Design & development of alkali-activated walling materials using waste foundry sand

Design & development of alkali-activated walling materials using waste foundry sand | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Design & development of alkali-activated walling materials using waste foundry sand Manoj Wankhede, Shrirang Bhoot, Rahul V. Ralegaonkar This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7019733/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract landfills. It is produced at a rate of around 0.6 tons per 1 ton of foundry industry production. Conventional clay brick manufacturing is highly energy-intensive, primarily due to the high-temperature kiln firing process, resulting in substantial fossil fuel consumption and associated greenhouse gas emissions. The current work describes the development of one-part alkali-activated walling materials utilizing waste foundry sand (WFS) to provide a sustainable solid waste management solution and reduce the embodied energy of the manufactured bricks. Fly ash (FA) and blast furnace slag fine powder (BFSFP) were found to be regionally accessible materials for experiments, along with anhydrous sodium metasilicate (ASS) as the activator. WFS was utilized as a full replacement for natural fine aggregate, serving as a sustainable alternative in the granular matrix of the alkali-activated binder system. To create alkali-activated waste foundry sand bricks (AFSB), FA and BFSFP were combined in varying amounts with ASS (8% and 10% of the binder). The binder-WFS proportions were 1:1, 1:2, and 1:3, whereas the water-to-binder ratio was adjusted to maintain constant consistency. AFSB were divided into three classes according to their compressive strength (which ranged from 4 to 18 MPa) following an evaluation of their various physico-mechanical characteristics, following IS 3495 (Part 1- 3), 1992. It was observed that the produced bricks had an average density of 2015–2057 kg/m 3 and a 4-6% water absorption rate. AFSB's thermal conductivity was between 0.32 and 0.40 W/(m.K). In comparison to burnt clay bricks and fly ash bricks, the embodied energy utilized to create AFSB was determined to be about 50% and 10% lower, respectively. Experimental analysis validated the high performance and sustainability of the developed low-carbon, energy-efficient alkali-activated modular walling materials, manufactured using industrial byproducts, demonstrating enhanced mechanical strength, durability, and a significantly reduced carbon footprint. Physical sciences/Energy science and technology Physical sciences/Engineering Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Physical sciences/Materials science Alkali-activated bricks Waste foundry sand Embodied energy Carbon footprint Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 1. Introduction One of the most essential environmental challenges confronting the construction manufacturing today is using environmentally friendly building materials to promote sustainable development. The cement production is responsible for over 5% of overall CO 2 emissions globally, making it the greatest contributor to global warming. Therefore, using supplementary cementitious ingredients such as fly ash and slag or focusing on cement-free substitutions to regular Portland cement is critical [ 1 ]. The administration of India’s ambitious 'Housing for All' initiative aims to arrange accommodation for the urban meager by 2022. Consequently, the claim for housing units in city and rural areas is projected to reach 90 million [ 2 ]. This surge in demand has considerably amplified the need for constructing materials like bricks and blocks in the building sectors. However, the modern reliance on burnt clay bricks and cement bricks poses environmental concerns, as the firing method for clay elements and the use of Portland cement enhance CO 2 emissions [ 3 – 5 ]. As a result, recent research has focused on exploring substitute binders for brick production. Alkali-activated binders (AAB) have demonstrated a significant capacity for creating ecological and green construction materials. AAB exhibits outstanding results, particularly enhanced mechanical strength and durability. Additionally, these findings provide researchers with considerable opportunities to include numerous manufacturing wastes in developed geopolymer binders for building applications [ 6 – 9 ]. Alkaline cement, also known as the one-part alkali-activated binder is an emerging solution in geopolymers and is at ease to use silicate solution-activated geopolymers. It combines aluminosilicate source elements through solid activators [ 10 – 11 ]. In one-part alkali-activated binders, the activator still in dry powder form, and the reaction initiates when water is mixed into the dry powder, which has the consistency of conventional cement, as opposed to traditional alkali-activated binders, where liquids are cast off to initiate the activation process. This method, called "just add water," reduces the need for large amounts of caustic and thick liquids in making alkali-activated materials, making the binder more practical and commercially viable. Because it’s not necessary to create NaOH solution formerly mixing, employing powdered alkali actuators in alkali-activated materials systems is easier and faster than using commonly used alkaline solutions. There have been various attempts to make one-part binders by combining aluminosilicate compounds utilizing alkaline solutions at warmer temperatures [ 12 – 13 ]. Earlier studies have demonstrated that BFSFP-based bricks possess greater compression value compared to burnt clay bricks. In earlier research, BFSFP was combined using hydrated lime with sand, compressed at 4.9 MPa, and then treated at 270°–272°C with 95% moisture aimed at 28 days. Additionally, metakaolin with sand were cast-off in varying proportions for brick manufacturing, resulting in molded bricks with a compressive strength of 20 MPa [ 14 – 15 ]. Bricks prepared from slag, lime, and sand furthermore display outstanding mechanical characteristics. In a study, the performance of geopolymer bricks (GPB) was investigated using Class F fly ash and alkaline activators like sodium silicate (Na 2 SiO 3 ) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). These bricks were dried in a furnace at various temperatures, and examinations for compressive strength (CS) and density were conducted on specific days. The CS values reached from 5 to 60 MPa between 7 and 28 days. Numerous researchers demonstrated usage of industrialized wastes, for example, fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and metakaolin, that provide superior ingredients for producing GPB by polymerization [ 16 ]. Manufacturing and agro wastes, for example, rice husk ash and extended polystyrene have been explored as components for developed blocks. Geopolymer elements created on fly ash and produced with NaOH and Na 2 SiO 3 demonstrate superior structural performance compared to traditional clay bricks. Tests conducted using a polymeric medium with binders of different solvable silicate levels have yielded encouraging results. Additionally, lightweight concrete bricks show outstanding resilience and compressive strength. Bricks prepared from lime, gypsum with diatomite soil showed outstanding mechanical and thermal values. Furthermore, blocks produced by gold mill tailings with cement, followed by preserving and water curing, have shown more compression value, especially with as much as 20% tailing substitution and 14 day cure period [ 17 ]. The soil cement bricks consumes an EE range of 2.75 to 3.75 MJ per brick for a dimension of 230×190×100 mm [ 18 – 19 ]. Green Sand used to create casting molds in foundries is brand-new, virgin sand that has been utilized previously. An amount of sand is constantly eliminated besides being substituted through virgin sand as a result of this reuse, which eventually turns sand unfit for utilization in casting moulds. The metal casting companies produce waste foundry sand (WFS). China, India, and the United States are the superior three nations in the world for casting production, according to the 56th World Casting Census, which was published by Modern Castings USA in January 2023. With an remarkable 54.05 million tons of casting, China has declared the largest production. According to Fig. 1 , the United States came in third place with a casting production of 10.14 million tons, while India came in second with a production of 12.49 million tons. The used foundry sand is generally landfilled or recycled for use in other applications. [ 20 ]. The American Foundry Society calculated in 2007 that up to 30% of 10 million tons of used foundry sand was recycled. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stated that more used foundry sand may be recycled safely and practically [ 21 ]. The EPA estimates that 2.6 million tons of discarded foundry sand are castoff in positive ways outside of foundries each year, with iron, steel, and aluminium sands accounting for 96% of these useful uses. Only 14% of those sands are now advantageously applied in soil-related activities. For the applications looked at in the 2014 risk assessment, the EPA believes there is potential for significant beneficial use of market development and greater environmental benefits [ 22 ]. Numerous studies have been conducted on the use of WFS to partially or completely replace fine gravel in bricks. Even though foundry sand has a very high silica content, strength reduces when its WFS content goes above a certain threshold. This is because WFS's more fine-grained, unimodal particle size negatively affects mortar. Additions as impurities harm the properties of bricks, both when it's new and when it's hardened. Filling up highway embankments [ 23 ], using as flowable fill materials, constructing and surfacing roads, as well as stabilizing and reinforcing soil [ 24 – 25 ], are some of the key geotechnical applications of waste foundry sand (WFS) in civil engineering. Additionally, WFS has shown promise in creating hydraulic barriers or liners [ 26 ], and in various construction materials, including the production of cement, mortar, pavement blocks, brick blocks, and concrete [ 27 – 31 ] These selected applications highlight the versatility and potential of WFS as a sustainable alternative material in infrastructure development. WFS exhibits higher water absorption and increased shrinkage, which can negatively affect the durability and dimensional stability of construction materials. To address these limitations, researchers have incorporated polymeric resins into WFS, modifying its surface characteristics. Specific additives such as cardanol-based resins, calcium stearate, and stearic acid have been blended with the sand to reduce its water absorption capacity, enhance particle cohesion, and limit volumetric instability. These chemical modifications improve the compatibility of WFS with binders and reduce moisture-induced expansion or shrinkage in composite materials [ 32 ]. WFS's application as a building material in alkali-activated bricks has been the subject of relatively few studies. Additionally, the utilization of ASS as alkaline activators is the main emphasis of this study. Due to their undesirable qualities, sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate are costly and challenging to use in alkali-activated bricks [ 33 ]. Therefore, using ASS alone as an alkaline activator would be a practical and desirable choice. Creating alkali-activated bricks with 100% WFS and investigating the combined impacts of FA, BFSFP, and ASS were the main goals of this study. Enhancing the use of WFS in value-added products and encouraging cleaner, no-waste manufacturing in the construction and foundry sectors were targeted in the study. 