and with that, mosquito cases rise in months we never used to expect.” Respondents linked rising temperatures and flooding with greater breeding opportunities for vectors. P9 (civil servant) remarked, “The heat is much more intense these days, and people say mosquitoes multiply faster in such weather.” P7 (trader) echoed this, noting, “When floods happen, dirty water collects everywhere, and we see a sudden increase in malaria cases.” Participants generally agreed that climate change has increased the frequency of illness. P3 (farmer) said, “In my family, malaria is almost constant during the rainy period now, worse than before.” P11 (religious leader) observed, “Members of my congregation complain of fever more often, especially after heavy rains.” Similarly, P16 (artisan) added, “We now spend more money on drugs and hospital visits because the sickness comes more regularly.” Some responses connected disease outbreaks with socio-economic pressures. P8 (student) shared, “When malaria keeps us from school, our learning is affected.” P6 (trader) added, “I lose sales when I fall sick or when customers are unwell during outbreaks.” In the same way, P14 (traditional leader) stressed, “Frequent malaria in the community reduces our productivity and weakens our farming activities.” Triangulation of Findings on Role of Climate Change Knowledge in VBD Control The triangulated analysis of the study confirms that climate change is both widely recognised and directly experienced as a key determinant of VBD prevalence and control in the study area. Respondents consistently associated rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, prolonged wet seasons, and recurrent flooding with increased mosquito breeding and higher rates of malaria and related illnesses. Quantitative findings indicated strong agreement that climate change contributes to the spread of diseases such as malaria and cholera, with respondents highlighting that unusually hot or rainy seasons, coupled with poor drainage systems, created favourable breeding grounds for vectors. These insights were reinforced by qualitative accounts in which participants described stagnant water persisting after heavy rains, faster mosquito multiplication during hotter periods, and shifts in agricultural planting seasons that coincided with unexpected rises in mosquito cases. Beyond the epidemiological impacts, the findings revealed significant socio-economic consequences. Farmers, traders, and artisans reported recurrent malaria episodes that strained household finances through increased health expenditures and reduced productivity, while students and teachers emphasised disruptions to learning during outbreaks. Community and religious leaders similarly observed that recurrent illness undermined both livelihoods and collective wellbeing, with malaria described as a persistent disruption to agricultural productivity and local economic stability. Knowledge of climate change and its health effects was derived partly from media and public health campaigns, yet experiential awareness—gained through lived encounters with flooding, heat, and shifting weather patterns—appeared to exert a stronger influence on both perception and behaviour. Respondents who were better informed were also more likely to adopt preventive measures, suggesting that awareness plays a critical role in shaping adaptive practices. The integration of both quantitative and qualitative strands validates the conclusion that climate change is understood not only as a scientific reality but also as an everyday experience that shapes health outcomes, livelihoods, and community resilience. The convergence of statistical evidence with lived accounts underscores the urgent need for vector control strategies that incorporate both scientific data and community-based knowledge, ensuring that interventions are grounded in the realities of those most affected. Challenges in Implementing VBD Control Measures Table 3 Challenges in Implementing VBD Control Measures (N = 420) Item SA (f/%) A (f/%) D (f/%) SD (f/%) Mean SD Lack of access to preventive tools. 200 (47.6%) 130 (31.0%) 60 (14.3%) 30 (7.1%) 1.81 0.94 Inadequate health information/education. 190 (45.2%) 140 (33.3%) 60 (14.3%) 30 (7.1%) 1.82 0.92 Poor environmental conditions make control difficult. 220 (52.4%) 130 (31.0%) 50 (11.9%) 20 (4.8%) 1.71 0.87 Cultural resistance creates conflict in health campaigns. 170 (40.5%) 140 (33.3%) 80 (19.0%) 30 (7.1%) 1.93 0.94 Economic constraints prevent the purchase of supplies. 200 (47.6%) 130 (31.0%) 60 (14.3%) 30 (7.1%) 1.81 0.94 Limited government support/poor coordination. 180 (42.9%) 140 (33.3%) 70 (16.7%) 30 (7.1%) 1.88 0.96 Weather variability/climate issues worsen control. 210 (50.0%) 130 (31.0%) 60 (14.3%) 20 (4.8%) 1.75 0.90 In Table 3 above, Respondents identified several key barriers to disease control. Many agreed that lack of access to preventive tools such as insecticide-treated nets and protective clothing was a significant challenge ( M = 1.81, SD = 0.94), along with inadequate public health education ( M = 1.82, SD = 0.92). Poor environmental conditions, such as stagnant water and blocked drainage, were widely recognised as major contributors to disease spread ( M = 1.71, SD = 0.87). In addition, cultural resistance to modern prevention techniques was reported as a challenge ( M = 1.93, SD = 0.94), while economic constraints were seen as preventing many households from purchasing prevention supplies ( M = 1.81, SD = 0.94). Respondents also pointed to limited government support and poor coordination ( M = 1.88, SD = 0.96), as well as weather variability and climate-related events such as flooding, which undermine the effectiveness of control measures ( M = 1.75, SD = 0.90). Qualitative Report on Challenges in Implementing VBD Control Measures Participants identified several barriers to effective control of mosquito- and insect-related diseases in Ilorin East. These barriers were grouped into environmental factors, socio-economic constraints, health system limitations, and behavioural/cultural issues. Many participants described how poor drainage and stagnant water created breeding grounds for mosquitoes. P2 (student) explained, “The gutters in our area are always blocked, so mosquitoes breed there.” P6 (farmer) added, “During the rainy season, water gathers around farms and homes, and it is difficult to clear it all.” P12 (civil servant) noted, “Refuse dumps are close to living areas, which attracts insects and worsens the problem.” Several respondents reported difficulties affording preventive tools. P5 (farmer) said, “Many cannot buy insecticide sprays or nets because of the cost.” P9 (trader) mentioned, “Even when bed nets are given free, some people sell them to get money for food.” P16 (artisan) added, “Electricity supply is irregular, so we cannot always use fans to reduce mosquito bites.” Some participants highlighted issues with access to health services and prevention programmes. P8 (religious leader) remarked, “Health workers come to spray sometimes, but it is not regular.” P11 (civil servant) complained, “Medicines are often expensive or unavailable in the local clinics.” P14 (traditional leader) said, “We expect more education campaigns, but they rarely reach the rural wards.” Cultural practices and community behaviour also posed obstacles. P3 (student) observed, “Some neighbours do not clear bushes around their houses even when told.” P7 (trader) stated, “People leave water containers uncovered, and mosquitoes breed there.” P13 (religious leader) added, “Some still believe malaria is a spiritual illness, so they delay going to the hospital.” Triangulation Analysis of Challenges in Implementing Vector-Borne Disease (VBD) Control Measures The triangulated findings from both quantitative and qualitative strands provide robust evidence regarding the determinants of vector-borne disease (VBD) control in Ilorin East Local Government Area. The quantitative survey highlighted poor environmental sanitation, economic constraints, institutional inadequacies, cultural beliefs, and climatic changes as key barriers to effective prevention and control. These patterns were consistently substantiated through participants’ narratives, thereby strengthening the validity of the findings through methodological triangulation. Environmental conditions emerged as a central factor. Quantitative responses indicated that stagnant water, blocked drainage systems, and refuse accumulation were perceived to contribute significantly to mosquito breeding and, by extension, disease prevalence. This statistical trend was corroborated in interviews, where participants described gutters overflowing with stagnant water and neglected refuse dumps creating fertile breeding sites. The complementarity between numerical evidence and lived experiences confirms the critical role of environmental sanitation in the transmission of VBDs. Economic constraints were also found to be highly significant. Survey findings revealed that financial limitations restricted access to preventive measures such as insecticide-treated nets and repellents. These findings were validated by qualitative accounts in which participants reported selling government-distributed mosquito nets to meet immediate financial needs or being unable to afford insecticide sprays. The convergence of these findings demonstrates how poverty not only restricts preventive options but also shapes household decision-making in ways that sustain vulnerability to VBDs. Institutional and systemic weaknesses were consistently emphasised. Quantitative data indicated low satisfaction with government-led interventions, including inconsistent distribution of preventive tools and limited health education campaigns. Participants’ narratives reinforced these findings, citing inadequate spraying exercises, high treatment costs, and poor outreach in rural areas. The alignment of these perspectives across data sources indicates that systemic gaps are a widespread and entrenched challenge. Cultural and traditional beliefs further shaped disease control practices. Statistical findings identified cultural norms as a significant constraint, while qualitative evidence contextualised this by revealing that some residents interpreted malaria and similar illnesses through spiritual or mystical lenses. This perception often delays medical intervention and limits the uptake of modern preventive practices. Such integration of cultural dimensions into the analysis demonstrates how deeply embedded beliefs influence public health behaviours and the reception of scientific interventions. Climate change and seasonal variability were also recognised as critical determinants. Quantitative analysis demonstrated a significant association between changing climatic conditions and the prevalence of VBDs. This was supported by participants’ accounts of heavy rainfall, flooding, and waterlogging of farmlands and residential areas, which facilitated increased mosquito breeding. The congruence between quantitative measures and qualitative testimony validates the conclusion that climate variability exacerbates the frequency and intensity of disease outbreaks. As a result, these findings confirm that triangulation has both validated and enriched the study’s findings. Quantitative patterns provided measurable evidence of associations, while qualitative narratives added depth, context, and local specificity. The alignment of findings across methods enhances the overall credibility of the study and underscores the multifactorial nature of VBD control. The findings suggest that effective interventions in Ilorin East must adopt a holistic and culturally sensitive approach that simultaneously addresses environmental sanitation, poverty alleviation, institutional strengthening, cultural engagement, and climate adaptation strategies. Discussion of Findings Awareness of Vector-Borne Diseases Control The findings on awareness and control of VBD in Ilorin East LGA highlight both alignment with and divergence from the broader body of literature on VBD knowledge and prevention. Be that as it may, the study confirms that awareness of VBDs, particularly malaria and yellow fever, is widespread. Both quantitative data and qualitative narratives revealed that these diseases are well recognised, with malaria especially described as a persistent health challenge affecting households daily. This corroborates the findings of Aderibigbe et al. (2015), who similarly reported high community awareness of malaria in Kwara State. In line with the present study, their work emphasised the familiarity of populations with VBDs most directly experienced in their environment. Preventive practices, particularly household-level biomedical interventions, were also consistently validated across both methods. The use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), insecticide sprays, and mosquito coils was widely reported and significant. These findings reinforce the conclusions of Pulford et al. (2011), who demonstrated high reliance on ITNs as the most widely accepted malaria prevention strategy across sub-Saharan Africa. Similarly, evidence from the World Health Organisation ( 2020 ) affirms that ITN usage remains one of the most effective preventive measures, a point strongly mirrored in both the survey data and lived experiences of participants in this study. Environmental sanitation, including bush clearing and the removal of stagnant water, also featured prominently as community-driven practices, reflecting alignment with earlier work by Adeleke et al. (2010), who emphasised the importance of environmental management in malaria prevention. The consistent validation of these practices across data sources highlights that the community has internalised key preventive strategies, thus echoing prior scholarship that stresses the necessity of environmental modification alongside biomedical interventions. Despite these convergences, the triangulated findings also complicate the broader picture by revealing contradictions and underexplored dynamics. Quantitative evidence suggested high levels of participation in institutional campaigns such as vaccination drives and public health education; however, qualitative testimonies revealed gaps in implementation. Several participants reported the irregularity, inconsistency, or absence of such programmes in their communities. This divergence challenges the assumption of uniform outreach effectiveness, contrasting with studies such as Oladipo et al. (2019), who reported strong community uptake of institutional campaigns in other Nigerian contexts. The findings here suggest that while such initiatives are acknowledged, their impact may be uneven and overstated when captured solely through survey instruments. Another critical dimension revealed through the findings was the persistence of cultural practices, which were less prominent in the quantitative findings but strongly evident in qualitative accounts. Participants described reliance on herbs, burning of local plants, and the use of locally made repellents as complementary or alternative strategies. These findings corroborate earlier studies (Ahorlu et al., 2005; Tusting et al., 2016) that highlight the coexistence of traditional and biomedical practices in malaria prevention. However, they also challenge dominant narratives that assume biomedical methods have fully supplanted indigenous approaches, instead emphasising a hybrid model of disease control shaped by cultural context. Community-level mobilisation further revealed a point of divergence. While survey data suggested moderate participation in collective efforts, interviews with traditional and religious leaders pointed to weak coordination, poor enforcement, and limited government engagement. This contrasts with findings by Akinyele and Ajayi (2018), who emphasised the pivotal role of community structures in sustaining long-term malaria control. The discrepancy here suggests that in Ilorin East, collective structures are less robust than elsewhere, with household-level prevention carrying more weight than organised, community-wide campaigns. Role of Climate Change Knowledge in VBD Control The findings from Ilorin East LGA substantiate the reviewed literature’s central claim that climate variability is a material driver of VBD risk. Converging quantitative and qualitative data link rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, prolonged wet seasons, and recurrent flooding to increased mosquito breeding and higher malaria incidence. This aligns with the literature’s description of climate-sensitive entomological dynamics—namely, temperature-dependent biting and survival rates, rainfall-driven larval habitat creation, and shorter extrinsic incubation periods at warmer temperatures (e.g., vectorial capacity frameworks). Consistent with multi-regional syntheses that identify temperature, humidity, and rainfall as key predictors of arboviral transmission (e.g., Bhatia et al., 2022 ; Wiyono et al., 2021 ), respondents in Ilorin East attributed seasonal surges in mosquitoes and malaria to hotter spells and heavy rains that leave persistent standing water. The findings also support literature documenting the socio-economic externalities of climate-amplified VBDs. Participants described recurrent malaria episodes that erode household income, reduce productivity, and disrupt schooling, echoing accounts that climate-exacerbated outbreaks impose sizable costs on labour markets, education, and local economies. This convergence highlights the literature’s call for integrated strategies that pair environmental management with social protection, given that vulnerability is shaped by both exposure (climate hazards) and sensitivity/adaptive capacity (infrastructure, poverty, service access). Further corroboration arises in the salience of experiential knowledge. While respondents acknowledged learning from media and campaigns, they weighted lived encounters with flooding, heat, and weather shifts more heavily in shaping risk perception and preventive behaviour. This tracks with the reviewed work, emphasising that observable, proximal climatic signals often motivate behavioural adaptation more effectively than distal risk communications, strengthening the case for participatory, community-embedded health promotion that translates scientific forecasts into locally resonant action. At the same time, the Ilorin East data offer nuanced qualifications (“against” or tempering) the literature’s generalisations. Although the survey grouped malaria and cholera under climate-affected diseases, cholera is water-borne rather than vector-borne; its climate sensitivity operates through hydrometeorological and WASH pathways (e.g., heavy rainfall overwhelming drainage and contaminating water supplies), not through vector ecology per se. The community’s attribution to “poor drainage and flooding” is therefore plausible, but the mechanism differs from that of mosquito-borne infections. This distinction matters for intervention design: drainage remediation and safe water provision will be more decisive for cholera control than mosquito-centric measures. The reviewed literature also cautions that causal attribution of recent disease changes to anthropogenic climate change is methodologically complex, given data limitations, non-climate confounders (urbanisation, mobility, insecticide/drug resistance), and interaction with natural variability (e.g., ENSO). In Ilorin East, respondents’ climate attributions are credible and consistent with entomological theory, yet the study did not incorporate time-series entomological or meteorological modelling, nor did it quantify competing drivers (e.g., housing quality, land use, sanitation). Hence, while the direction of effect agrees with the literature, the magnitude and attributable fraction remain unquantified, an important caveat. The literature highlights heterogeneity by disease, vector, and setting. Some vectors (e.g., endophilic species) may be partially buffered from weather by indoor habitats; conversely, certain rural VBDs can decline with urbanisation even as dengue risk rises. The