2. Material collection and characterization The WFS was collected from Truform Techno Products Pvt Ltd in Nagpur, India. Because it is exposed to high temperatures and molten metal after cast iron is demolded, WFS experiences substantial, physical and chemical changes. The sand's texture, particle size, and permeability are all changed by the extreme heat, which breaks down organic bonds. Furthermore, WFS builds up impurities like heavy metals and leftover binders, which alter its chemical makeup and compatibility with the environment. To improve the purity of WFS for repurposing, iron particles were extracted using magnetic separation. Magnetic fields are used in this operation to remove ferrous impurities, and separators including high-intensity rare-earth magnets, overbelt magnets, and drum magnets guarantee efficient removal. This strategy lowers trash disposal costs and encourages sustainable reuse in manufacturing and construction materials, making it both economical and environmentally friendly. Additionally, by decreasing particle size, dissolving clumps, and removing impurities, the ball mill method was utilized to enhance WFS characteristics. Sand that has been ground in a revolving drum with steel or ceramic media improves surface qualities and homogeneity, making it appropriate for use in brick and concrete production. High purity is ensured through material refinement through post-grinding, screening, and air classification. In this investigation, no heat procedure was used for WFS. The material's direct applicability without the need for energy-intensive treatments was assessed using it in its original condition. By allowing WFS to be recycled rather than disposed of, this scalable and economical method promotes sustainable waste management. FA was collected from local productions in Nagpur, Maharashtra, India, however BFSFP and ASS were obtained from the native commercial industries. ASS is made up of 47% Na 2 O, 46% SiO 2 , and 5% H 2 O, with a density of 2400 cu.m. It has a silica modulus (SiO 2 to Na 2 O ratio) of 0.97. Table 1 displays the physical qualities of raw ingredients. WFS has a higher specific gravity and density than fly ash and BFSFP. The raw materials were analyzed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF). Table 2 displays the chemical components of the raw materials. Table 1 Physical characteristic of raw materials Materials Specific gravity Bulk density (kg/m 3 ) Finer than 45 µm (%) Moisture content (%) Loss on ignition (%) FA 2.36 960 85 - - BFSFP 2.68 1460 95 - - WFS 2.88 1560 15 3.2% 1.05% Table 2 Chemical composition of raw materials Analyte SiO 2 Al 2 O 3 Fe 2 O 3 CaO TiO 2 K 2 O SO 3 MnO ZrO 2 ZnO CuO Y 2 O 3 FA 61.13 31.06 3 2.25 1.23 0.96 0.15 0.06 0.03 0.012 0.008 0.006 BFSFP 39.95 21.66 0.41 33.91 0.94 0.98 1.98 0.37 0.037 - 0.005 0.012 WFS 87.83 - 1.67 0.59 0.28 0.14 9.39 0.023 0.048 0.003 0.005 0.002 The particle size distribution (PSD) comparison of BFSFP, FA, WFS, and natural fine aggregate (NFA) highlights key differences in their particle gradation and suitability for cementitious applications as shown in Fig. 2 . When compared to cement, both BFSFP and FA exhibit finer particle sizes, making them effective as supplementary cementitious materials. BFSFP has a D50 (median particle size) of approximately 10–12 µm, which is comparable to cement, allowing it to enhance early strength and durability. Fly Ash, on the other hand, has a D50 of around 15–20 µm, making it slightly coarser than cement but still beneficial for pozzolanic reactions. In contrast, the PSD of WFS is finer than that of NFA, whereas NFA exhibits a broader gradation. This difference suggests that WFS contains a higher proportion of finer particles, which may lead to increased water demand and reduced workability if used directly as a full replacement for NFA. Based on IS 383:2016 [ 34 ], the grading of WFS aligns with Zone IV fine aggregates, which are characterized by a higher percentage of finer particles. However, WFS can still be incorporated into bricks as a partial fine aggregate replacement, provided that appropriate water-cement ratio adjustments and admixtures are used to maintain workability and strength. 3. Methodology 3.1 Mix Design The mix design methodology involves the systematic preparation of various alkali-activated mixes by varying the quantities of BFSFP, FA, and ASS as binders, alongside adjustments to the fine aggregate ratio and water-to-binder proportion as displayed in Table 3 . All mix is combined with waste foundry sand as fine aggregate, with three altered binder-to-aggregate proportions (1:1, 1:2, and 1:3). The water-binder ratio is adjusted to control the consistency of the bricks. Table 3 Mix Design of Brick Mix Design No. Binder (%) Binder: WFS Water to Binder BFSFP FA ASS MD1 92 0 8 1:01 0.25 MD2 69 23 8 MD3 46 46 8 MD4 23 69 8 MD5 0 92 8 MD6 90 0 10 MD7 67.5 22.5 10 MD8 45 45 10 MD9 22.5 67.5 10 MD10 0 90 10 MD11 92 0 8 1:02 0.35 MD12 69 23 8 MD13 46 46 8 MD14 23 69 8 MD15 0 92 8 MD16 90 0 10 MD17 67.5 22.5 10 MD18 45 45 10 MD19 22.5 67.5 10 MD20 0 90 10 MD21 92 0 8 1:03 0.5 MD22 69 23 8 MD23 46 46 8 MD24 23 69 8 MD25 0 92 8 MD26 90 0 10 MD27 67.5 22.5 10 MD28 45 45 10 MD29 22.5 67.5 10 MD30 0 90 10 3.2 Casting and Testing To assess the compressive strength value of different mix designs, 50 mm cube specimens were prepared using a standardized procedure [ 35 ]. BFSFP, FA, and ASS were thoroughly mixed in a dry state to ensure uniform distribution of binders. WFS was gradually mixed to the dry binder and stirred continuously to ensure an even blend. Water was added slowly while mixing to achieve the desired consistency. The mixture was continuously stirred until a homogeneous and workable mix was obtained. The filled molds were permitted to set at room temperature for 24 hours to allow for initial setting and hardening. Following a day, the cubes were gently removed from the moulds. The demoulded cubes were kept in place at a temperature of 22 0 -28 0 C for the designated curing periods of 7 and 28 days before testing. The compressive strength of all specimens was determined as per IS 4031 part 7- 1988 [ 36 ] as shown in Fig. 3 . During the testing day, samples were balanced to calculate the density of all specimen. The mix design specimens were subjected to a flexural strength evaluation by ASTM C348 [ 37 ]. Prismatic molds measuring 40 mm × 40 mm × 160 mm were used to cast the samples. After a curing period of 28 days, the specimens were tested using a three-point bending configuration with a clear span of 100 mm between the two lower supports, as illustrated in Fig. 4 . The applied load was centered on the top surface at mid-span to determine the modulus of rupture for each mix. 3.3 Test outcomes The density of all mix designs ranged from 2015 to 2057 kg/m 3 as shown in Fig. 5 . Mixes with a higher proportion of BFSFP show higher densities compared to those with higher proportions of FA. The binder-to-WFS ratio also influences density. A binder to WFS ratio of 1:1 with a lower water-binder ratio tends to produce the highest densities. The compressive strength value of the mixes is influenced by the binder percentage and the balance between BFSFP and WFS as shown in Fig. 6 . Higher binder percentages (especially BFSFP) leads to higher compressive strength, as seen in MD1, MD6, MD11, MD16, MD21 and MD26 while the binder to WFS ratio changes. The reduction in compressive strength with increasing FA amount is primarily because of its lower reactivity related to BFSFP. FA is a pozzolanic material that requires additional activation to form strength-contributing phases like C-S-H or N-A-S-H gels. Unlike BFSFP, which reacts readily in an alkaline environment, FA has a slower hydration rate and contributes less to early strength development. FA acts as a precursor that enhances strength under heat-curing conditions; however, since ambient curing was used in this study, the strength development was comparatively lower. Additionally, increasing FA reduces the overall calcium content, leading to weaker gel formation and a more porous microstructure, which negatively impacts compressive strength. It has been observed, the compressive strength increases with increasing BFSFP quantity. Flexural strength (FS) increases with higher binder percentages and lower binder-to-WFS ratios. Mix designs with a higher BFSFP and ASS content, (e.g., MD1), achieved the highest FS, reaching up to 2.25 MPa as shown in Fig. 7 . 3.4 Selection of Mix Design for 1 St Class Brick According to IS 1077:1992 [ 38 ], the minimum strength of a 1st class brick should be 10 MPa. This standard ensures that the bricks are suitable for use in load-bearing structures, providing sufficient strength and durability for construction purposes. Mix designs MD1 to MD4, MD6 to MD10, and MD16 achieved a compressive value of more than 10 MPa. The ratio of binder to WFS in MD1 to MD10 was 1:1, while in MD16, the ratio was 1:2. This indicates that a higher quantity of WFS was utilized in MD16, and a lower amount of ASS was used, which positively impacted the material cost. Therefore, based on the higher utilization of WFS and reduced ASS usage, MD16 was selected as the optimum mix of AFSB for casting class I bricks for further investigation. 