Ilorin East narratives emphasise mosquito-driven malaria, but they do not differentiate species, habitats (indoor vs. outdoor), or potential shifts in Aedes risks that the literature anticipates with warming and altered rainfall. This represents a knowledge gap relative to the reviewed evidence calling for differentiated surveillance (malaria vs. dengue vs. other arboviruses) and locally specific ecological diagnostics. The literature stresses the co-circulation and co-infection challenge (e.g., dengue/Zika/chikungunya) and the diagnostic burden it creates. The present findings focus on malaria and do not indicate syndromic confusion or testing constraints across multiple arboviruses. This does not contradict the literature, but suggests that, in this locale and time, malaria remains the dominant clinical and perceived burden, whereas the broader arboviral complexity described in regional and global reviews may be emerging but not yet prominent in community discourse. Although respondents report that greater awareness is associated with more protective behaviour, the literature reminds us that awareness is necessary but insufficient without enabling environments, reliable ITN supply, larval source management, drainage maintenance, and responsive primary care. The qualitative evidence of irregular campaigns, infrastructure deficits, and persistent breeding sites partially contradicts any assumption that information alone will close the prevention gap, reinforcing the reviewed call for structural interventions (environmental engineering, routine vector control, and climate-informed health systems). As a result of that, the Ilorin East findings validate the reviewed literature’s core propositions: climate variability intensifies VBD risk through temperature and rainfall pathways; socio-economic harms are substantial; and locally grounded knowledge is pivotal for adaptation. They also temper the literature with setting-specific realities: cholera’s non-vector pathway; attribution limits without longitudinal modelling; disease-specific heterogeneity; and implementation gaps that blunt the impact of awareness. Challenges in Implementing VBD Control Measures The findings of this study demonstrate that VBD control in Ilorin East is shaped by an intricate interplay of environmental, economic, institutional, cultural, and climatic determinants. The integration of quantitative and qualitative evidence not only validates the robustness of the findings but also situates them within the wider body of scholarship on disease prevention and community health. Environmental sanitation emerged as a critical determinant of VBD prevalence. Quantitative evidence showed that stagnant water, blocked drainage, and refuse accumulation were widely perceived to drive mosquito breeding. This was reinforced by qualitative narratives of gutters overflowing with stagnant water and refuse dumps serving as fertile sites for vector proliferation. These findings strongly support Surinyach (2019), who emphasised that inadequate environmental management is one of the most persistent challenges in reducing mosquito-borne diseases. Similarly, Petersen et al. (2020) noted that neglected drainage systems and unmanaged waste substantially undermine localised disease control programmes. However, unlike the global perspectives emphasised by Eastman et al. (2021), which prioritised large-scale infrastructural interventions, the present study underscores the importance of community-level sanitation practices, suggesting that bottom-up engagement is just as vital as state-driven reforms. Economic constraints were also identified as a major barrier to disease prevention. Quantitative data revealed that households often lacked the resources to purchase insecticide-treated nets or repellents, while qualitative interviews highlighted practices such as selling government-distributed nets to meet immediate financial needs. These findings are consistent with Kumar et al. (2020), who demonstrated that poverty not only limits access to preventive measures but also shapes household health behaviours in ways that sustain vulnerability. While Km et al. (2019) argued that structural interventions, such as universal health subsidies, could mitigate this challenge, the findings from Ilorin East suggest that without direct poverty alleviation measures, even well-intentioned government programmes are likely to fall short. Institutional weaknesses also featured prominently across both strands of evidence. Quantitative findings pointed to low satisfaction with government-led interventions, while participants described inadequate spraying exercises, poor outreach to rural communities, and inconsistent distribution of preventive tools. These findings echo the concerns of Eastman et al. (2021), who argued that weak institutional frameworks undermine the sustainability of global disease control strategies. They also align with Alho et al. (2021), who emphasised that governance gaps and lack of trust in public institutions often hinder effective health communication and intervention uptake. Nevertheless, unlike Petersen et al. (2020), who emphasised the promise of emerging technologies in bridging systemic gaps, this study suggests that institutional credibility and consistency in service delivery remain more pressing challenges in local contexts such as Ilorin East. Cultural beliefs and practices were found to play a complex role, functioning simultaneously as barriers and potential enablers. Quantitative data indicated that cultural norms constrained the uptake of modern practices, while qualitative findings revealed reliance on spiritual explanations of illness, traditional herbal remedies, and resistance to vaccination or spraying exercises. These findings lend support to Alho et al. (2021), who argued that health interventions must engage with cultural belief systems rather than dismiss them as irrational. They also corroborate Km et al. (2019), who highlighted the role of community leaders and elders in shaping perceptions of biomedical interventions. At the same time, however, this study challenges the more optimistic view of Petersen et al. (2020), who suggested that technology-driven awareness programmes can easily overcome cultural barriers. Instead, the findings highlight that culturally sensitive engagement is necessary to build trust and integration between biomedical and traditional practices. Furthermore, climate change and seasonal variability were strongly associated with disease prevalence. The quantitative survey demonstrated significant associations between changing rainfall patterns and VBD outbreaks, while qualitative evidence highlighted flooding, waterlogging, and seasonal surges in mosquito breeding. These findings corroborate Eastman et al. (2021), who stressed that climate change intensifies global VBD risks, and extend their arguments by providing localised, community-level accounts of how climate variability is experienced and perceived in Nigeria. As a result, the findings validate much of the reviewed scholarship while also highlighting important contextual differences. They demonstrate that while environmental management, economic inequality, institutional credibility, cultural engagement, and climate adaptation are recognised globally as determinants of VBD control, their manifestations in Ilorin East are highly localised and mediated by community-level practices and perceptions. Consequently, effective interventions must adopt a holistic, context-sensitive approach that simultaneously addresses sanitation, poverty alleviation, institutional reform, cultural integration, and climate resilience. The findings indicate that climate change is perceived and experienced by residents of Ilorin East LGA as a major determinant of VBD prevalence and control, with rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, and flooding linked to increased mosquito breeding and recurrent illness, while both quantitative and qualitative evidence demonstrate that climate change-knowledge is shaped by lived experiences as well as public health messaging which plays a central role in driving preventive behaviours, thereby highlighting the need for control strategies that integrate scientific knowledge with community-based realities. The findings further confirmed that vector-borne disease control in Ilorin East LGA is shaped by interrelated environmental, economic, institutional, cultural, and climatic determinants, with evidence from both quantitative and qualitative data highlighting the need for holistic, culturally sensitive, and multi-sectoral interventions. Conclusion The findings of this study demonstrate that the control of vector-borne diseases (VBDs) in Ilorin East LGA is shaped by a complex interaction of environmental, climatic, institutional, and socio-economic determinants. The results indicate that while residents possess high levels of awareness about VBDs particularly malaria and yellow fever and actively engage in key preventive practices such as the use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), insecticide sprays, mosquito coils, bush clearing, and stagnant-water removal, these household-level efforts remain insufficient to significantly reduce disease prevalence in the face of wider systemic challenges. The study confirms that climate variability is a major driver of VBD occurrence in the area. Residents consistently linked rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, prolonged wet seasons, and recurrent flooding to increased mosquito breeding and heightened disease incidence. This aligns with global research on climate-sensitive disease transmission and underscores the urgent need for climate-informed health strategies. However, the findings also highlight the limitations of attributing disease patterns solely to climate change, given the absence of longitudinal meteorological data and the influence of non-climatic factors such as poor sanitation, weak drainage systems, and inadequate housing infrastructure. Environmental sanitation emerged as a critical determinant of disease risk. Quantitative and qualitative data converged to show that blocked gutters, persistent stagnant water, refuse accumulation, and poor drainage significantly fuel mosquito proliferation. These findings reinforce global and national evidence that environmental management is central to effective VBD control, and that community-level sanitation practices must complement government-led infrastructural interventions. Institutional weaknesses were also identified as significant barriers. Participants highlighted inconsistencies in government spraying campaigns, irregular distribution of preventive tools, limited outreach to rural communities, and generally weak enforcement of public-health initiatives. These findings reveal gaps between policy intentions and implementation realities, reflecting broader concerns in the literature regarding the fragility of health systems and the need for stronger institutional accountability, coordination, and resource allocation. Economic constraints further complicate VBD control. Many households struggle to afford preventive tools or sustain recommended practices, with some resorting to selling government-distributed nets to meet immediate financial needs. This demonstrates how poverty reinforces vulnerability and limits the effectiveness of public-health interventions, highlighting the importance of integrating VBD control with broader socio-economic support mechanisms. The findings validate much of the reviewed global and national evidence, while highlighting context-specific drivers that shape VBD dynamics in Ilorin East. They confirm that VBD control in the area is not driven by a single factor but by the interdependence of climate pressures, environmental conditions, institutional capacity, and economic realities. Consequently, sustainable disease control requires a holistic approach that strengthens environmental management, enhances climate adaptation, improves institutional reliability, and addresses socio-economic vulnerabilities. By situating VBD control within this broader systems perspective, the study reinforces the need for integrated, multi-sectoral, and context-sensitive interventions capable of delivering long-term health resilience in Ilorin East LGA. Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made: Public health authorities should strengthen community-wide education campaigns, institutionalise school-based health curricula, and establish regular local awareness drives to sustain knowledge and reinforce household practices with collective interventions. At the same time, since climate-change knowledge significantly shapes preventive behaviours, health interventions should be mainstreamed into climate adaptation strategies. This includes climate-health education programmes, use of community radio and mobile platforms for localised weather–health information, and building early warning systems that link climate variability to disease prevention practices. To increase acceptance of biomedical measures such as ITNs, vaccination, and spraying programmes, health interventions must be co-designed with local leaders and communicated through trusted cultural and religious figures. This approach ensures cultural endorsement of biomedical interventions, reduces resistance, and builds long-term trust in health systems. Addressing barriers such as poverty, weak institutional support, and poor sanitation requires a multi-sectoral strategy. Government should subsidise preventive tools (e.g., treated nets, repellents), improve waste management and drainage systems, and strengthen local health infrastructure, ensuring sustainability through community-based monitoring committees. Since knowledge of climate change strongly predicts preventive practices, interventions should prioritise climate-health literacy programmes tailored to different social groups (farmers, artisans, students). Embedding these programmes into agricultural extension services, schools, and community associations will ensure long-term adaptive behaviour. Suggestion for Future Studies In light of the findings and limitations of the present study, several avenues for further research are recommended to deepen the understanding of the roles of climate-change knowledge and cultural beliefs in shaping practices towards VBD control in Ilorin East LGA Several areas warrant further investigation. Future studies could expand the geographical scope to include multiple Local Government Areas or states, allowing for comparative analysis across diverse cultural, environmental, and socio-economic contexts. Longitudinal studies are recommended to track how changing climatic conditions influence VBD control behaviours over time. Future research should examine the role of institutional trust and governance quality in shaping residents’ willingness to participate in government-led initiatives, as this emerged as a limitation in current interventions. Mixed-methods studies incorporating geospatial and epidemiological modelling of climate–disease interactions would deepen understanding of the environmental determinants of VBDs, strengthening the evidence base for climate-adaptive health policies. Declarations Clinical trial number : not applicable. Human Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations : not applicable. Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the appropriate Health Research Ethics Committee, in accordance with national and international guidelines for research involving human participants. All respondents were informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of their participation, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. All data were collected, stored, and reported in a manner that ensures confidentiality and anonymity. 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Supplementary Files APPENDIX.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8416702","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Case Report","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":564950617,"identity":"e86b20fb-4ae1-436f-9b63-89773f250909","order_by":0,"name":"Rihanat Bukola Muhammed","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACHjDJ2MAMZhyQA5MPSNFiDCYTiNICYRxIbABR+LTozsg9+Olmjo3s9nbeg58Lau6kzw87/BBoi52cbgN2LWY38pKlc7elGc85zJcsPePYs9yNt9MMgFqSjc0O4NKSYwDUcjhxBjOPgTQP2+HcjbMTQFoOJG7DrcX4d+62/yAtxr95/h1ON5yd/oGQFjOgLQdAWsykedsOJ8hL5xCw5cwbM+vcbcnGIC3WvH2HDTdI5xQcSDDA45fjOca3c7fZyc7gP2N8m+fbYXn52embP3yosJPDpQUTGIBVGhCrHATkG0hRPQpGwSgYBSMBAAB24mT72TRTwAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Al-Hikmah University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rihanat","middleName":"Bukola","lastName":"Muhammed","suffix":""},{"id":564950619,"identity":"9a3e488e-3e9d-4b40-bed6-6385e3f1f63d","order_by":1,"name":"Abdulafeez Oladimeji BUHARI","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Al-Hikmah 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2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":61039,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUnnumbered image in the Result and Analysis section.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8416702/v1/f4d570e4f24f686ebed6426e.jpeg"},{"id":99316785,"identity":"afb92fc6-fc8d-48d0-bcce-11aafeb39abf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:29:10","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":66440,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUnnumbered image in the Result and Analysis section.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8416702/v1/b15af0d79cdd76cdb33f1585.jpeg"},{"id":99218188,"identity":"5a9ebd04-f1bf-4734-af88-92cc10051cb0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-30 09:16:55","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65841,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUnnumbered image in the Result and Analysis section.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8416702/v1/4257c75d8c2aba417c05f2ea.jpeg"},{"id":99218193,"identity":"c47975da-a375-401e-95d4-9246ff035076","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-30 09:16:55","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":99741,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUnnumbered image in the Result and Analysis section.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8416702/v1/d28b5ad431b1e6e4d0b4cdf9.jpeg"},{"id":99318119,"identity":"744478e7-607f-4c39-bbbf-64aefa62bad5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:31:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65105,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUnnumbered image in the Result and Analysis section.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8416702/v1/7025fda20d2bc843ebefec01.jpeg"},{"id":105616010,"identity":"8cdcdcae-a825-408a-9a4c-def552f27436","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-28 05:55:25","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1670327,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8416702/v1/1341f0ca-408e-44bb-b9cb-f4a76fb907d2.pdf"},{"id":99318375,"identity":"e027a74e-2551-4f35-ba78-93040b8bd3e3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:32:57","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":19973,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"APPENDIX.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8416702/v1/be092ab1fbd48341e43be9e3.