4. Preparation of alkali-activated waste foundry sand bricks (AFSB) 4.1 Casting of brick The bricks were produced at an automated brick-making machine plant. All raw components were weighed according to the quantities listed in Table 4 and combined dry. Later, the specified amount of water was merged and blended to produce a consistent lump-free mixture. The mixture was transferred to machine molds, which were then vibrated and compacted to make a uniformly sized and dense brick. The machine produced bricks of 230 × 100 × 80 mm with a forming force of 14 MPa. The developed bricks were cured at ambient environments for 7 days as displayed in Fig. 8 . Table 4 Quantity of materials of optimum mix per cubic meter Mix Design No. Binder (kg) Binder: WFS Waste Foundry sand (kg) Water to Binder Water (kg) BFSFP FA ASS MD16 591 0 66 1 : 2 1314 0.35 230 4.2 Test performed on bricks The developed bricks were tested according to the codal provisions. The density test (IS 2180 Part I, 1988), water absorption test (IS 3495 Part I, 1992), compressive strength test (IS 3495 Part II, 1992), efflorescence test (IS 3495 Part III, 1992), were performed. To determine the shear bond strength, three brick prisms test was conducted. For durability, chloride/sulphate content and carbonation test were performed. Thermal conductivity test was accomplished by using Lee's Disc method. 4.3 Result and Discussion 4.3.1 Density, compressive strength, water absorption and efflorescence Table 5 presents the outcomes of the tests conducted on the bricks. The measured density of 2050 kg/m³ suggests that the brick is well-compacted with minimal porosity. This level of density is typical for high-strength bricks, contributing to its stability and durability in structural applications. The compressive strength of 10.52 MPa confirms that the brick is capable of withstanding significant load pressures without failure. This value exceeds the minimum requirement for first-class bricks, making it appropriate for use in load-bearing walls and other critical structural elements. The brick's water absorption rate of 4.25% is relatively low, indicating low porosity and a reduced risk of moisture-related problems such as frost damage or deterioration. The absence of efflorescence (Nil) is a significant positive attribute, indicating that the brick does not contain harmful soluble salts that could lead to unsightly deposits or structural issues as shown in Fig. 9 . Table 5 Density, compressive strength, water absorption and efflorescence of AFSB Mix Design Test Performed Result Limit As per specification MD16 Dimension 230 x100 x 80 (mm) Non-modular size IS 1077–1992 [ 38 ] Density 2050 kg/m3 1800–2200 kg/m3 IS 2180–1988 [ 39 ] Compressive strength 10.52 MPa > 10 MPa for first-class brick IS 3495 Part 1–1994 [ 40 ] Water absorption 4.25% < 15% IS 3495 Part 2–1994 [ 41 ] Efflorescence Nil - IS 3495 Part 3–1994 [ 42 ] 4.3.2 Shear Bond Strength Masonry walls are usually subject to lateral loads, including loads from earthquakes and wind. Consequently, the stability and resistance to these stresses of masonry walls depend greatly on their bond strength. In these circumstances, triplet brick prism shear bond test was performed to find the shear bond strength of the optimum combination. Three bricks were joined together using alkali activated mortar developed in previous study [ 43 ] as shown in Fig. 10 . Until the bond failed, shear stress was applied to the top of the middle brick. It was noted at the load that the bond broke. The average shear bond strength value of the specimens was 0.046 MPa which is above the minimal limit of 0.03 MPa [ 44 ]. 4.3.3 Durability Test Crushed brick powder measuring 125 µm in size was mixed with distilled water in a 1:10 ratio and filtered to find the chloride content. Titration procedure according to IS 3025 (Part-32): 1988 [ 45 ] was followed. A silver nitrate solution was titrated to assess the normalcy of a water-soluble extract. In compliance with IS 3025 (Part 24): 1986 [ 46 ], the sulphate content was determined using the same sample and UV spectrophotometer. In concrete and mortar without embedded steel, IS 456:2000 sets limits on the amount of sulfate and chloride. The maximum amount of chloride is 3 kg/m³, while the maximum amount of sulphate is 4% of the cement mass. According to the experimental methodology, the concentrations of sulphate and chloride were 64.89 mg/l and 0.106 kg/m³, respectively, and were within the maximum allowed limits. The surface of the bricks was examined with a liquid of 1% phenolphthalein in 70% diluted alcohol to evaluate the amount of carbonation in the material. It is considered carbonated if the color of the surface does not alter. The surface color changed to pink when tested on a brick surface, indicating no carbonation, as shown in Fig. 11 . 4.3.4 Thermal conductivity test The thermal conductivity (TC) of AFSB was found using Lee's Disc method [ 47 ]. The disc had dimensions of 100 mm in diameter and 10 mm in thickness. Lee's Disc method is usually applied to calculate the TC of poor conductors like brick and involves heating one side of the sample while measuring the steady-state heat flow. In this method, the brick sample is placed between a metal disc and a heat source. After the system reaches thermal equilibrium, the rate of cooling is measured to determine the TC as displayed in Fig. 12 . The result showed a TC of 0.32–0.40 W/(m·K ) , which is significantly lower than the regular brick (0.60-1 W/(m·K)). This indicates that the brick has better insulating properties, making it potentially more effective for energy-efficient construction. 5. Microstructural characterization 5.1 X-ray diffraction (XRD) Figure 13 displays the XRD patterns of the optimum mix made with foundry waste. The optimal samples for the unreacted particle quartz were identified at 20.84°, 26.45°, 49.74°, and 59.88°, respectively (PDF: 00–005-0490). This result is in line with previous studies [ 48 ]. At 31.98° and 56.42°, calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gels were observed (PDF: 00-003-0649). Additionally, while calcium and sodium aluminosilicate gels (C-A-S-H and N-A-S-H) exist concurrently in this form, sodium-calcium-alumino-silicate hydrate (N, C)-A-S-H was discovered at 32.82° and 42.34° (PDF: 00-025-0777) [ 47 – 48 ]. The XRD analysis of AFSB shows dominant peaks of quartz (Q) along with the presence of C-S-H, N-A-S-H, and C-A-S-H, indicating the formation of geopolymeric hydration products. A broad hump at lower 2θ values suggests a significant amorphous phase, characteristic of alkali-activated materials. In contrast, cement mortar bricks typically exhibit strong crystalline peaks of quartz, C-S-H, portlandite (Ca(OH)₂), and ettringite, with a more crystalline nature due to traditional hydration reactions. The key difference lies in the absence of portlandite in AFSB, as its strength is derived from alkali activation, forming N-A-S-H and C-A-S-H gels instead. This results in a denser microstructure with enhanced durability compared to cement mortar bricks, which rely on portlandite and C-S-H for strength. Additionally, the higher amorphous content in AFSB suggests better resistance to chemical attack and improved long-term stability. 5.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) AFSB surface structure and composition aggregation provide information from SEM investigation of the surfaces coated with lamellar and granule forms. SEM images were taken at 1k, 5k, 10k, and 50k for 28 days. The upper layer's particles were more crystalline, compact, and well-organized, according to these photographs. Figure 14 shows the tetrahedral gels C-S-H, N-A-S-H, and C-A-S-H with the help of EDS technique. Unlike AFSB, cement mortar structure often contains more capillary pores and microcracks due to the evaporation of water during hydration. The presence of portlandite in cement bricks contributes to a less compact structure, making them more susceptible to carbonation and chemical degradation over time. In contrast, the SEM images of AFSB suggest a more homogeneous and dense matrix due to the geopolymerization process, which enhances durability and strength. Additionally, the lamellar and granular morphology of AFSB indicates a more stable gel network, which further improves resistance to environmental factors compared to conventional cement mortar bricks. The EDS spectrum study shows the existence of numerous elements in the sample, with the weight percentages (Wt%) as shown in Fig. 15 . The significant occurrence of oxygen (38.5%) suggests that the sample likely contains oxides or silicates, which are common in minerals and certain building materials. Silicon (11.9%) and aluminum (5.9%) indicate that silicate minerals may be present. The presence of chlorine (9.7%) and sodium (10.3%) might indicate the presence of salts (like NaCl) or other chlorides, which could be due to contamination or the specific composition of the material. 5.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) AFSM samples were analyzed using FTIR spectra to identify the functional groups and chemical bonds present, providing insight into the molecular structure and confirming the presence of specific compounds. Tetrahedral Silica (Si) or Aluminum(Al) bonds (T-O-T ), C-O carbonates groups, hydroxyl OH- groups, and magnetized water were detected in 3400–3600 cm − 1 , 1400–1460 cm − 1 , and 440–1050 cm − 1 , respectively [ 51 ]. Improved cross-linking and polymerization were indicated by the small spectral band at 1056 cm − 1, suggesting an increase in aluminum content in the C-A-S-H gels, as shown in Fig. 16 . A prominent band between 1455 and 1510 cm-1, attributed to surface carbonation of the material during curing, was also observed. The asymmetric stretching vibration phase of Si-O-T was suggested by principal band formed for AFSB samples at around 1170 cm − 1 in alkali-activated hydrated gel [ 52 ]. The FTIR spectra of cement mortar bricks show traditional hydration products, with Si-O stretching in C-S-H at 950–1000 cm⁻¹ and O-H stretching of portlandite at 3640 cm⁻¹, absent in AFSB. Carbonation bands near 1400–1450 cm⁻¹ result from external exposure. The weaker Si-O-T stretching in cement mortar indicates lower polymerization. Overall, AFSB's alkali-activated gel structure enhances durability, while cement mortar bricks, reliant on portlandite and C-S-H, tend to be more porous and prone to degradation. 6. Life cycle assessment of AFSB This Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study aimed to evaluate the environmental impact of a specific ASFB composition. The analysis was conducted to quantify the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other key environmental parameters. LCA was conducted as per the guidelines of the ISO 14040 standard [ 53 ]. The scope of the study was limited to a per-m³ assessment, ensuring that the environmental inventory was prepared accordingly. The study followed a structured approach, considering the raw material extraction, transportation, and production processes involved in the brick composition. ReCiPe 2016 Method used for LCAI in OpenLCA software [ 54 ] and collected results are presented. The study assessed multiple environmental indicatorsas shown in Table 6 . Table 6 Life Cycle Assessment of AFSB Sr. No. Indicator AFSB Unit 1 Fine particulate matter formation 0.205821 kg PM2.5 eq 2 Fossil resource scarcity 24.519600 kg oil eq 3 Freshwater ecotoxicity 3.847420 kg 1,4-DCB 4 Freshwater eutrophication 0.104323 kg P eq 5 Global warming 102.593000 kg CO 2 eq 6 Human carcinogenic toxicity 6.862020 kg 1,4-DCB 7 Human non-carcinogenic toxicity 176.702000 kg 1,4-DCB 8 Ionizing radiation 5.641110 kBq Co-60 eq 9 Land use 15.304100 m 2 a crop eq 10 Marine ecotoxicity 5.513060 kg 1,4-DCB 11 Marine eutrophication 0.006958 kg N eq 12 Mineral resource scarcity 4.384790 kg Cu eq 13 Ozone formation, Human health 0.103025 kg NOx eq 14 Ozone formation, Terrestrial ecosystems 0.109590 kg NOx eq 15 Stratospheric ozone depletion 0.000017 kg CFC11 eq 16 Terrestrial acidification 0.268268 kg SO 2 eq 17 Terrestrial ecotoxicity 598.470000 kg 1,4-DCB 18 Water consumption 3.394690 m 3 The comparison of Global Warming Potential (GWP) values demonstrates that ASFB bricks offer a significant environmental advantage over conventional brick types, as shown in Table 7 . Red burnt bricks exhibit the highest GWP, being 121.8% more carbon-intensive than ASFB, making them the least sustainable choice. Fly ash bricks show a moderate increase of 7.7%. Overall, the data underscore the potential of ASFB bricks to reduce the carbon footprint of masonry construction and promote sustainable building practices. Table 7 GWP Comparison Table (Relative to ASFB): Brick Type Global Warming Potential (kg CO₂ eq/m³) % Higher or Lower than ASFB ASFB 102.59 - Red Burnt Brick 227.5 🔺 121.8% higher Fly Ash Brick 110.5 🔺 7.7% higher 7. Embodied energy of AFSB Embodied Energy (EE) states the total amount of primary energy utilized in the direct and indirect processes involved in producing a product or service. This covers all tasks up until the product is prepared to exit the last factory gate, from material extraction and production to transportation and fabrication procedures [ 55 ]. The amounts of components per cubic meter of AFSB have been multiplied by their corresponding coefficients for EE to determine the total embodied energy (EE) for the AFSB. The indirect energy component (A) includes the embodied energy necessary for the extraction and preparation of raw ingredients. BFSFP, which is crucial in the binder system, was used in a significant quantity of 591 kg/m³. With an energy intensity of 1.6 MJ/kg, the indirect EE for BFSFP amounted to 945.6 MJ/m³, representing a substantial portion of the total embodied energy. ASS, though used in a much smaller quantity of 66 kg/m³, had a much higher energy intensity of 10.95 MJ/kg [ 56 ] due to its complex production process. This resulted in an indirect EE of 722.7 MJ/m³ for ASS. The WFS used in the current research are industrial by-products that have not been purposely produced and used in their as-received form. The embodied energy of WFS has been considered as zero due to its status as an industrial by-product that is not intentionally produced [ 57 ]. Similarly, EE has also been regarded as nil for other by-products, such as stone processing dust [ 58 ]. However, the embodied energy (EE) used for removing iron particles and crushing waste foundry sand (WFS) to make it usable as aggregate cannot be ignored. Therefore, in this study, the EE of WFS is considered as the sum of the EE from the magnetic separator (0.009 MJ/kg) and the ball mill (0.072 MJ/kg), totaling 0.081 MJ/kg. Water, essential for the chemical reactions and workability of the mixture, was used at 230 kg/m³. Although its energy intensity was minimal at 0.01 MJ/kg, the indirect EE contribution from water was 2.3 MJ/m³, a relatively negligible value compared to the other raw materials. Transportation of raw materials and finished products (B) accounted for 218 MJ/m³, while direct process energy (C), which includes the energy consumed during the operation of machinery, added 98 MJ/m³ [ 59 ]. The total embodied energy of AFSB was computed by summing the contributions from raw material extraction, transportation, and process energy, resulting in a final embodied energy value of 2095.66 MJ/m³ as presented in Table 8 . Table 8 Embodied Energy of AFSB Energy Material Quantity (kg/m 3 ) EE (MJ/kg) EE (MJ/m 3 ) Total (MJ/m 3 ) Indirect Energy A. Excavation / EE of Raw Materials (MJ/m 3 ) BFSFP 591 1.6 945.6 1777.03 ASS 66 10.95 722.7 WFS 1314 0.081 106.43 Water 230 0.01 2.3 Indirect Energy B. Transportation of Raw Materials & Finished Products (MJ/m3) 218 Direct Energy C. Process Energy- Electricity used for operating the plant machinery (MJ/m3) 98 Embodied Energy of AFSB (MJ/m 3 ) = (A + B + C) 2093.63 According to the LCA, the EE of burnt clay brick varied from 4.9 GJ/m 3 to 7.8 GJ/m 3 . On the other hand, the EE of fly ash blocks and AAC blocks varied from 2.4 GJ/m 3 to 4.5 GJ/m 3 [ 60 ]. While as per calculation the EE of AFBS is 2.1 GJ/m 3 . The EE essential in the manufacture of AFSB was found to be around 57% and 12% less compared to the energy needed to produce burnt clay bricks and fly ash bricks respectively. 8. Cost analysis of AFSB Based on the supply and price of materials in local markets, the cost analysis of AFSB is shown in Table 9 . Table 9 Cost Analysis of AFSB Sr.no Material Quantity (kg/m 3 ) Rates (INR) Cost (INR) 1 BFSFP 591 1500 / t 887 2 ASS 66 50 / kg 3300 3 WFS 1314 1000 / t 1314 Material cost (per m 3 ) = 1 + 2 + 3 5501 Labor cost (per m 3 ) 1500 Total Cost (per m 3 ) 7001 INR (85 $ ) Burnt clay bricks in India range in price from 6500 to 8500 INR per cubic meter, based on area, supplier, and market circumstances. High-quality fly ash bricks are priced around 5600 and 7400 INR per cubic meter and have compressive strength of 10–15 MPa. AFSB are slightly more costly than fly ash bricks, but their superior quality and consistency justify the additional cost. AFSB bricks outperform burnt clay bricks at equivalent or lower costs, making them additional appealing choice for long-lasting and sustainable structures. 9. Conclusion This study successfully demonstrated the evolution of alkali-activated waste foundry sand bricks (AFSB) utilizing waste foundry sand (WFS) as a fine aggregate, along with BFSFP and anhydrous sodium metasilicate (ASS) as binders. The optimized mix (MD16) exhibited superior mechanical, thermal, and durability properties, creating it a feasible alternative to conventional bricks. The AFSB accomplished a compressive strength of 10.52 MPa, meeting the requirements for first-class bricks as per IS 1077:1992. Additionally, the bricks exhibited a density of 2050 kg/m³, low water absorption of 4.25%, and negligible efflorescence, ensuring durability and resistance to moisture-related deterioration. Microstructural analysis through XRD and SEM confirmed the formation of geopolymeric hydration products like calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H), sodium-alumino-silicate-hydrate (N-A-S-H), and calcium-alumino-silicate-hydrate (C-A-S-H), contributing to the enhanced strength and stability of AFSB. The thermal performance analysis indicated a thermal conductivity range of 0.32–0.40 W/(m·K), demonstrating improved insulation compared to conventional bricks. The findings highlight ASFB's significant potential in lowering the carbon footprint of masonry construction, thereby contributing to more sustainable building practices. The embodied energy analysis revealed that AFSB required 57% less energy than burnt clay bricks and 12% less than fly ash bricks, emphasizing its energy efficiency and sustainability. The cost analysis of AFSB indicated a total production cost of 7001 INR per cubic meter (~ $ 85), making it competitive with traditional bricks while offering superior performance and environmental benefits. The integration of WFS as a primary fine aggregate substitution contributes to effective waste management, reducing landfill disposal and promoting a sustainable economy in the construction sector. In conclusion, the study highlights that AFSB provides an economically viable, energy efficient, and environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional bricks. The research findings emphasize the potential of alkali-activated technology in promoting cleaner and more sustainable building materials while addressing industrial waste management challenges. Declarations Conflict of interest No, there is no conflict of interest Funding The authors thank Truform Techno Products Pvt Ltd and Kapilansh Dhatu Udyog (P) Ltd, Nagpur, India for their financial support. 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of raw materials\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/9e38d7f93feee9f8c9a60652.png"},{"id":86424146,"identity":"c5b1c2eb-2805-4bb9-b082-929ca8b017eb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:10:10","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":705728,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompressive strength test of mix designs\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/2b44903a0c74cf2eabb674a6.png"},{"id":86426142,"identity":"9b9bcd21-d730-42d6-8ee9-63a22c732a60","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:26:10","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":667898,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlexural strength test of mix designs\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/02ffb3b00909ee7b9581fda1.png"},{"id":86424172,"identity":"125be76f-5414-4a7c-a08a-b6cc8f0d9012","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:10:11","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":46989,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAverage density of mix designs (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/6395f668f4edec4c71ed2b23.png"},{"id":86426146,"identity":"04b6f3dc-3e00-4a47-a472-80957253ed4b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:26:10","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":63745,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAverage compressive strength of mix design (MPa)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/ee3d622e49e920ef79e600ad.png"},{"id":86425209,"identity":"c752ab93-79e1-4e12-814e-4f2a990c0007","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:18:10","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":48407,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAverage flexural strength of mix design (MPa)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/85ee9d02ae077b8f65f6c780.png"},{"id":86425205,"identity":"f2ea7255-a6a0-415a-a6ce-64394f523329","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:18:10","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":820374,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePreparation of AFSB\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/8f8114e08c331546302dae04.png"},{"id":86425210,"identity":"8f5a1735-7c6a-45f9-b024-b5ea86be632a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:18:10","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":734504,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTest performed on AFSB\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/c97068a8e9ce49481fe9a51c.png"},{"id":86424174,"identity":"346b2151-c5b4-4e64-a567-2e9bb1c86bd4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:10:11","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":181145,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eShear bond strength of AFSB\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/966b9a4ee51372188177bb72.png"},{"id":86424158,"identity":"21279c1f-c33b-4fa7-9ccd-d1a446922c37","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:10:10","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":248191,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCarbonation test of AFSB\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/3f7c4e81aaedc651183c9acd.png"},{"id":86424155,"identity":"4db3f7d2-22f8-4de0-8632-3c81cbc0e783","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:10:10","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":462230,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThermal conductivity test of AFSB\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/8893669d6674e09c875314c2.png"},{"id":86425219,"identity":"d9096cda-a6c8-41d7-8cae-e8b727e99f1d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:18:11","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":114880,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eX-ray diffraction analysis of AFSB\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/cfb35a040eb665cd3bb4674f.png"},{"id":86424164,"identity":"6a74a63a-d098-457b-b867-9c937a25a7dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:10:10","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":203780,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eScanning electron microscopy analysis of AFSB at 5k magnitude\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"14.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/2c3c633cb5138b1646c5e3aa.png"},{"id":86424184,"identity":"26deb262-eb08-4151-a33c-feeed755b963","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:10:11","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":293254,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEnergy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy analysis of AFSB\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"15.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/e864463623d415cf06881bc0.png"},{"id":86424187,"identity":"57f49224-e372-4c2b-adc7-5e47984b1fb1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-10 13:10:11","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"Figure 16","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":91038,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFourier transform infrared analysis of AFSB\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"16.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/be3da3ec8c5339a536705a02.png"},{"id":87466895,"identity":"c5b95cc0-1a49-45fa-a9ac-4c17b3e83991","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-24 07:36:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":7721787,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7019733/v1/4a1a7b5b-140c-448c-903c-aa179f8e8800.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Design \u0026 development of alkali-activated walling materials using waste foundry sand","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eOne of the most essential environmental challenges confronting the construction manufacturing today is using environmentally friendly building materials to promote sustainable development. The cement production is responsible for over 5% of overall CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions globally, making it the greatest contributor to global warming. Therefore, using supplementary cementitious ingredients such as fly ash and slag or focusing on cement-free substitutions to regular Portland cement is critical [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe administration of India\u0026rsquo;s ambitious 'Housing for All' initiative aims to arrange accommodation for the urban meager by 2022. Consequently, the claim for housing units in city and rural areas is projected to reach 90\u0026nbsp;million [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. This surge in demand has considerably amplified the need for constructing materials like bricks and blocks in the building sectors. However, the modern reliance on burnt clay bricks and cement bricks poses environmental concerns, as the firing method for clay elements and the use of Portland cement enhance CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. As a result, recent research has focused on exploring substitute binders for brick production. Alkali-activated binders (AAB) have demonstrated a significant capacity for creating ecological and green construction materials. AAB exhibits outstanding results, particularly enhanced mechanical strength and durability. Additionally, these findings provide researchers with considerable opportunities to include numerous manufacturing wastes in developed geopolymer binders for building applications [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7 CR8\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Alkaline cement, also known as the one-part alkali-activated binder is an emerging solution in geopolymers and is at ease to use silicate solution-activated geopolymers. It combines aluminosilicate source elements through solid activators [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. In one-part alkali-activated binders, the activator still in dry powder form, and the reaction initiates when water is mixed into the dry powder, which has the consistency of conventional cement, as opposed to traditional alkali-activated binders, where liquids are cast off to initiate the activation process. This method, called \"just add water,\" reduces the need for large amounts of caustic and thick liquids in making alkali-activated materials, making the binder more practical and commercially viable. Because it\u0026rsquo;s not necessary to create NaOH solution formerly mixing, employing powdered alkali actuators in alkali-activated materials systems is easier and faster than using commonly used alkaline solutions. There have been various attempts to make one-part binders by combining aluminosilicate compounds utilizing alkaline solutions at warmer temperatures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Earlier studies have demonstrated that BFSFP-based bricks possess greater compression value compared to burnt clay bricks. In earlier research, BFSFP was combined using hydrated lime with sand, compressed at 4.9 MPa, and then treated at 270\u0026deg;\u0026ndash;272\u0026deg;C with 95% moisture aimed at 28 days. Additionally, metakaolin with sand were cast-off in varying proportions for brick manufacturing, resulting in molded bricks with a compressive strength of 20 MPa [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Bricks prepared from slag, lime, and sand furthermore display outstanding mechanical characteristics. In a study, the performance of geopolymer bricks (GPB) was investigated using Class F fly ash and alkaline activators like sodium silicate (Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). These bricks were dried in a furnace at various temperatures, and examinations for compressive strength (CS) and density were conducted on specific days. The CS values reached from 5 to 60 MPa between 7 and 28 days. Numerous researchers demonstrated usage of industrialized wastes, for example, fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and metakaolin, that provide superior ingredients for producing GPB by polymerization [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Manufacturing and agro wastes, for example, rice husk ash and extended polystyrene have been explored as components for developed blocks. Geopolymer elements created on fly ash and produced with NaOH and Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e demonstrate superior structural performance compared to traditional clay bricks. Tests conducted using a polymeric medium with binders of different solvable silicate levels have yielded encouraging results. Additionally, lightweight concrete bricks show outstanding resilience and compressive strength. Bricks prepared from lime, gypsum with diatomite soil showed outstanding mechanical and thermal values. Furthermore, blocks produced by gold mill tailings with cement, followed by preserving and water curing, have shown more compression value, especially with as much as 20% tailing substitution and 14 day cure period [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. The soil cement bricks consumes an EE range of 2.75 to 3.75 MJ per brick for a dimension of 230\u0026times;190\u0026times;100 mm [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen Sand used to create casting molds in foundries is brand-new, virgin sand that has been utilized previously. An amount of sand is constantly eliminated besides being substituted through virgin sand as a result of this reuse, which eventually turns sand unfit for utilization in casting moulds. The metal casting companies produce waste foundry sand (WFS). China, India, and the United States are the superior three nations in the world for casting production, according to the 56th World Casting Census, which was published by Modern Castings USA in January 2023. With an remarkable 54.05\u0026nbsp;million tons of casting, China has declared the largest production. According to Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the United States came in third place with a casting production of 10.14\u0026nbsp;million tons, while India came in second with a production of 12.49\u0026nbsp;million tons.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe used foundry sand is generally landfilled or recycled for use in other applications. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The American Foundry Society calculated in 2007 that up to 30% of 10\u0026nbsp;million tons of used foundry sand was recycled. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stated that more used foundry sand may be recycled safely and practically [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The EPA estimates that 2.6\u0026nbsp;million tons of discarded foundry sand are castoff in positive ways outside of foundries each year, with iron, steel, and aluminium sands accounting for 96% of these useful uses. Only 14% of those sands are now advantageously applied in soil-related activities. For the applications looked at in the 2014 risk assessment, the EPA believes there is potential for significant beneficial use of market development and greater environmental benefits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Numerous studies have been conducted on the use of WFS to partially or completely replace fine gravel in bricks. Even though foundry sand has a very high silica content, strength reduces when its WFS content goes above a certain threshold. This is because WFS's more fine-grained, unimodal particle size negatively affects mortar. Additions as impurities harm the properties of bricks, both when it's new and when it's hardened. Filling up highway embankments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], using as flowable fill materials, constructing and surfacing roads, as well as stabilizing and reinforcing soil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], are some of the key geotechnical applications of waste foundry sand (WFS) in civil engineering. Additionally, WFS has shown promise in creating hydraulic barriers or liners [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], and in various construction materials, including the production of cement, mortar, pavement blocks, brick blocks, and concrete [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR28 CR29 CR30\" citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] These selected applications highlight the versatility and potential of WFS as a sustainable alternative material in infrastructure development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWFS exhibits higher water absorption and increased shrinkage, which can negatively affect the durability and dimensional stability of construction materials. To address these limitations, researchers have incorporated polymeric resins into WFS, modifying its surface characteristics. Specific additives such as cardanol-based resins, calcium stearate, and stearic acid have been blended with the sand to reduce its water absorption capacity, enhance particle cohesion, and limit volumetric instability. These chemical modifications improve the compatibility of WFS with binders and reduce moisture-induced expansion or shrinkage in composite materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWFS's application as a building material in alkali-activated bricks has been the subject of relatively few studies. Additionally, the utilization of ASS as alkaline activators is the main emphasis of this study. Due to their undesirable qualities, sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate are costly and challenging to use in alkali-activated bricks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, using ASS alone as an alkaline activator would be a practical and desirable choice. Creating alkali-activated bricks with 100% WFS and investigating the combined impacts of FA, BFSFP, and ASS were the main goals of this study. Enhancing the use of WFS in value-added products and encouraging cleaner, no-waste manufacturing in the construction and foundry sectors were targeted in the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Material collection and characterization","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe WFS was collected from Truform Techno Products Pvt Ltd in Nagpur, India. Because it is exposed to high temperatures and molten metal after cast iron is demolded, WFS experiences substantial, physical and chemical changes. The sand's texture, particle size, and permeability are all changed by the extreme heat, which breaks down organic bonds. Furthermore, WFS builds up impurities like heavy metals and leftover binders, which alter its chemical makeup and compatibility with the environment. To improve the purity of WFS for repurposing, iron particles were extracted using magnetic separation. Magnetic fields are used in this operation to remove ferrous impurities, and separators including high-intensity rare-earth magnets, overbelt magnets, and drum magnets guarantee efficient removal. This strategy lowers trash disposal costs and encourages sustainable reuse in manufacturing and construction materials, making it both economical and environmentally friendly. Additionally, by decreasing particle size, dissolving clumps, and removing impurities, the ball mill method was utilized to enhance WFS characteristics. Sand that has been ground in a revolving drum with steel or ceramic media improves surface qualities and homogeneity, making it appropriate for use in brick and concrete production. High purity is ensured through material refinement through post-grinding, screening, and air classification. In this investigation, no heat procedure was used for WFS. The material's direct applicability without the need for energy-intensive treatments was assessed using it in its original condition. By allowing WFS to be recycled rather than disposed of, this scalable and economical method promotes sustainable waste management.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFA was collected from local productions in Nagpur, Maharashtra, India, however BFSFP and ASS were obtained from the native commercial industries. ASS is made up of 47% Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO, 46% SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, and 5% H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO, with a density of 2400 cu.m. It has a silica modulus (SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e to Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO ratio) of 0.97. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e displays the physical qualities of raw ingredients. WFS has a higher specific gravity and density than fly ash and BFSFP. The raw materials were analyzed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e displays the chemical components of the raw materials.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysical characteristic of raw materials\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaterials\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecific gravity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBulk density (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFiner than\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e45 \u0026micro;m (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoisture content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoss on ignition (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e960\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBFSFP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1460\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWFS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1560\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.2%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.05%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChemical composition of raw materials\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalyte\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMnO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZrO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZnO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCuO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eY\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBFSFP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWFS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe particle size distribution (PSD) comparison of BFSFP, FA, WFS, and natural fine aggregate (NFA) highlights key differences in their particle gradation and suitability for cementitious applications as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. When compared to cement, both BFSFP and FA exhibit finer particle sizes, making them effective as supplementary cementitious materials. BFSFP has a D50 (median particle size) of approximately 10\u0026ndash;12 \u0026micro;m, which is comparable to cement, allowing it to enhance early strength and durability. Fly Ash, on the other hand, has a D50 of around 15\u0026ndash;20 \u0026micro;m, making it slightly coarser than cement but still beneficial for pozzolanic reactions. In contrast, the PSD of WFS is finer than that of NFA, whereas NFA exhibits a broader gradation. This difference suggests that WFS contains a higher proportion of finer particles, which may lead to increased water demand and reduced workability if used directly as a full replacement for NFA. Based on IS 383:2016 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e], the grading of WFS aligns with Zone IV fine aggregates, which are characterized by a higher percentage of finer particles. However, WFS can still be incorporated into bricks as a partial fine aggregate replacement, provided that appropriate water-cement ratio adjustments and admixtures are used to maintain workability and strength.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Mix Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mix design methodology involves the systematic preparation of various alkali-activated mixes by varying the quantities of BFSFP, FA, and ASS as binders, alongside adjustments to the fine aggregate ratio and water-to-binder proportion as displayed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. All mix is combined with waste foundry sand as fine aggregate, with three altered binder-to-aggregate proportions (1:1, 1:2, and 1:3). The water-binder ratio is adjusted to control the consistency of the bricks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMix Design of Brick\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMix Design No.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBinder (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBinder: WFS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater to Binder\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBFSFP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1:01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1:02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1:03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Casting and Testing\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo assess the compressive strength value of different mix designs, 50 mm cube specimens were prepared using a standardized procedure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. BFSFP, FA, and ASS were thoroughly mixed in a dry state to ensure uniform distribution of binders. WFS was gradually mixed to the dry binder and stirred continuously to ensure an even blend. Water was added slowly while mixing to achieve the desired consistency. The mixture was continuously stirred until a homogeneous and workable mix was obtained. The filled molds were permitted to set at room temperature for 24 hours to allow for initial setting and hardening. Following a day, the cubes were gently removed from the moulds. The demoulded cubes were kept in place at a temperature of 22\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e-28\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e C for the designated curing periods of 7 and 28 days before testing. The compressive strength of all specimens was determined as per IS 4031 part 7- 1988 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. During the testing day, samples were balanced to calculate the density of all specimen.