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Climate-Change Knowledge as Determinants of Vector-Borne Disease Control in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State, Nigeria","fulltext":[{"header":"Background to the study","content":"\u003cp\u003eVector-Borne Diseases (VBDs) represent a major global health challenge, particularly in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs), especially in tropical and subtropical regions such as sub-Saharan Africa. The World Health Organisation (WHO) classifies these diseases as neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) due to their disproportionate impact on impoverished populations with limited access to healthcare and resources (Mackey \u0026amp; Liang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). VBDs, including malaria, dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever, and Zika virus, are transmitted through vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, flies, and other arthropods. Collectively, they result in over 700,000 deaths annually, with the majority occurring in African countries where healthcare systems are often overwhelmed (Agache et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Malaria alone accounts for over 400,000 deaths each year, underscoring the devastating impact of these diseases in the region (Wright et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Beyond the direct loss of life, VBDs impose substantial social and economic burdens on affected communities, exacerbating cycles of poverty by reducing workforce productivity, escalating healthcare costs, and hindering economic development (Ramon-Torrell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Vulnerable groups, including children, pregnant women, and rural residents, are disproportionately affected due to poor access to healthcare services (Marshall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The spread of VBDs has been further amplified by urbanisation, deforestation, and agricultural expansion in LMICs, along with the accelerating effects of climate change (Zain et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShifting climate patterns, including rising temperatures and altered precipitation levels, create more favourable conditions for the proliferation of disease vectors, allowing them to expand into new areas (Baker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This not only increases the risk of cross-border disease transmission but also complicates global health efforts to contain outbreaks (Olumade et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The transmission dynamics of VBDs are influenced by a combination of ecological, socioeconomic, and environmental factors. For instance, climate change is significantly altering vector habitats, resulting in the emergence of VBDs in regions that are unprepared to handle such public health challenges (Olmos \u0026amp; Bostik, 2021). Deforestation and urbanisation also bring humans into closer contact with disease vectors, while inadequate public health infrastructure in many LMICs delays the detection and control of outbreaks (Briggs, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, genetic predispositions, immune responses, and lifestyle choices influence the severity and spread of these diseases (Gabrieli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In regions with underdeveloped public health systems, infectious diseases, particularly VBDs, spread rapidly, contributing to the persistent global disease burden (Virolainen et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The prevention and control of VBDs require comprehensive approaches that include medical, technological, and environmental interventions. Preventive measures such as vaccination, insecticide-treated bed nets, and vector control programs aimed at eliminating breeding sites are critical in reducing transmission rates (Wilson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic health strategies focusing on health education, early diagnosis, and improving healthcare access are essential for mitigating the impact of VBDs (Tahir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, advances in genetic therapies and environmentally sustainable interventions offer promising prospects for disease control (Land et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Global cooperation is crucial for developing policies that address the long-term challenges posed by these diseases (Omotayo et al ,. 2024). As climate change continues to impact the spread of VBDs, there is a growing emphasis on integrating climate change adaptation into public health strategies (Rockl\u0026ouml;v \u0026amp; Dubrow, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Collaborative efforts between policymakers, healthcare professionals, and researchers are necessary to strengthen health security, enhance healthcare system resilience, and implement sustainable solutions to reduce the burden of VBDs worldwide (Wilcox et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In Africa, particularly in Nigeria, VBDs have been shaped by ecological, social, and economic factors. Over time, their prevalence and impact have evolved, influenced by changes in healthcare systems, environmental conditions, and global health initiatives (Bull et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Diseases like malaria and sleeping sickness were historically widespread, with traditional medicine often used to manage symptoms due to limited access to modern healthcare services (Dagen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Early control efforts focused on interventions like quinine for malaria and colonial campaigns against sleeping sickness, though these strategies often prioritised colonial economic interests and failed to adequately address the health needs of local populations (Dagen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStatement of the Problem\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVBDs, such as malaria, dengue, and Zika virus, continue to pose a significant public health threat, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. In Ilorin East Local Government Area LGA, Kwara State, Nigeria, the burden of these diseases is growing, partly due to the effects of climate change (Ahmed et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Climate change is shifting the ecological dynamics of vectors such as mosquitoes by creating favourable conditions for their survival and increasing the transmission of diseases in regions that were previously unaffected. Rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events such as floods create new breeding grounds for disease-carrying vectors, leading to an increase in disease outbreaks (Yadav \u0026amp; Upadhyay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, there is often a lack of awareness or understanding of how climate change is directly influencing the spread of VBDs. Without adequate knowledge of the link between climate change and disease patterns, communities may be slow to adopt necessary preventive measures (Rasul et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, there is an urgent need to evaluate how climate-change knowledge influence vector-borne disease control in the region. Understanding these factors is critical for developing effective, and climate-resilient public health strategies (Aziz \u0026amp; Anjum, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Without this understanding, interventions may fail to adequately address the root causes of disease transmission, leading to continued outbreaks and poor health outcomes in the community (World Health Organisation, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study seeks to bridge these gaps by assessing the knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to climate change and disease control, to propose strategies that incorporate both scientific understanding and cultural sensitivity (Neira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eObjectives of the Study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main objective of the study is to examine climate change knowledge as determinants of VBDs control in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State. While the specific objectives are to:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eassess residents' awareness of the control of VBDs in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003einvestigate the role of climate change knowledge in the control of VBDs among residents of Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eidentify the challenges faced by residents in implementing vector-borne disease control measures in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe warming of the climate system is clear and unequivocal, as highlighted in the recent IPCC report (Allan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Climate change, a complex phenomenon, significantly influences the emergence of VBDs such as malaria, dengue, and yellow fever (Abdulwahab et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). VBDs are dynamic systems characterised by complex ecological interactions that continually adapt to environmental changes. While various factors affect the distribution of VBDs, climate remains a primary driver influencing their epidemiology (Ma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The life cycle dynamics of vector species, pathogens, and reservoir organisms are sensitive to weather conditions, which impact survival and reproduction rates, habitat suitability, geographical distribution, and seasonal intensity (Yadav \u0026amp; Upadhyay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Climatic factors also affect the development and survival rates of pathogens within vectors (Caminade et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Given that climatic conditions strongly influence diseases transmitted through insects, climate change is likely to alter the geographic range of VBDs across Africa, extend their transmission seasons, and modify existing seasonal patterns (Ma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn recent years, numerous outbreaks of various VBDs have been documented across Africa. Some outbreaks have been linked to local climatic changes, while for others, it is reasonable to assume that observed climatic trends will contribute to their transmission potential (Negev et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Africa's climate is shaped by the interaction between arid regions and temperate zones, creating a complex environment vulnerable to climatic changes. The continent has been identified as a significant climate change hotspot and one of the most responsive areas to global warming (Fan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Since the 1960s, Africa has experienced increased temperatures alongside more frequent and intense heatwaves. Additionally, there has been a notable reduction in potable water availability due to decreased precipitation and changing rainfall patterns exacerbated by population growth (Mishra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In Africa, the mutual enhancement (positive feedback) between droughts and heatwaves has been increasingly acknowledged (Miralles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The continent is home to over 1.3\u0026nbsp;billion individuals and comprises 54 countries, exhibiting significant socio-economic disparities, particularly between the northern and southern regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis disparity, along with high population density and escalating water demand, exacerbates the vulnerability of African nations to shifting climatic conditions (Grasham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Evidence from literature indicates that certain VBDs (VBDs) have already demonstrated associations with recent climatic fluctuations across various African countries (Abdulwahab et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Projections suggest that climate suitability for vectors will expand into new areas as a result of climate change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2022; Caminade et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This study aims to analyse and compare adaptation policies across a representative selection of African countries, focusing on key policy categories: monitoring and surveillance, environmental management, health system preparedness, and public education. Additionally, existing mechanisms for regional collaboration on environmental and health issues will be identified. The tropical climate of Africa is conducive to numerous major VBDs, including malaria, schistosomiasis, and Rift Valley fever (Caminade et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe continent's high diversity of vector species facilitates potential redistribution into new habitats driven by climate change, resulting in altered disease patterns. By 2050, it is projected that regions such as the Sahara may experience temperature increases of approximately 1.6\u0026deg;C (Bouramdane, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Current episodes of climate variability are likely to intensify malaria transmission in the eastern and southern highlands of Africa. However, the effects on other less climate-sensitive VBDs remain uncertain (Caminade et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). While climate is a significant factor in malaria epidemiology, other elements such as drug resistance and inadequate health infrastructure may play more critical roles in shaping disease dynamics (Obeagu \u0026amp; Obeagu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The ecology, development, behaviour, and survival of insects, along with the transmission dynamics of the diseases they carry, are significantly influenced by climatic factors. Key elements such as temperature, rainfall, and humidity are particularly important, although other factors like wind can also play a significant role.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese climatic conditions are crucial for the survival and transmission rates of pathogens. Temperature is the primary parameter affecting the multiplication rate of insects; as temperatures rise, there tends to be an increase in mosquito population growth rates, a decrease in the interval between blood meals, a shortening of the incubation time from infection to infectiousness in mosquitoes, and an acceleration of virus evolution rates (Brackney et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Above-average precipitation has been shown to lead to higher mosquito abundance, thereby increasing the potential for disease outbreaks in humans (Paz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This correlation has been observed in several vector-borne disease (VBD) outbreaks, including West Nile virus, dengue, and malaria. However, while patterns of disease incidence can be influenced by rainfall amounts, responses may vary across large geographic regions due to differences in mosquito vector ecology (Bartlow et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, heavy rainfall creates standing water necessary for mosquito larval development. Conversely, drought conditions can facilitate population outbreaks of certain mosquito species by disrupting aquatic food-web interactions that normally limit larval populations (Harvey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs Africa experiences a warming trend characterised by increased warm days and nights, longer summers, more frequent and severe heatwaves, and reduced rainfall amounts, it is anticipated that VBDs will be exacerbated by climate change (Abdulwahab et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, many urban areas in Africa are densely populated. While air conditioning is prevalent in regions with higher socio-economic status, windows often remain open during hot months as part of local customs. Social activities frequently occur outdoors, such as on shaded balconies or in courtyards, creating ideal conditions for contact with vectors. Warmer summers not only extend the potential range of diseases but also pose heightened risks for poorer countries in North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa (Opoku et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, the main VBDs transmitted by mosquitoes and potentially influenced by changing climatic conditions in the Mediterranean basin and parts of Africa include: West Nile Fever, the West Nile virus (WNV) is a globally significant vector-borne pathogen, primarily transmitted by mosquito species from the genus \u003cem\u003eCulex\u003c/em\u003e (family Culicidae). These mosquitoes function as both amplification and bridge vectors, facilitating the transmission of the virus to susceptible bird species through blood meals, leading to virus amplification (Armstrong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In recent years, there has been an increase in WNF cases across Mediterranean countries, notably severe outbreaks in Israel during the hot summers of 2000 and 2010. Changes in seasonality have been observed, with outbreaks beginning earlier in the year (Stencel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The re-emergence of WNV has been consistently noted from 2011 to 2014 in these regions (Habarugira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In Africa, the spread of WNV has raised concerns, particularly in regions with conducive climatic conditions, potentially leading to increased human and animal infections (Habarugira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Dengue fever, caused by a virus from the \u003cem\u003eFlavivirus\u003c/em\u003e genus, is transmitted through the bites of \u003cem\u003eAedes\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes. It ranks among the most prevalent VBDs globally, affecting approximately 390\u0026nbsp;million people annually (Manikandan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change is one of the most significant challenges of the 21st century with major implications for public health (Goniewicz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous studies have shown how climate change impacts human health through a variety of environmental transformations (Zhou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These include deforestation, which alters natural habitats and increases interactions between humans and disease vectors; emissions of greenhouse gases that intensify global warming; industrial activities and changes in land use that impair natural ecosystems; the combustion of fossil fuels, resulting in air pollution; and the depletion of the ozone layer, which enhances exposure to damaging ultraviolet radiation. Collectively, these factors create a complex web of health vulnerabilities (Katz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Climate change is one of the greatest threats to human health in the 21st century. Climate directly impacts health through climatic extremes, air quality, sea-level rise, and multifaceted influences on food production systems and water resources. The climate also affects infectious diseases, which have played a significant role in human history, impacting the rise and fall of civilisations and facilitating the conquest of new territories.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis review highlights significant regional changes in vector and pathogen distribution reported in temperate, peri-Arctic, Arctic, and tropical highland regions during recent decades, changes that have been anticipated by scientists worldwide. Further future changes are likely if we fail to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Many key factors affect the spread and severity of human diseases, including the mobility of people, animals, and goods; control measures in place; availability of effective drugs; quality of public health services; human behaviour; and political stability and conflicts. With drug and insecticide resistance on the rise, significant funding and research efforts must be maintained to continue the battle against existing and emerging diseases, particularly those that are vector-borne. Climate change is considered one of the greatest threats to human health by the World Health Organisation. The rate of global warming, which has occurred during recent decades, has been unprecedented over the past millennium, and there is consensus in the scientific community that the cause is increasing anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change directly impacts health through long-term changes in rainfall and temperature, climatic extremes (heatwaves, hurricanes, and flash floods), air quality, sea-level rise in lowland coastal regions, and multifaceted influences on food production systems and water resources. Since 2016, the \u003cem\u003eLancet\u003c/em\u003e Countdown initiative has been tracking progress on health and climate change issues related to the implementation of the Paris Climate Agreement, providing a broad overview of climate change impacts on health. The negative impact of infectious diseases on health and well-being is intrinsically linked to a combination of multiple stressors or drivers such as poor sanitation, access to clean water and food, the quality of public health services, political instability and conflict, drug resistance, and animal and/or human population movements. How we shape and adapt to the environment, through our impact on land use (deforestation/afforestation and agricultural activities), the building of artificial water bodies or dams, and the measures undertaken to control infectious diseases such as vaccine and drug development, insecticide spraying, distribution of impregnated bed nets, and development of rapid diagnostic tests, are also critical factors affecting infectious disease transmission.