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mix design specimens were subjected to a flexural strength evaluation by ASTM C348 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Prismatic molds measuring 40 mm \u0026times; 40 mm \u0026times; 160 mm were used to cast the samples. After a curing period of 28 days, the specimens were tested using a three-point bending configuration with a clear span of 100 mm between the two lower supports, as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The applied load was centered on the top surface at mid-span to determine the modulus of rupture for each mix.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Test outcomes\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe density of all mix designs ranged from 2015 to 2057 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Mixes with a higher proportion of BFSFP show higher densities compared to those with higher proportions of FA. The binder-to-WFS ratio also influences density. A binder to WFS ratio of 1:1 with a lower water-binder ratio tends to produce the highest densities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe compressive strength value of the mixes is influenced by the binder percentage and the balance between BFSFP and WFS as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. Higher binder percentages (especially BFSFP) leads to higher compressive strength, as seen in MD1, MD6, MD11, MD16, MD21 and MD26 while the binder to WFS ratio changes. The reduction in compressive strength with increasing FA amount is primarily because of its lower reactivity related to BFSFP. FA is a pozzolanic material that requires additional activation to form strength-contributing phases like C-S-H or N-A-S-H gels. Unlike BFSFP, which reacts readily in an alkaline environment, FA has a slower hydration rate and contributes less to early strength development. FA acts as a precursor that enhances strength under heat-curing conditions; however, since ambient curing was used in this study, the strength development was comparatively lower. Additionally, increasing FA reduces the overall calcium content, leading to weaker gel formation and a more porous microstructure, which negatively impacts compressive strength. It has been observed, the compressive strength increases with increasing BFSFP quantity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlexural strength (FS) increases with higher binder percentages and lower binder-to-WFS ratios. Mix designs with a higher BFSFP and ASS content, (e.g., MD1), achieved the highest FS, reaching up to 2.25 MPa as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Selection of Mix Design for 1\u003csup\u003eSt\u003c/sup\u003e Class Brick\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to IS 1077:1992 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e], the minimum strength of a 1st class brick should be 10 MPa. This standard ensures that the bricks are suitable for use in load-bearing structures, providing sufficient strength and durability for construction purposes. Mix designs MD1 to MD4, MD6 to MD10, and MD16 achieved a compressive value of more than 10 MPa. The ratio of binder to WFS in MD1 to MD10 was 1:1, while in MD16, the ratio was 1:2. This indicates that a higher quantity of WFS was utilized in MD16, and a lower amount of ASS was used, which positively impacted the material cost. Therefore, based on the higher utilization of WFS and reduced ASS usage, MD16 was selected as the optimum mix of AFSB for casting class I bricks for further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Preparation of alkali-activated waste foundry sand bricks (AFSB)","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Casting of brick\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe bricks were produced at an automated brick-making machine plant. All raw components were weighed according to the quantities listed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and combined dry. Later, the specified amount of water was merged and blended to produce a consistent lump-free mixture. The mixture was transferred to machine molds, which were then vibrated and compacted to make a uniformly sized and dense brick. The machine produced bricks of 230 \u0026times; 100 \u0026times; 80 mm with a forming force of 14 MPa. The developed bricks were cured at ambient environments for 7 days as displayed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantity of materials of optimum mix per cubic meter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMix Design No.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBinder (kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBinder: WFS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWaste Foundry sand (kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater to Binder\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater (kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBFSFP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e591\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 : 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1314\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Test performed on bricks\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe developed bricks were tested according to the codal provisions. The density test (IS 2180 Part I, 1988), water absorption test (IS 3495 Part I, 1992), compressive strength test (IS 3495 Part II, 1992), efflorescence test (IS 3495 Part III, 1992), were performed. To determine the shear bond strength, three brick prisms test was conducted. For durability, chloride/sulphate content and carbonation test were performed. Thermal conductivity test was accomplished by using Lee's Disc method.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Result and Discussion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3.1 Density, compressive strength, water absorption and efflorescence\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e presents the outcomes of the tests conducted on the bricks. The measured density of 2050 kg/m\u0026sup3; suggests that the brick is well-compacted with minimal porosity. This level of density is typical for high-strength bricks, contributing to its stability and durability in structural applications. The compressive strength of 10.52 MPa confirms that the brick is capable of withstanding significant load pressures without failure. This value exceeds the minimum requirement for first-class bricks, making it appropriate for use in load-bearing walls and other critical structural elements. The brick's water absorption rate of 4.25% is relatively low, indicating low porosity and a reduced risk of moisture-related problems such as frost damage or deterioration. The absence of efflorescence (Nil) is a significant positive attribute, indicating that the brick does not contain harmful soluble salts that could lead to unsightly deposits or structural issues as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity, compressive strength, water absorption and efflorescence of AFSB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMix Design\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTest Performed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResult\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLimit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs per specification\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMD16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDimension\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230 x100 x 80 (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-modular size\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIS 1077\u0026ndash;1992 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2050 kg/m3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1800\u0026ndash;2200 kg/m3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIS 2180\u0026ndash;1988 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompressive strength\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.52 MPa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10 MPa for first-class brick\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIS 3495 Part 1\u0026ndash;1994 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater absorption\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.25%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;15%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIS 3495 Part 2\u0026ndash;1994 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEfflorescence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNil\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIS 3495 Part 3\u0026ndash;1994 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3.2 Shear Bond Strength\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMasonry walls are usually subject to lateral loads, including loads from earthquakes and wind. Consequently, the stability and resistance to these stresses of masonry walls depend greatly on their bond strength. In these circumstances, triplet brick prism shear bond test was performed to find the shear bond strength of the optimum combination. Three bricks were joined together using alkali activated mortar developed in previous study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e] as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e. Until the bond failed, shear stress was applied to the top of the middle brick. It was noted at the load that the bond broke. The average shear bond strength value of the specimens was 0.046 MPa which is above the minimal limit of 0.03 MPa [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3.3 Durability Test\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrushed brick powder measuring 125 \u0026micro;m in size was mixed with distilled water in a 1:10 ratio and filtered to find the chloride content. Titration procedure according to IS 3025 (Part-32): 1988 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e] was followed. A silver nitrate solution was titrated to assess the normalcy of a water-soluble extract. In compliance with IS 3025 (Part 24): 1986 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], the sulphate content was determined using the same sample and UV spectrophotometer. In concrete and mortar without embedded steel, IS 456:2000 sets limits on the amount of sulfate and chloride. The maximum amount of chloride is 3 kg/m\u0026sup3;, while the maximum amount of sulphate is 4% of the cement mass. According to the experimental methodology, the concentrations of sulphate and chloride were 64.89 mg/l and 0.106 kg/m\u0026sup3;, respectively, and were within the maximum allowed limits.