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate has a direct impact on the dynamics of a subset of infectious diseases, including VBDs, some water-borne diseases such as cholera, and other soil-borne and food-borne pathogens. Climate also has multiple indirect effects through socioeconomic factors; as one example, flooding can hamper disease control measures in place, including vector control. Infectious VBDs are mainly transmitted by arthropod vectors, which are particularly sensitive to changes in climate, for several reasons. Arthropods are ectothermic, with their internal temperature regulated by external environmental conditions. Their larval development stage generally requires the presence of bodies of water and/or specific humidity conditions. Vector biting rates tend to increase with temperature up to an upper threshold, after which they decrease. The development and replication of pathogens transmitted within vectors (the extrinsic incubation period or EIP) or in the environment also occur faster at high temperatures. Furthermore, vector development and survival are significantly affected by temperature conditions. The entomological parameters affected by rainfall and temperature can be summarised using the maximum daily reproductive rate of the disease: the vectorial capacity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe optimal temperature range for disease transmission varies depending upon the vector\u0026ndash;pathogen combination being studied; however, vectorial capacities of the most harmful tropical VBDs consistently peak at relatively high temperatures. The evidence suggests that future climate change, if not mitigated, will very likely impact the length of the transmission season and the geographical range of a significant proportion of infectious diseases. On a broader scale, climate change will reshuffle the geographical distribution of animal species, and one of the most prominent illustrations of this is an image of a starving polar bear, released by the National Geographic Society in December 2017. The direct impact of climate change on habitat, and therefore ecosystem change, combined with increasing anthropogenic pressure on the natural environment, is severely affecting biodiversity, further impacting the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. An important point to emphasise is that of attribution and detection: how can recent spatiotemporal changes in infectious diseases be attributed, wholly or in part, to long-term anthropogenic climate change? This is a complicated question to answer, hindered by the lack of good quality health and climate datasets over long periods, by the various non-climatic factors at play and by the influence of natural climate variability modes that are now occurring in a warmer background, such as the crucial El Ni\u0026ntilde;o Southern Oscillation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe latter issue led to controversy over the attribution of climate change effects on recent malaria changes observed in the East African highlands. However, there is clear evidence that climate change has already affected the latitudinal and altitudinal ranges of avian malaria in wild birds. The health of wild animals, particularly birds, is assumed to be a better indicator of early climate change effects because very little or no control measures are undertaken to protect them. VBDs seriously affect the health of domestic animals and livestock (e.g., trypanosomiasis, Rift Valley Fever, and bluetongue), and consequently, climate change will also indirectly affect our health through its multifaceted impacts on food security, including livestock and plant crops. There is a need to pragmatically estimate and discuss the importance of climate concerning other critical factors affecting the spatiotemporal dynamics of infectious diseases. In this review, we discuss recent trends and advances in our understanding of the impact of recent and future climate change on VBD dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe mainly focus on VBDs, as they are expected to be the most climate-sensitive subset of all infectious diseases and have sensitivity to the greatest number of climate drivers. As quantitative detection and attribution of climate change impacts is impossible for most infectious diseases, we highlight recently observed trends in temperate, Arctic, and tropical-altitude regions, which have already experienced significant climate changes, and for which one would consequently expect some evidence of early climate change impacts on VBD burden. We also discuss progress in state-of-the-art future risk scenarios for VBDs, methodological issues, and the relevance of this research to policy makers and governmental health agencies. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), VBDs account for more than one-sixth of all illnesses and disabilities globally (Abdulwahab et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). A growing portion of the world's population is at risk due to these diseases, exacerbated by climate change and its impact on the environment (Yadav \u0026amp; Upadhyay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Vectors, primarily arthropods like mosquitoes and ticks, are important in the transmission of these diseases (Ramalho-Ortigao \u0026amp; Gubler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). They act as carriers, transmitting pathogens from an infected host (human or animal) to an uninfected individual (Socha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The mode of transmission of VBDs varies and can be vertical, horizontal, or mechanical (Abdulwahab et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change is profoundly transforming the geographic distribution of VBDs, exacerbating their impact on global public health. Factors such as rising temperatures, high humidity, and extreme weather events favour the proliferation of vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks, increasing the risk of outbreaks in previously unaffected regions. Specific climate variables such as average temperature, relative humidity index, cumulative rainfall, frequency of heavy rainfall, and length of wet seasons have been identified as key predictors for the proliferation of diseases such as dengue (Bhatia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In sub-Saharan Africa, climate change significantly affects diseases such as dengue as it expands the geographic range of vectors, such as dengue fever, Aedes aegypti, especially in West and Central Africa. This increase in geographic distribution also affects other species, such as Aedes vittatus and Aedes luteocephalus, which thrive in warmer and wetter climate conditions, exacerbating challenges in countries such as Cameroon and the northern Democratic Republic of Congo (Chikezie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, in Southeast Asia, densities are expected to increase Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus significantly, with projections of up to a 46% increase by the end of the century in highly vulnerable areas. This increase not only increases dengue transmission but also the risk of co-infection with other pathogens, complicating control efforts in countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines (Wiyono et al.,2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe coexistence of multiple VBDs, such as dengue, Zika, and chikungunya, poses unique challenges for diagnosis and treatment. Since these diseases share similar initial symptoms, such as fever, headache, and rashes, healthcare professionals face difficulties differentiating them, which can delay proper treatment. This complexity is exacerbated in areas with limited resources, where diagnostic tools are scarce or non-existent. Co-infections also create therapeutic uncertainties, as treatments for one disease may not be equally effective or even harmful to others (Devi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). For example, during arbovirus outbreaks in Latin America and Southeast Asia, cases of simultaneous transmission of dengue and Zika have been documented, increasing the burden on health systems. This highlights the need to strengthen diagnostic capacity through specific tests, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) methods, as well as the implementation of more robust epidemiological surveillance systems. In sub-Saharan Africa, improved entomological surveillance, along with educational campaigns on preventive measures, could mitigate the impact of these diseases (Lindsay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Malaria cases are projected to increase in regions previously too cold to host transmitting vectors, such as the northern United States, Scandinavia, and northern Europe. These areas, where malaria outbreaks were atypical, now, with the increases in global temperature experienced in recent decades, present favourable conditions due to the increase in temperatures and rainfall (Gething et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). In regions such as Costa Rica, elimination is close to being achieved, thanks to effective health policies that include the introduction of supervised treatments with chloroquine and primaquine since 2006. This has reduced annual malaria cases by 98% between 2009 and 2018 (Nnamonu et al.,2025). However, malaria transmission remains sensitive to extreme weather events and natural disasters, underscoring the importance of timely diagnosis and treatment, as well as improving living conditions in affected areas (Abdul-Rahman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, Lyme disease has shown a significant increase in Canada, driven by the expansion of the tick's range, Ixodes scapularis. Warmer temperatures have prolonged their active season and favoured their survival in more northern latitudes. This change has increased the risk to human populations in these areas, where cases were previously sporadic (Zavaleta-Monestel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These examples underscore the importance of comprehensive strategies that combine environmental management, entomological surveillance, and access to timely diagnostics to address the challenges posed by climate change in the global dynamics of VBDs (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVBDs continue to pose formidable challenges to global health, particularly in the implementation and sustainability of control measures. One major issue lies in the limited capacity to assess the long-term effectiveness and scalability of interventions. Many vector control programmes are designed around isolated or single-point activities, with inadequate integration or systematic evaluation frameworks, thereby impeding their overall impact and sustainability. As the incidence and geographical spread of VBDs increase, driven by factors such as urbanisation, globalisation, and climate change, a more coordinated and strategic public health response is urgently required. This includes strengthening disease surveillance systems, improving diagnostic capabilities, and deploying comprehensive prevention strategies (Petersen, Beard, \u0026amp; Visser, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, conventional control methods are increasingly undermined by emerging challenges such as insecticide resistance, behavioural adaptations in vectors (e.g., shifts in biting times or locations), and environmental changes that create new breeding habitats. In response, researchers have advocated for the development and deployment of novel tools, including advanced insecticide formulations, genetically modified mosquitoes, and innovative strategies such as attractive toxic sugar baits, all of which show potential in disrupting vector populations more effectively (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, the \"One Health\" paradigm has gained prominence as a holistic approach to VBD control, recognising the intrinsic links between human, animal, and environmental health. Alterations in ecosystems through deforestation, agricultural expansion, or urban encroachment can facilitate the emergence and spread of novel pathogens, while simultaneously expanding the habitats of disease-carrying vectors. As such, addressing VBDs requires not only biomedical and technological innovations, but also multidisciplinary collaboration that integrates ecological, veterinary, and social science perspectives to achieve sustainable and inclusive health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study by Petersen, Beard, and Visser (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) investigated the rising incidence of VBDs in the United States and the systemic challenges impeding effective public health responses. The research was conducted in the context of increasing tick-borne infections and sporadic outbreaks of mosquito-borne diseases such as Zika, West Nile, and chikungunya viruses. The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of existing public health infrastructure in mitigating VBD risks and to advocate for a comprehensive national vector-borne disease prevention and control strategy. It employed a policy-oriented analytical review, drawing on surveillance data, national health reports, and case analyses to highlight systemic gaps and emerging threats such as \u003cem\u003eHaemaphysalis longicornis\u003c/em\u003e, an invasive tick species newly reported in the U.S. The findings revealed a threefold increase in reported VBD cases between 2004 and 2016, exacerbated by climate change, urbanisation, international travel, land use change, and population growth. The study emphasised deficiencies in public health surveillance, diagnostic testing, therapeutic development, and vector control capacities across state and local health systems. Notably, 84% of surveyed vector control organisations lacked at least one of the five core operational capacities required for effective VBD control. The study concluded that without coordinated national efforts and investment in innovation, diagnostics, and workforce development, particularly in medical entomology, the United States would remain vulnerable to escalating VBD incidence and mortality. The emergence of \u003cem\u003eH. longicornis\u003c/em\u003e exemplified the urgency of this issue, given its potential to transmit lethal pathogens similar to those found in Asia and North America. The study recommended the development of a national vector-borne disease prevention and control system grounded in strong federal-state partnerships. Strategic priorities should include enhanced vector surveillance, sustainable vector control practices, improved diagnostic and treatment tools, and capacity-building initiatives such as the establishment of Centres of Excellence in VBDs. The study also encouraged greater investment in research, innovation, and cross-border collaboration to preempt future outbreaks and reduce public health burdens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKumar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a comprehensive review aimed at evaluating current vector control strategies and identifying innovative tools necessary for overcoming persistent and emerging challenges in India\u0026rsquo;s fight against VBDs. The study addressed major public health concerns, including malaria, chikungunya, dengue, lymphatic filariasis, Japanese encephalitis, and visceral leishmaniasis diseases which continue to impose a significant disease burden across India. The review assessed the efficacy of traditional vector control methods such as indoor residual spraying (IRS), treated bed nets, larvicides, space spraying, fogging, and biological agents like larvivorous fish. Despite their historical utility, the study found that these methods are increasingly undermined by growing insecticide resistance, behavioural shifts in vectors (including outdoor biting and altered resting habits), climate variability, urban expansion, population mobility, and vector adaptation to new geographic regions. In response to these limitations, the study highlighted a set of emerging tools and technologies that show promise in enhancing vector control efforts. These include next-generation insecticide-treated nets incorporating synergists (e.g., chlorfenapyr), novel insecticides such as neonicotinoids and clothianidin for IRS, advanced larvicides like \u003cem\u003eBacillus sphaericus\u003c/em\u003e, attractive toxic sugar baits for outdoor transmission control, and endectocides such as ivermectin for both human and animal use. Additionally, spatial repellents, insecticide-treated clothing, and insecticidal paints were identified as useful supplementary strategies. The study also discussed the potential of genetic modification techniques such as the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT), Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT), and \u003cem\u003eWolbachia\u003c/em\u003e transfection, which offer long-term, sustainable approaches to vector population suppression. These technologies are in varying stages of development and deployment, but offer considerable hope for breaking the transmission cycle of VBDs. Kumar et al. concluded that India\u0026rsquo;s goal to eliminate malaria, lymphatic filariasis, and visceral leishmaniasis requires urgent investment in both established and novel vector control tools. While the focus of the study was India, the study noted that the insights and interventions described could be adapted and scaled in other countries facing similar ecological and epidemiological profiles. The study recommended that governments, researchers, and public health stakeholders prioritise operational research, field-based trials, and regulatory support for the deployment of novel tools. A coordinated national strategy integrating both conventional and innovative approaches is deemed essential for achieving sustainable VBD control and eventual elimination.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a study conducted by Km et al. (2024), titled \u003cem\u003eUnderstanding the Progress and Challenges of Vector Control Strategies W.S.R.T. Filariasis\u003c/em\u003e, the researchers reviewed existing strategies employed in India to control lymphatic filariasis a debilitating vector-borne disease primarily transmitted by mosquitoes. The review highlighted that lymphatic filariasis remains a significant public health concern due to its potential to cause permanent disability and social stigma, thereby affecting individuals\u0026rsquo; quality of life and productivity. The study discussed multiple vector control strategies adopted in India, including source reduction, the use of insecticide-treated nets, indoor residual spraying, and larviciding. Despite these interventions, the paper identified persistent challenges such as mosquito resistance to insecticides, inconsistent implementation of control measures, poor community engagement, and lack of sustained funding. Additionally, environmental conditions, urbanisation, and climate change were noted as complicating factors in vector control efforts. The study concluded that while progress has been made in reducing transmission rates, achieving total elimination of lymphatic filariasis requires innovative approaches and strengthened public health infrastructure. The study recommended the integration of new vector control tools, community-based strategies, and continuous surveillance systems to overcome current limitations. Furthermore, it emphasised the importance of public education and intersectoral collaboration in sustaining long-term disease control outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheoretical Framework\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA theoretical framework serves as the conceptual foundation for any research inquiry, offering a structured lens through which to examine the relationships among key variables (Creswell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). It provides a scholarly scaffold for developing hypotheses, designing research methodologies, and interpreting findings (Trochim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Theories enable researchers to frame questions more precisely, guide the selection of variables, and synthesise the findings within broader disciplinary conversations (Salkind, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, a sound theoretical framework enriches a study by integrating diverse perspectives and directing attention to the most relevant dimensions of the problem under investigation (Yin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In public health research, particularly studies concerned with disease prevention, the role of theory is indispensable. It helps to explain why individuals engage or fail to engage in health-promoting behaviours, especially when environmental and cultural factors intersect. This study, which investigates the relationship between climate change knowledge and cultural beliefs in the control of VBDs in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State, draws on two widely recognised behavioural models: the Health Belief Model (HBM) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). Together, these models offer a holistic perspective for understanding how knowledge, belief systems, and perceived control influence behavioural intentions and health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Health Belief Model (HBM) stands as one of the most influential and enduring theoretical frameworks in health psychology and public health. Originally developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working within the U.S. Public Health Service, including Rosenstock, Hochbaum, Kegels, and Leventhal, the model emerged as a response to a critical public health concern: why individuals failed to engage with preventive health services such as tuberculosis screenings and immunisation programmes (Rosenstock, 1974; Janz \u0026amp; Becker, 1984). Since then, the HBM has evolved into a widely applied tool for explaining how individuals make decisions about their health and what motivates or hinders them from adopting beneficial behaviours. Central to this, the model is predicated on the belief that a person's actions are driven by their perceptions, how they understand a health threat, how seriously they view it, and how effective they believe a specific action will be in mitigating that threat. These perceptions are not formed in a vacuum; they are shaped by personal experiences, sociocultural influences, and environmental cues. As such, the HBM provides a valuable lens through which to understand the cognitive processes behind health-related behaviour. The HBM has been applied across a wide array of health domains. In the context of this study, the HBM is particularly relevant for understanding how residents in Ilorin East LGA interpret the risks associated with climate-sensitive diseases such as malaria and yellow fever. Their decision to use preventive measures, such as insecticide-treated nets, environmental sanitation, or seeking medical treatment, may depend on their perceptions of disease severity, personal vulnerability, and trust in available control strategies. Additionally, cues to action, such as community education or personal illness experiences, may trigger changes in behaviour. Importantly, the model acknowledges that cultural interpretations of illness can shape beliefs about disease causation, potentially hindering the acceptance of biomedical explanations or interventions. The HBM has also been instrumental during emerging health crises. During the COVID-19 pandemic, research found that individuals who perceived themselves as higher risk and believed in the severity of the disease were more likely to follow public health guidance, including vaccination, mask-wearing, and social distancing (Yenew et al., 2023; Bish \u0026amp; Michie, 2010). A significant strength of the HBM lies in its versatility. It is straightforward enough to be applied in community health settings while also sophisticated enough to inform national and global health campaigns. Its adaptability allows researchers and practitioners to tailor interventions that align with individuals\u0026rsquo; cognitive appraisals of health threats and actions (Glanz et al., 2008). Moreover, the inclusion of self-efficacy as a core construct significantly enhanced the model\u0026rsquo;s explanatory power, especially when dealing with complex behavioural changes such as long-term medication adherence, lifestyle modification, or chronic disease management (Bandura, 2004; Patton et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), developed by Ajzen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), provides a robust framework for predicting and understanding individual behaviour in various health-related and environmental contexts. At its core, TPB posits that an individual's intention to perform a specific behaviour is the most immediate determinant of that behaviour. This intention is influenced by three independent constructs: attitude towards the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Madden, Ellen, \u0026amp; Ajzen, 1992). These constructs are underpinned by three types of beliefs: behavioural beliefs, which influence attitudes through expected outcomes of the behaviour; normative beliefs, which shape subjective norms through perceived expectations of important referents; and control beliefs, which inform perceived behavioural control based on the presence of facilitating or hindering factors (Ajzen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Together, these components predict behavioural intentions, and, to the extent that perceived control reflects actual control, they also predict behaviour. In the context of the current study, the TPB offers a valuable lens through which residents\u0026rsquo; health-related behaviours can be examined. Specifically, the model helps explain how individuals' attitudes toward climate change and VBDs, social influences shaped by cultural norms and communal beliefs, and their perceived capacity to take preventive actions, interact to determine whether they will engage in control measures against diseases like malaria, dengue, and Lassa fever. For instance, residents who believe that climate change significantly influences the increase of mosquito-borne diseases (behavioural belief) and who perceive that community leaders or health workers expect them to clear stagnant water or use insecticide-treated nets (normative belief) are more likely to adopt such protective behaviours, especially when they feel confident in their ability to do so despite infrastructural or economic limitations (control belief). Moreover, perceived behavioural control is particularly relevant in low-resource settings like Ilorin East LGA, where access to health infrastructure, information, and protective materials may be uneven. Thus, even when attitudes and social norms are supportive, a lack of resources or systemic support may limit actual behavioural performance. This points to the need for both awareness interventions and structural support to promote the uptake of sustainable vector-borne disease control practices. Ajzen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) further argues that interventions targeting these components, especially perceptions of control, can significantly improve behavioural intentions and, by extension, actual behaviours. Therefore, for this study, the TPB not only provides a predictive framework but also guides the design of public health interventions. Therefore, addressing attitudes, reshaping cultural beliefs through education, and enhancing residents\u0026rsquo; perceived control (e.g., through access to information or tools), local governments and health authorities can strengthen disease prevention behaviours across the community.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrawing on both the HBM and TPB, this study adopts a dual-theoretical framework that captures both the cognitive and social dimensions of disease prevention. The HBM addresses internal perceptions of vulnerability and benefit, while the TPB expands this understanding to include social norms and perceived agency. When combined, these models allow for a nuanced analysis of how climate change knowledge and cultural beliefs shape residents\u0026rsquo; responses to the increasing threat of VBDs. Given the growing influence of climate change on the geographic spread and intensity of VBDs and the persistence of culturally rooted health beliefs in many parts of Nigeria, this integrative approach offers a robust framework for understanding both the facilitators and barriers to disease control at the community level.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study adopted a mixed-methods approach with a sequential explanatory design, a strategy that allows researchers to first collect and analyse quantitative data, followed by qualitative insights to further explain and interpret statistical findings (Creswell \u0026amp; Plano Clark, 2018; Tashakkori \u0026amp; Teddlie, 2010). The target population for this study comprised all adult residents of Ilorin East (LGA) in Kwara State, Nigeria. According to data from the National Population Commission (NPC, 2006) and projections from the National Bureau of Statistics (2023), Ilorin East LGA is estimated to have a population of over 404,000 residents. To ensure that the sample is both representative and contextually grounded, this study adopted a multistage sampling technique, which is considered appropriate for large and heterogeneous populations (Creswell \u0026amp; Creswell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The sampling process unfolded in three distinct stages to reflect the geographic diversity and socio-demographic variation within Ilorin East (LGA). The sample size for this study was determined using Cochran\u0026rsquo;s formula for large populations (Cochran, 1977), which is appropriate for populations exceeding 10,000. At a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error, the minimum required sample size was calculated to be 384 respondents. However, to accommodate potential non-responses and ensure data robustness, the sample size was increased to 420 respondents across the selected communities. In addition to the quantitative survey, the study incorporated a qualitative component to gain deeper insight into climate-related and cultural narratives. Twelve (12) key informants, one from each of the twelve wards, were purposively selected for semi-structured interviews. These informants included community leaders, health workers, traditional healers, and religious figures, all of whom were recognised for their influence on local health practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study utilised a researcher-designed open-ended questionnaire alongside a semi-structured interview guide as its primary data collection instruments, both of which were developed in direct alignment with the study\u0026rsquo;s research objectives. These tools were intended to capture both the breadth and depth of residents\u0026rsquo; perspectives on the interrelationship between climate change knowledge, cultural beliefs, and VBD control practices in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State. The questionnaire titled Questionnaire on Climate Change Knowledge and Vector-Borne Disease Control Behaviour among Residents of Ilorin East LGA (QCCK-VBDC) was structured to elicit both demographic information and thematic insights. The data collection process was carefully planned and executed over ten weeks, integrating both quantitative and qualitative components to maximise the depth, validity, and reliability of the findings. The principal researcher, with the support of two trained field assistants, administered both structured questionnaires and open-ended instruments across selected communities in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State. This study adopted a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, facilitating the concurrent but independent collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data strands. This design is well-suited to complex public health investigations, where multiple variables such as climate change knowledge, cultural beliefs, and VBD control interact in deep ways (Creswell \u0026amp; Plano Clark, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e This study was carried out in full compliance with established ethical principles to ensure transparency, academic integrity, and respect for human dignity throughout all phases of the research process. Ethical considerations guided participant recruitment, data collection, data management, and the overall handling of sensitive information. Central to the study is the commitment to upholding the rights, autonomy, and welfare of all participants, in line with best practices in public health research (World Medical Association, 2013). To ensure informed consent, each participant was provided with a detailed consent form clearly outlining the purpose of the study, the procedures involved, the voluntary nature of participation, and the right to withdraw at any stage without penalty. Participants were asked to read, sign, and return the consent form prior to completing either the questionnaire or the interview. For respondents engaged via digital platforms, electronic consent was obtained by recognised ethical protocols. In cases where participants may have limited literacy, the researcher offered verbal explanations in local dialects to ensure full comprehension and informed decision-making. Confidentiality and anonymity were strongly upheld throughout the study. All responses were anonymised, and no personally identifiable information was recorded or disclosed. Data was stored securely in password-protected digital files and remained accessible only to the researcher and authorised academic supervisors. The handling of all information complied with data protection regulations and institutional guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Result and Analysis","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAge\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFig. above shows the age distribution of the respondents, which reveals that the majority of respondents fall within the younger to middle-aged groups (18\u0026ndash;40 years), accounting for over half of the population, suggesting that awareness and practices on vector-borne disease control are shaped largely by active youth and working-class individuals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGender\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFig. above showed the distribution of gender, which revealed that Males (55.7%) were more represented than females (41.4%), while only a small fraction (2.9%) preferred not to disclose. This implies that male perspectives dominate the study sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eReligion\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFig. above showed the distribution of religion, which revealed that Islam is the dominant religion (52.6%), followed by Christianity (37.4%), with Traditional (6.9%) and Others (3.1%) being minorities. This highlights that religious beliefs in disease control practices are primarily influenced by Islam and Christianity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEducation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFig. above showed the distribution of education, which revealed that respondents with tertiary education form the largest group (41.2%), followed by secondary education (32.6%). Only a minority had primary (15.5%) or no formal education (10.7%). This indicates that most participants are relatively well-educated, which may influence their climate-change knowledge and acceptance of scientific disease control methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOccupation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFig. above showed the distribution of occupation, which revealed that farmers (21.4%) and traders (15.7%) dominate, with civil servants (16.2%) and artisans (12.4%) also forming significant groups. Traditional and religious leaders, health workers, and healers collectively represent smaller segments. This distribution suggested that agricultural and informal sector workers are central in shaping local responses to disease control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResidence\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFig. above showed the distribution of residence, which revealed that a large proportion of respondents have lived in their communities for over 10 years (34.5%) or between 6\u0026ndash;10 years (31.9%), while fewer had resided for less than 1\u0026ndash;5 years (24.3%) or under 1 year (9.3%). This indicates that most respondents are long-term residents, potentially giving them deeper cultural insights into local health practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAwareness of Vector-Borne Diseases Control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAwareness of Vector-Borne Diseases Control (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;420)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSA (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI am aware that diseases such as malaria and dengue fever are transmitted by insect vectors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e280 (66.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 (23.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (2.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI know the common insect vectors responsible for spreading diseases in my community.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e240 (57.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120 (28.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (9.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI understand the role of environmental sanitation in controlling the spread of vector-borne diseases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300 (71.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90 (21.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (2.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI am aware of modern preventive tools such as insecticide-treated nets and indoor spraying.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e270 (64.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 (23.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (9.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (2.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI receive regular information about disease prevention from health workers, the media, or community leaders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e220 (52.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120 (28.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 (14.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI have actively participated in community-based vector control activities within the past year.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180 (42.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (16.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI believe that awareness of disease transmission methods contributes to better preventive practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e310 (73.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (19.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (2.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e indicates that respondents demonstrated a high level of awareness of vector-borne diseases. A large majority reported that they were aware that diseases such as malaria and dengue fever are transmitted by insect vectors (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.45, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.76). Similarly, many indicated that they understood the role of environmental sanitation in controlling the spread of vector-borne diseases (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.38, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.70), and they were aware of modern preventive tools such as insecticide-treated nets and indoor spraying (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.50, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.78). In addition, most agreed that awareness of disease transmission methods contributes to better preventive practices (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.35, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.67).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, while respondents acknowledged that they received information from health workers, the media, or community leaders (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.71, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.93), fewer reported active participation in community-based vector control activities within the past year (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.88, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.01). These findings suggest that although knowledge and awareness are widespread, actual participation in control programs remains relatively lower.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eQualitative Findings on Awareness and Control of Vector-Borne Diseases\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll participants expressed awareness of VBDs such as malaria, yellow fever, and dengue, although their depth of knowledge varied. The responses clustered around five themes: use of preventive tools, environmental management, health campaigns and vaccination, community mobilisation, and cultural/traditional methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants highlighted reliance on mosquito nets, insecticides, and repellents. P1 (student) stated, \u0026ldquo;Yes, I am aware of malaria and yellow fever. I sleep under a treated net every night.\u0026rdquo; Similarly, P5 (civil servant) remarked, \u0026ldquo;We use insecticides and mosquito coils at home to reduce mosquito bites.\u0026rdquo; These actions demonstrate a strong recognition of personal protective measures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral respondents linked environmental hygiene to disease prevention. P3 (farmer) explained, \u0026ldquo;I know malaria is from mosquitoes. That is why I clear bushes and drain stagnant water around my house.\u0026rdquo; P9 (artisan) confirmed, \u0026ldquo;We participate in monthly sanitation, especially clearing gutters.\u0026rdquo; This indicates that awareness translates into proactive household and community sanitation practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany participants described exposure to government or NGO health initiatives. P6 (trader) recalled, \u0026ldquo;Health workers came to our area for yellow fever vaccination; we participated because they told us it spreads easily.\u0026rdquo; P10 (student) added, \u0026ldquo;We had health talks in school about malaria prevention and the need to seek treatment early.\u0026rdquo; These responses suggest that awareness is reinforced by institutional interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity leaders also play an important role in strengthening preventive action. P12 (religious leader) shared, \u0026ldquo;I use Friday sermons to remind people about covering water containers and sleeping under nets.\u0026rdquo; Likewise, P14 (traditional leader) said, \u0026ldquo;During our community meetings, I always emphasise mosquito control and encourage people to accept spraying programs.\u0026rdquo; These highlight how awareness is amplified through trusted voices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA smaller group mentioned indigenous practices alongside modern prevention. P7 (farmer) observed, \u0026ldquo;Some still burn herbs or leaves to drive mosquitoes, but the younger people prefer nets.\u0026rdquo; P15 (artisan) added, \u0026ldquo;We sometimes rub local mixtures on the body as repellents.\u0026rdquo; While not scientifically proven, these practices reveal how cultural beliefs influence preventive behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTriangulation of Findings on Awareness and Control of Vector-Borne Diseases\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings revealed both areas of convergence and points of divergence, thereby offering a more comprehensive understanding of VBD awareness and control in Ilorin East LGA. Across both data sources, there was broad agreement that malaria and yellow fever were the most recognised diseases, confirming a strong level of awareness within the community. This was not only reflected in the high percentage of survey respondents identifying these diseases but also reinforced through qualitative testimonies, where participants described personal experiences of malaria as an everyday health challenge. Preventive measures such as environmental sanitation, including bush clearing and the removal of stagnant water, were also strongly validated across datasets. Farmers, artisans, and students recounted routine practices to reduce breeding sites, aligning with survey findings that emphasised these as the most effective strategies. Likewise, the widespread use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), indoor insecticide sprays, and mosquito coils featured prominently in both the statistical evidence and the lived experiences of participants, highlighting the dominance of household-level biomedical interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the triangulation also revealed notable contradictions that complicated the initial survey picture. While quantitative findings suggested relatively high participation in government and institutional campaigns, qualitative accounts pointed to uneven implementation. Some respondents recalled vaccination drives, health talks, and awareness campaigns, yet others lamented their irregularity or complete absence in certain communities. This discrepancy indicates that the survey findings may have overstated the effectiveness of institutional outreach. Similarly, cultural and traditional practices, which were underemphasised in the quantitative data, emerged more strongly in the qualitative narratives. Several participants described the use of herbs, smoke, and local remedies as alternative or complementary methods of mosquito control. These practices not only reflect the persistence of indigenous knowledge but also reveal subtle tensions between biomedical approaches and cultural traditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity-level mobilisation provided another point of divergence. Although survey responses suggested moderate participation in collective control efforts, qualitative evidence challenged this, with traditional and religious leaders pointing to weak enforcement, poor coordination, and limited government involvement. This suggests that while individuals take responsibility for prevention within their households, collective action remains fragmented and inconsistent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a result, the triangulated analysis both validates and challenges the findings in important ways. It confirms that knowledge and household-level preventive practices are well established across the community, while also exposing limitations in institutional interventions, underreported reliance on cultural remedies, and weaknesses in collective action. These areas of convergence and divergence highlight the value of combining quantitative with qualitative, ensuring that the conclusions drawn reflect not only statistical patterns but also the lived realities and cultural contexts of the people most affected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRole of Climate Change Knowledge in VBD Control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRole of Climate Change Knowledge in VBD Control (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;420)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSA (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI understand that climate change can contribute to the spread of diseases like malaria or cholera.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e260 (61.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110 (26.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI have noticed changes in mosquito prevalence during unusually hot or rainy seasons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e240 (57.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120 (28.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (9.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor drainage and increased flooding in my area have led to more standing water and disease risks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e270 (64.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 (23.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI believe climate variability has increased the number and intensity of disease outbreaks in recent years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e230 (54.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120 (28.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 (11.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI have received information about how climate change affects health from the media or health campaigns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200 (47.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 (11.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change awareness affects how people in my community take precautions against disease.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e210 (50.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130 (31.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 (14.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeople who are informed about climate risks are more likely to adopt preventive health behaviours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e260 (61.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110 (26.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e above, Respondents strongly agreed that climate change contributes to the spread of diseases such as malaria and cholera (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.55, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.82). They also reported noticing changes in mosquito prevalence during unusually hot or rainy seasons (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.62, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.87), and many indicated that poor drainage and increased flooding in their area had created more standing water and disease risks (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.53, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.81). In addition, respondents agreed that climate variability has increased the number or intensity of disease outbreaks in recent years (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.66, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.88).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough most reported receiving some information about how climate change affects health through the media or campaigns (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.78, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.94), their personal experiences of weather-related changes seemed to have a stronger impact. A majority agreed that climate change awareness influences how people take precautions against disease (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.74, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.92) and that individuals who are informed about climate risks are more likely to adopt preventive health behaviours (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.55, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.82). These findings indicate that communities recognise the link between climate change and disease spread, even if formal campaigns have not been highly effective.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eQualitative Report on Role of Climate Change Knowledge in VBD Control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe accounts of participants reflected strong awareness that changing weather patterns are shaping the frequency and severity of vector-borne diseases (VBDs) such as malaria, yellow fever, and dengue. Their responses was categorized into four themes: seasonal changes, environmental conditions, increased disease burden, and livelihood-related impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral participants observed that irregular rainfall and prolonged wet seasons have worsened mosquito breeding. P1 (student) explained, \u0026ldquo;The rains now last longer, and that means stagnant water stays in our compounds, bringing more mosquitoes.\u0026rdquo; Likewise, P5 (farmer) added, \u0026ldquo;Planting seasons have shifted, and with that, mosquito cases rise in months we never used to expect.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondents linked rising temperatures and flooding with greater breeding opportunities for vectors. P9 (civil servant) remarked, \u0026ldquo;The heat is much more intense these days, and people say mosquitoes multiply faster in such weather.\u0026rdquo; P7 (trader) echoed this, noting, \u0026ldquo;When floods happen, dirty water collects everywhere, and we see a sudden increase in malaria cases.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants generally agreed that climate change has increased the frequency of illness. P3 (farmer) said, \u0026ldquo;In my family, malaria is almost constant during the rainy period now, worse than before.\u0026rdquo; P11 (religious leader) observed, \u0026ldquo;Members of my congregation complain of fever more often, especially after heavy rains.\u0026rdquo; Similarly, P16 (artisan) added, \u0026ldquo;We now spend more money on drugs and hospital visits because the sickness comes more regularly.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome responses connected disease outbreaks with socio-economic pressures. P8 (student) shared, \u0026ldquo;When malaria keeps us from school, our learning is affected.\u0026rdquo; P6 (trader) added, \u0026ldquo;I lose sales when I fall sick or when customers are unwell during outbreaks.\u0026rdquo; In the same way, P14 (traditional leader) stressed, \u0026ldquo;Frequent malaria in the community reduces our productivity and weakens our farming activities.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTriangulation of Findings on Role of Climate Change Knowledge in VBD Control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe triangulated analysis of the study confirms that climate change is both widely recognised and directly experienced as a key determinant of VBD prevalence and control in the study area. Respondents consistently associated rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, prolonged wet seasons, and recurrent flooding with increased mosquito breeding and higher rates of malaria and related illnesses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative findings indicated strong agreement that climate change contributes to the spread of diseases such as malaria and cholera, with respondents highlighting that unusually hot or rainy seasons, coupled with poor drainage systems, created favourable breeding grounds for vectors. These insights were reinforced by qualitative accounts in which participants described stagnant water persisting after heavy rains, faster mosquito multiplication during hotter periods, and shifts in agricultural planting seasons that coincided with unexpected rises in mosquito cases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond the epidemiological impacts, the findings revealed significant socio-economic consequences. Farmers, traders, and artisans reported recurrent malaria episodes that strained household finances through increased health expenditures and reduced productivity, while students and teachers emphasised disruptions to learning during outbreaks. Community and religious leaders similarly observed that recurrent illness undermined both livelihoods and collective wellbeing, with malaria described as a persistent disruption to agricultural productivity and local economic stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnowledge of climate change and its health effects was derived partly from media and public health campaigns, yet experiential awareness\u0026mdash;gained through lived encounters with flooding, heat, and shifting weather patterns\u0026mdash;appeared to exert a stronger influence on both perception and behaviour. Respondents who were better informed were also more likely to adopt preventive measures, suggesting that awareness plays a critical role in shaping adaptive practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe integration of both quantitative and qualitative strands validates the conclusion that climate change is understood not only as a scientific reality but also as an everyday experience that shapes health outcomes, livelihoods, and community resilience. The convergence of statistical evidence with lived accounts underscores the urgent need for vector control strategies that incorporate both scientific data and community-based knowledge, ensuring that interventions are grounded in the realities of those most affected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eChallenges in Implementing VBD Control Measures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChallenges in Implementing VBD Control Measures (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;420)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSA (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD (f/%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLack of access to preventive tools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200 (47.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130 (31.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 (14.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInadequate health information/education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e190 (45.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 (14.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor environmental conditions make control difficult.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e220 (52.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130 (31.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 (11.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural resistance creates conflict in health campaigns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170 (40.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (19.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic constraints prevent the purchase of supplies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200 (47.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130 (31.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 (14.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimited government support/poor coordination.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180 (42.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140 (33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (16.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeather variability/climate issues worsen control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e210 (50.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130 (31.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 (14.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e above, Respondents identified several key barriers to disease control. Many agreed that lack of access to preventive tools such as insecticide-treated nets and protective clothing was a significant challenge (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.81, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.94), along with inadequate public health education (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.82, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.92). Poor environmental conditions, such as stagnant water and blocked drainage, were widely recognised as major contributors to disease spread (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.71, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.87).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, cultural resistance to modern prevention techniques was reported as a challenge (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.93, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.94), while economic constraints were seen as preventing many households from purchasing prevention supplies (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.81, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.94). Respondents also pointed to limited government support and poor coordination (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.88, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.96), as well as weather variability and climate-related events such as flooding, which undermine the effectiveness of control measures (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.75, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.90).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eQualitative Report on Challenges in Implementing VBD Control Measures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants identified several barriers to effective control of mosquito- and insect-related diseases in Ilorin East. These barriers were grouped into environmental factors, socio-economic constraints, health system limitations, and behavioural/cultural issues.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany participants described how poor drainage and stagnant water created breeding grounds for mosquitoes. P2 (student) explained, \u0026ldquo;The gutters in our area are always blocked, so mosquitoes breed there.\u0026rdquo; P6 (farmer) added, \u0026ldquo;During the rainy season, water gathers around farms and homes, and it is difficult to clear it all.\u0026rdquo; P12 (civil servant) noted, \u0026ldquo;Refuse dumps are close to living areas, which attracts insects and worsens the problem.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral respondents reported difficulties affording preventive tools. P5 (farmer) said, \u0026ldquo;Many cannot buy insecticide sprays or nets because of the cost.\u0026rdquo; P9 (trader) mentioned, \u0026ldquo;Even when bed nets are given free, some people sell them to get money for food.\u0026rdquo; P16 (artisan) added, \u0026ldquo;Electricity supply is irregular, so we cannot always use fans to reduce mosquito bites.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome participants highlighted issues with access to health services and prevention programmes. P8 (religious leader) remarked, \u0026ldquo;Health workers come to spray sometimes, but it is not regular.\u0026rdquo; P11 (civil servant) complained, \u0026ldquo;Medicines are often expensive or unavailable in the local clinics.\u0026rdquo; P14 (traditional leader) said, \u0026ldquo;We expect more education campaigns, but they rarely reach the rural wards.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural practices and community behaviour also posed obstacles. P3 (student) observed, \u0026ldquo;Some neighbours do not clear bushes around their houses even when told.\u0026rdquo; P7 (trader) stated, \u0026ldquo;People leave water containers uncovered, and mosquitoes breed there.\u0026rdquo; P13 (religious leader) added, \u0026ldquo;Some still believe malaria is a spiritual illness, so they delay going to the hospital.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTriangulation Analysis of Challenges in Implementing Vector-Borne Disease (VBD) Control Measures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe triangulated findings from both quantitative and qualitative strands provide robust evidence regarding the determinants of vector-borne disease (VBD) control in Ilorin East Local Government Area. The quantitative survey highlighted poor environmental sanitation, economic constraints, institutional inadequacies, cultural beliefs, and climatic changes as key barriers to effective prevention and control. These patterns were consistently substantiated through participants\u0026rsquo; narratives, thereby strengthening the validity of the findings through methodological triangulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental conditions emerged as a central factor. Quantitative responses indicated that stagnant water, blocked drainage systems, and refuse accumulation were perceived to contribute significantly to mosquito breeding and, by extension, disease prevalence. This statistical trend was corroborated in interviews, where participants described gutters overflowing with stagnant water and neglected refuse dumps creating fertile breeding sites. The complementarity between numerical evidence and lived experiences confirms the critical role of environmental sanitation in the transmission of VBDs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic constraints were also found to be highly significant. Survey findings revealed that financial limitations restricted access to preventive measures such as insecticide-treated nets and repellents. These findings were validated by qualitative accounts in which participants reported selling government-distributed mosquito nets to meet immediate financial needs or being unable to afford insecticide sprays. The convergence of these findings demonstrates how poverty not only restricts preventive options but also shapes household decision-making in ways that sustain vulnerability to VBDs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstitutional and systemic weaknesses were consistently emphasised. Quantitative data indicated low satisfaction with government-led interventions, including inconsistent distribution of preventive tools and limited health education campaigns. Participants\u0026rsquo; narratives reinforced these findings, citing inadequate spraying exercises, high treatment costs, and poor outreach in rural areas. The alignment of these perspectives across data sources indicates that systemic gaps are a widespread and entrenched challenge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural and traditional beliefs further shaped disease control practices. Statistical findings identified cultural norms as a significant constraint, while qualitative evidence contextualised this by revealing that some residents interpreted malaria and similar illnesses through spiritual or mystical lenses. This perception often delays medical intervention and limits the uptake of modern preventive practices. Such integration of cultural dimensions into the analysis demonstrates how deeply embedded beliefs influence public health behaviours and the reception of scientific interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change and seasonal variability were also recognised as critical determinants. Quantitative analysis demonstrated a significant association between changing climatic conditions and the prevalence of VBDs. This was supported by participants\u0026rsquo; accounts of heavy rainfall, flooding, and waterlogging of farmlands and residential areas, which facilitated increased mosquito breeding. The congruence between quantitative measures and qualitative testimony validates the conclusion that climate variability exacerbates the frequency and intensity of disease outbreaks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a result, these findings confirm that triangulation has both validated and enriched the study\u0026rsquo;s findings. Quantitative patterns provided measurable evidence of associations, while qualitative narratives added depth, context, and local specificity. The alignment of findings across methods enhances the overall credibility of the study and underscores the multifactorial nature of VBD control. The findings suggest that effective interventions in Ilorin East must adopt a holistic and culturally sensitive approach that simultaneously addresses environmental sanitation, poverty alleviation, institutional strengthening, cultural engagement, and climate adaptation strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion of Findings","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAwareness of Vector-Borne Diseases Control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings on awareness and control of VBD in Ilorin East LGA highlight both alignment with and divergence from the broader body of literature on VBD knowledge and prevention. Be that as it may, the study confirms that awareness of VBDs, particularly malaria and yellow fever, is widespread. Both quantitative data and qualitative narratives revealed that these diseases are well recognised, with malaria especially described as a persistent health challenge affecting households daily. This corroborates the findings of Aderibigbe et al. (2015), who similarly reported high community awareness of malaria in Kwara State. In line with the present study, their work emphasised the familiarity of populations with VBDs most directly experienced in their environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreventive practices, particularly household-level biomedical interventions, were also consistently validated across both methods. The use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), insecticide sprays, and mosquito coils was widely reported and significant. These findings reinforce the conclusions of Pulford et al. (2011), who demonstrated high reliance on ITNs as the most widely accepted malaria prevention strategy across sub-Saharan Africa. Similarly, evidence from the World Health Organisation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) affirms that ITN usage remains one of the most effective preventive measures, a point strongly mirrored in both the survey data and lived experiences of participants in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental sanitation, including bush clearing and the removal of stagnant water, also featured prominently as community-driven practices, reflecting alignment with earlier work by Adeleke et al. (2010), who emphasised the importance of environmental management in malaria prevention. The consistent validation of these practices across data sources highlights that the community has internalised key preventive strategies, thus echoing prior scholarship that stresses the necessity of environmental modification alongside biomedical interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these convergences, the triangulated findings also complicate the broader picture by revealing contradictions and underexplored dynamics. Quantitative evidence suggested high levels of participation in institutional campaigns such as vaccination drives and public health education; however, qualitative testimonies revealed gaps in implementation. Several participants reported the irregularity, inconsistency, or absence of such programmes in their communities. This divergence challenges the assumption of uniform outreach effectiveness, contrasting with studies such as Oladipo et al. (2019), who reported strong community uptake of institutional campaigns in other Nigerian contexts. The findings here suggest that while such initiatives are acknowledged, their impact may be uneven and overstated when captured solely through survey instruments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother critical dimension revealed through the findings was the persistence of cultural practices, which were less prominent in the quantitative findings but strongly evident in qualitative accounts. Participants described reliance on herbs, burning of local plants, and the use of locally made repellents as complementary or alternative strategies. These findings corroborate earlier studies (Ahorlu et al., 2005; Tusting et al., 2016) that highlight the coexistence of traditional and biomedical practices in malaria prevention. However, they also challenge dominant narratives that assume biomedical methods have fully supplanted indigenous approaches, instead emphasising a hybrid model of disease control shaped by cultural context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity-level mobilisation further revealed a point of divergence. While survey data suggested moderate participation in collective efforts, interviews with traditional and religious leaders pointed to weak coordination, poor enforcement, and limited government engagement. This contrasts with findings by Akinyele and Ajayi (2018), who emphasised the pivotal role of community structures in sustaining long-term malaria control. The discrepancy here suggests that in Ilorin East, collective structures are less robust than elsewhere, with household-level prevention carrying more weight than organised, community-wide campaigns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRole of Climate Change Knowledge in VBD Control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings from Ilorin East LGA substantiate the reviewed literature\u0026rsquo;s central claim that climate variability is a material driver of VBD risk. Converging quantitative and qualitative data link rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, prolonged wet seasons, and recurrent flooding to increased mosquito breeding and higher malaria incidence. This aligns with the literature\u0026rsquo;s description of climate-sensitive entomological dynamics\u0026mdash;namely, temperature-dependent biting and survival rates, rainfall-driven larval habitat creation, and shorter extrinsic incubation periods at warmer temperatures (e.g., vectorial capacity frameworks). Consistent with multi-regional syntheses that identify temperature, humidity, and rainfall as key predictors of arboviral transmission (e.g., Bhatia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Wiyono et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), respondents in Ilorin East attributed seasonal surges in mosquitoes and malaria to hotter spells and heavy rains that leave persistent standing water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings also support literature documenting the socio-economic externalities of climate-amplified VBDs. Participants described recurrent malaria episodes that erode household income, reduce productivity, and disrupt schooling, echoing accounts that climate-exacerbated outbreaks impose sizable costs on labour markets, education, and local economies. This convergence highlights the literature\u0026rsquo;s call for integrated strategies that pair environmental management with social protection, given that vulnerability is shaped by both exposure (climate hazards) and sensitivity/adaptive capacity (infrastructure, poverty, service access).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther corroboration arises in the salience of experiential knowledge. While respondents acknowledged learning from media and campaigns, they weighted lived encounters with flooding, heat, and weather shifts more heavily in shaping risk perception and preventive behaviour. This tracks with the reviewed work, emphasising that observable, proximal climatic signals often motivate behavioural adaptation more effectively than distal risk communications, strengthening the case for participatory, community-embedded health promotion that translates scientific forecasts into locally resonant action.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the same time, the Ilorin East data offer nuanced qualifications (\u0026ldquo;against\u0026rdquo; or tempering) the literature\u0026rsquo;s generalisations. Although the survey grouped malaria and cholera under climate-affected diseases, cholera is water-borne rather than vector-borne; its climate sensitivity operates through hydrometeorological and WASH pathways (e.g., heavy rainfall overwhelming drainage and contaminating water supplies), not through vector ecology per se. The community\u0026rsquo;s attribution to \u0026ldquo;poor drainage and flooding\u0026rdquo; is therefore plausible, but the mechanism differs from that of mosquito-borne infections. This distinction matters for intervention design: drainage remediation and safe water provision will be more decisive for cholera control than mosquito-centric measures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reviewed literature also cautions that causal attribution of recent disease changes to anthropogenic climate change is methodologically complex, given data limitations, non-climate confounders (urbanisation, mobility, insecticide/drug resistance), and interaction with natural variability (e.g., ENSO). In Ilorin East, respondents\u0026rsquo; climate attributions are credible and consistent with entomological theory, yet the study did not incorporate time-series entomological or meteorological modelling, nor did it quantify competing drivers (e.g., housing quality, land use, sanitation). Hence, while the direction of effect agrees with the literature, the magnitude and attributable fraction remain unquantified, an important caveat.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe literature highlights heterogeneity by disease, vector, and setting. Some vectors (e.g., endophilic species) may be partially buffered from weather by indoor habitats; conversely, certain rural VBDs can decline with urbanisation even as dengue risk rises. The Ilorin East narratives emphasise mosquito-driven malaria, but they do not differentiate species, habitats (indoor vs. outdoor), or potential shifts in Aedes risks that the literature anticipates with warming and altered rainfall. This represents a knowledge gap relative to the reviewed evidence calling for differentiated surveillance (malaria vs. dengue vs. other arboviruses) and locally specific ecological diagnostics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe literature stresses the co-circulation and co-infection challenge (e.g., dengue/Zika/chikungunya) and the diagnostic burden it creates. The present findings focus on malaria and do not indicate syndromic confusion or testing constraints across multiple arboviruses. This does not contradict the literature, but suggests that, in this locale and time, malaria remains the dominant clinical and perceived burden, whereas the broader arboviral complexity described in regional and global reviews may be emerging but not yet prominent in community discourse.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough respondents report that greater awareness is associated with more protective behaviour, the literature reminds us that awareness is necessary but insufficient without enabling environments, reliable ITN supply, larval source management, drainage maintenance, and responsive primary care. The qualitative evidence of irregular campaigns, infrastructure deficits, and persistent breeding sites partially contradicts any assumption that information alone will close the prevention gap, reinforcing the reviewed call for structural interventions (environmental engineering, routine vector control, and climate-informed health systems).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a result of that, the Ilorin East findings validate the reviewed literature\u0026rsquo;s core propositions: climate variability intensifies VBD risk through temperature and rainfall pathways; socio-economic harms are substantial; and locally grounded knowledge is pivotal for adaptation. They also temper the literature with setting-specific realities: cholera\u0026rsquo;s non-vector pathway; attribution limits without longitudinal modelling; disease-specific heterogeneity; and implementation gaps that blunt the impact of awareness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eChallenges in Implementing VBD Control Measures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study demonstrate that VBD control in Ilorin East is shaped by an intricate interplay of environmental, economic, institutional, cultural, and climatic determinants. The integration of quantitative and qualitative evidence not only validates the robustness of the findings but also situates them within the wider body of scholarship on disease prevention and community health. Environmental sanitation emerged as a critical determinant of VBD prevalence. Quantitative evidence showed that stagnant water, blocked drainage, and refuse accumulation were widely perceived to drive mosquito breeding. This was reinforced by qualitative narratives of gutters overflowing with stagnant water and refuse dumps serving as fertile sites for vector proliferation. These findings strongly support Surinyach (2019), who emphasised that inadequate environmental management is one of the most persistent challenges in reducing mosquito-borne diseases. Similarly, Petersen et al. (2020) noted that neglected drainage systems and unmanaged waste substantially undermine localised disease control programmes. However, unlike the global perspectives emphasised by Eastman et al. (2021), which prioritised large-scale infrastructural interventions, the present study underscores the importance of community-level sanitation practices, suggesting that bottom-up engagement is just as vital as state-driven reforms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic constraints were also identified as a major barrier to disease prevention. Quantitative data revealed that households often lacked the resources to purchase insecticide-treated nets or repellents, while qualitative interviews highlighted practices such as selling government-distributed nets to meet immediate financial needs. These findings are consistent with Kumar et al. (2020), who demonstrated that poverty not only limits access to preventive measures but also shapes household health behaviours in ways that sustain vulnerability. While Km et al. (2019) argued that structural interventions, such as universal health subsidies, could mitigate this challenge, the findings from Ilorin East suggest that without direct poverty alleviation measures, even well-intentioned government programmes are likely to fall short.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstitutional weaknesses also featured prominently across both strands of evidence. Quantitative findings pointed to low satisfaction with government-led interventions, while participants described inadequate spraying exercises, poor outreach to rural communities, and inconsistent distribution of preventive tools. These findings echo the concerns of Eastman et al. (2021), who argued that weak institutional frameworks undermine the sustainability of global disease control strategies. They also align with Alho et al. (2021), who emphasised that governance gaps and lack of trust in public institutions often hinder effective health communication and intervention uptake. Nevertheless, unlike Petersen et al. (2020), who emphasised the promise of emerging technologies in bridging systemic gaps, this study suggests that institutional credibility and consistency in service delivery remain more pressing challenges in local contexts such as Ilorin East.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural beliefs and practices were found to play a complex role, functioning simultaneously as barriers and potential enablers. Quantitative data indicated that cultural norms constrained the uptake of modern practices, while qualitative findings revealed reliance on spiritual explanations of illness, traditional herbal remedies, and resistance to vaccination or spraying exercises. These findings lend support to Alho et al. (2021), who argued that health interventions must engage with cultural belief systems rather than dismiss them as irrational. They also corroborate Km et al. (2019), who highlighted the role of community leaders and elders in shaping perceptions of biomedical interventions. At the same time, however, this study challenges the more optimistic view of Petersen et al. (2020), who suggested that technology-driven awareness programmes can easily overcome cultural barriers. Instead, the findings highlight that culturally sensitive engagement is necessary to build trust and integration between biomedical and traditional practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, climate change and seasonal variability were strongly associated with disease prevalence. The quantitative survey demonstrated significant associations between changing rainfall patterns and VBD outbreaks, while qualitative evidence highlighted flooding, waterlogging, and seasonal surges in mosquito breeding. These findings corroborate Eastman et al. (2021), who stressed that climate change intensifies global VBD risks, and extend their arguments by providing localised, community-level accounts of how climate variability is experienced and perceived in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a result, the findings validate much of the reviewed scholarship while also highlighting important contextual differences. They demonstrate that while environmental management, economic inequality, institutional credibility, cultural engagement, and climate adaptation are recognised globally as determinants of VBD control, their manifestations in Ilorin East are highly localised and mediated by community-level practices and perceptions. Consequently, effective interventions must adopt a holistic, context-sensitive approach that simultaneously addresses sanitation, poverty alleviation, institutional reform, cultural integration, and climate resilience. The findings indicate that climate change is perceived and experienced by residents of Ilorin East LGA as a major determinant of VBD prevalence and control, with rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, and flooding linked to increased mosquito breeding and recurrent illness, while both quantitative and qualitative evidence demonstrate that climate change-knowledge is shaped by lived experiences as well as public health messaging which plays a central role in driving preventive behaviours, thereby highlighting the need for control strategies that integrate scientific knowledge with community-based realities. The findings further confirmed that vector-borne disease control in Ilorin East LGA is shaped by interrelated environmental, economic, institutional, cultural, and climatic determinants, with evidence from both quantitative and qualitative data highlighting the need for holistic, culturally sensitive, and multi-sectoral interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study demonstrate that the control of vector-borne diseases (VBDs) in Ilorin East LGA is shaped by a complex interaction of environmental, climatic, institutional, and socio-economic determinants. The results indicate that while residents possess high levels of awareness about VBDs particularly malaria and yellow fever and actively engage in key preventive practices such as the use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), insecticide sprays, mosquito coils, bush clearing, and stagnant-water removal, these household-level efforts remain insufficient to significantly reduce disease prevalence in the face of wider systemic challenges. The study confirms that climate variability is a major driver of VBD occurrence in the area. Residents consistently linked rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, prolonged wet seasons, and recurrent flooding to increased mosquito breeding and heightened disease incidence. This aligns with global research on climate-sensitive disease transmission and underscores the urgent need for climate-informed health strategies. However, the findings also highlight the limitations of attributing disease patterns solely to climate change, given the absence of longitudinal meteorological data and the influence of non-climatic factors such as poor sanitation, weak drainage systems, and inadequate housing infrastructure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental sanitation emerged as a critical determinant of disease risk. Quantitative and qualitative data converged to show that blocked gutters, persistent stagnant water, refuse accumulation, and poor drainage significantly fuel mosquito proliferation. These findings reinforce global and national evidence that environmental management is central to effective VBD control, and that community-level sanitation practices must complement government-led infrastructural interventions. Institutional weaknesses were also identified as significant barriers. Participants highlighted inconsistencies in government spraying campaigns, irregular distribution of preventive tools, limited outreach to rural communities, and generally weak enforcement of public-health initiatives. These findings reveal gaps between policy intentions and implementation realities, reflecting broader concerns in the literature regarding the fragility of health systems and the need for stronger institutional accountability, coordination, and resource allocation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic constraints further complicate VBD control. Many households struggle to afford preventive tools or sustain recommended practices, with some resorting to selling government-distributed nets to meet immediate financial needs. This demonstrates how poverty reinforces vulnerability and limits the effectiveness of public-health interventions, highlighting the importance of integrating VBD control with broader socio-economic support mechanisms. The findings validate much of the reviewed global and national evidence, while highlighting context-specific drivers that shape VBD dynamics in Ilorin East. They confirm that VBD control in the area is not driven by a single factor but by the interdependence of climate pressures, environmental conditions, institutional capacity, and economic realities. Consequently, sustainable disease control requires a holistic approach that strengthens environmental management, enhances climate adaptation, improves institutional reliability, and addresses socio-economic vulnerabilities. By situating VBD control within this broader systems perspective, the study reinforces the need for integrated, multi-sectoral, and context-sensitive interventions capable of delivering long-term health resilience in Ilorin East LGA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRecommendations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic health authorities should strengthen community-wide education campaigns, institutionalise school-based health curricula, and establish regular local awareness drives to sustain knowledge and reinforce household practices with collective interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the same time, since climate-change knowledge significantly shapes preventive behaviours, health interventions should be mainstreamed into climate adaptation strategies. This includes climate-health education programmes, use of community radio and mobile platforms for localised weather\u0026ndash;health information, and building early warning systems that link climate variability to disease prevention practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo increase acceptance of biomedical measures such as ITNs, vaccination, and spraying programmes, health interventions must be co-designed with local leaders and communicated through trusted cultural and religious figures. This approach ensures cultural endorsement of biomedical interventions, reduces resistance, and builds long-term trust in health systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAddressing barriers such as poverty, weak institutional support, and poor sanitation requires a multi-sectoral strategy. Government should subsidise preventive tools (e.g., treated nets, repellents), improve waste management and drainage systems, and strengthen local health infrastructure, ensuring sustainability through community-based monitoring committees.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince knowledge of climate change strongly predicts preventive practices, interventions should prioritise climate-health literacy programmes tailored to different social groups (farmers, artisans, students). Embedding these programmes into agricultural extension services, schools, and community associations will ensure long-term adaptive behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSuggestion for Future Studies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn light of the findings and limitations of the present study, several avenues for further research are recommended to deepen the understanding of the roles of climate-change knowledge and cultural beliefs in shaping practices towards VBD control in Ilorin East LGA Several areas warrant further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture studies could expand the geographical scope to include multiple Local Government Areas or states, allowing for comparative analysis across diverse cultural, environmental, and socio-economic contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eLongitudinal studies are recommended to track how changing climatic conditions influence VBD control behaviours over time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research should examine the role of institutional trust and governance quality in shaping residents\u0026rsquo; willingness to participate in government-led initiatives, as this emerged as a limitation in current interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed-methods studies incorporating geospatial and epidemiological modelling of climate\u0026ndash;disease interactions would deepen understanding of the environmental determinants of VBDs, strengthening the evidence base for climate-adaptive health policies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/strong\u003e: not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations\u003c/strong\u003e: not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval and Consent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study was obtained from the appropriate Health Research Ethics Committee, in accordance with national and international guidelines for research involving human participants. All respondents were informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of their participation, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. All data were collected, stored, and reported in a manner that ensures confidentiality and anonymity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding was not received from any external body for this research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdul-Rahman T, Ajetunmobi OA, Bamigbade GB, Ayesiga I, Shah MH, Rumide TS, Haque MA. Improving diagnostics and surveillance of malaria among displaced people in Africa. 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Chemosphere. 2023;313:137489. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137489\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137489\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Climate change knowledge, VBD, Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State, Nigeria","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8416702/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8416702/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluated how climate-change knowledge determine the control of vector-borne diseases (VBDs) among residents of Ilorin East Local Government Area (LGA), Kwara State, Nigeria. Justification for the research arises from accelerating climatic shifts that alter vector ecology and transmission patterns that shape health behaviour and can either facilitate or impede uptake of modern control measures. In a setting where public-health outcomes are strongly influenced by both environmental change, empirical evidence linking climate-change awareness and cultural beliefs to VBD control is urgently needed to inform context-sensitive interventions. The main objective was to examine climate-change knowledge as determinant of VBD control. Specific objectives included assessing residents\u0026rsquo; awareness of VBD control; identifying cultural beliefs that influence prevention and treatment behaviours; investigating the role of climate-change knowledge in VBD control; identifying implementation challenges; and testing the individual and joint relationships among climate-change knowledge and VBD control outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA descriptive mixed-methods design was adopted. The study population comprised adult residents of Ilorin East LGA. A sample of 420 respondents participated in the quantitative strand (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;420), while purposively selected key informants and focus-group participants provided qualitative depth. Data were collected using structured questionnaires and semi-structured interview guides. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means), bivariate correlation tests, ANOVA, and multiple regression to test hypotheses at the 0.05 significance level. Qualitative responses were subjected to thematic analysis and triangulated with survey findings to increase interpretive robustness. Ethical approvals and informed consent procedures were observed. Findings indicated moderate-to-high awareness of common VBDs but limited understanding of how climate change modifies vector habitats and transmission dynamics. Cultural beliefs ranging from spiritual attributions of illness to reliance on traditional remedies and gendered decision-making significantly influenced prevention behaviours and undermined consistent use of modern measures (e.g., insecticide-treated nets, environmental sanitation). Quantitative analysis revealed statistically significant relationships between climate-change knowledge and reported preventive practices, while cultural beliefs showed both direct and moderating effects on acceptance of modern control methods. Key implementation challenges included limited infrastructure for environmental management, gaps in health communication, and insufficient community engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study concludes that improving VBD control in Ilorin East requires integrated strategies that combine climate-change education with culturally sensitive community engagement and strengthened service delivery. Recommendations include targeted public awareness campaigns linking climate change to VBD risk; infrastructural investments for environmental management; and policy measures promoting community-appropriate, climate-resilient vector-control programs.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Climate-Change Knowledge as Determinants of Vector-Borne Disease Control in Ilorin East LGA, Kwara State, Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-30 09:16:50","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8416702/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9bc55281-68f8-4f0e-bab1-39d7d428a664","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 30th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-28T05:55:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-30 09:16:50","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8416702","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8416702","identity":"rs-8416702","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}