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe surface of the bricks was examined with a liquid of 1% phenolphthalein in 70% diluted alcohol to evaluate the amount of carbonation in the material. It is considered carbonated if the color of the surface does not alter. The surface color changed to pink when tested on a brick surface, indicating no carbonation, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3.4 Thermal conductivity test\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe thermal conductivity (TC) of AFSB was found using Lee's Disc method [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. The disc had dimensions of 100 mm in diameter and 10 mm in thickness. Lee's Disc method is usually applied to calculate the TC of poor conductors like brick and involves heating one side of the sample while measuring the steady-state heat flow. In this method, the brick sample is placed between a metal disc and a heat source. After the system reaches thermal equilibrium, the rate of cooling is measured to determine the TC as displayed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe result showed a TC of 0.32\u0026ndash;0.40 W/(m\u0026middot;K\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e, which is significantly lower than the regular brick (0.60-1 W/(m\u0026middot;K)). This indicates that the brick has better insulating properties, making it potentially more effective for energy-efficient construction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Microstructural characterization","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1 X-ray diffraction (XRD)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e displays the XRD patterns of the optimum mix made with foundry waste. The optimal samples for the unreacted particle quartz were identified at 20.84\u0026deg;, 26.45\u0026deg;, 49.74\u0026deg;, and 59.88\u0026deg;, respectively (PDF: 00\u0026ndash;005-0490). This result is in line with previous studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. At 31.98\u0026deg; and 56.42\u0026deg;, calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gels were observed (PDF: 00-003-0649). Additionally, while calcium and sodium aluminosilicate gels (C-A-S-H and N-A-S-H) exist concurrently in this form, sodium-calcium-alumino-silicate hydrate (N, C)-A-S-H was discovered at 32.82\u0026deg; and 42.34\u0026deg; (PDF: 00-025-0777) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. The XRD analysis of AFSB shows dominant peaks of quartz (Q) along with the presence of C-S-H, N-A-S-H, and C-A-S-H, indicating the formation of geopolymeric hydration products. A broad hump at lower 2θ values suggests a significant amorphous phase, characteristic of alkali-activated materials. In contrast, cement mortar bricks typically exhibit strong crystalline peaks of quartz, C-S-H, portlandite (Ca(OH)₂), and ettringite, with a more crystalline nature due to traditional hydration reactions. The key difference lies in the absence of portlandite in AFSB, as its strength is derived from alkali activation, forming N-A-S-H and C-A-S-H gels instead. This results in a denser microstructure with enhanced durability compared to cement mortar bricks, which rely on portlandite and C-S-H for strength. Additionally, the higher amorphous content in AFSB suggests better resistance to chemical attack and improved long-term stability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAFSB surface structure and composition aggregation provide information from SEM investigation of the surfaces coated with lamellar and granule forms. SEM images were taken at 1k, 5k, 10k, and 50k for 28 days. The upper layer's particles were more crystalline, compact, and well-organized, according to these photographs. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig14\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e shows the tetrahedral gels C-S-H, N-A-S-H, and C-A-S-H with the help of EDS technique. Unlike AFSB, cement mortar structure often contains more capillary pores and microcracks due to the evaporation of water during hydration. The presence of portlandite in cement bricks contributes to a less compact structure, making them more susceptible to carbonation and chemical degradation over time. In contrast, the SEM images of AFSB suggest a more homogeneous and dense matrix due to the geopolymerization process, which enhances durability and strength. Additionally, the lamellar and granular morphology of AFSB indicates a more stable gel network, which further improves resistance to environmental factors compared to conventional cement mortar bricks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe EDS spectrum study shows the existence of numerous elements in the sample, with the weight percentages (Wt%) as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig15\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e. The significant occurrence of oxygen (38.5%) suggests that the sample likely contains oxides or silicates, which are common in minerals and certain building materials. Silicon (11.9%) and aluminum (5.9%) indicate that silicate minerals may be present. The presence of chlorine (9.7%) and sodium (10.3%) might indicate the presence of salts (like NaCl) or other chlorides, which could be due to contamination or the specific composition of the material.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAFSM samples were analyzed using FTIR spectra to identify the functional groups and chemical bonds present, providing insight into the molecular structure and confirming the presence of specific compounds. Tetrahedral Silica (Si) or Aluminum(Al) bonds (T-O-T ), C-O carbonates groups, hydroxyl OH- groups, and magnetized water were detected in 3400\u0026ndash;3600 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 1400\u0026ndash;1460 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, and 440\u0026ndash;1050 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. Improved cross-linking and polymerization were indicated by the small spectral band at 1056 cm\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1, suggesting an increase in aluminum content in the C-A-S-H gels, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig16\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e. A prominent band between 1455 and 1510 cm-1, attributed to surface carbonation of the material during curing, was also observed. The asymmetric stretching vibration phase of Si-O-T was suggested by principal band formed for AFSB samples at around 1170 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e in alkali-activated hydrated gel [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. The FTIR spectra of cement mortar bricks show traditional hydration products, with Si-O stretching in C-S-H at 950\u0026ndash;1000 cm⁻\u0026sup1; and O-H stretching of portlandite at 3640 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, absent in AFSB. Carbonation bands near 1400\u0026ndash;1450 cm⁻\u0026sup1; result from external exposure. The weaker Si-O-T stretching in cement mortar indicates lower polymerization. Overall, AFSB's alkali-activated gel structure enhances durability, while cement mortar bricks, reliant on portlandite and C-S-H, tend to be more porous and prone to degradation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Life cycle assessment of AFSB","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study aimed to evaluate the environmental impact of a specific ASFB composition. The analysis was conducted to quantify the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other key environmental parameters. LCA was conducted as per the guidelines of the ISO 14040 standard [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. The scope of the study was limited to a per-m\u0026sup3; assessment, ensuring that the environmental inventory was prepared accordingly. The study followed a structured approach, considering the raw material extraction, transportation, and production processes involved in the brick composition. ReCiPe 2016 Method used for LCAI in OpenLCA software [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e] and collected results are presented. The study assessed multiple environmental indicatorsas shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLife Cycle Assessment of AFSB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSr. No.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndicator\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAFSB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine particulate matter formation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.205821\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg PM2.5 eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFossil resource scarcity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.519600\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg oil eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFreshwater ecotoxicity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.847420\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg 1,4-DCB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFreshwater eutrophication\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.104323\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg P eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal warming\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102.593000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHuman carcinogenic toxicity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.862020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg 1,4-DCB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHuman non-carcinogenic toxicity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e176.702000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg 1,4-DCB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIonizing radiation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.641110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekBq Co-60 eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLand use\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.304100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003em\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003ea crop eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarine ecotoxicity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.513060\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg 1,4-DCB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarine eutrophication\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.006958\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg N eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMineral resource scarcity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.384790\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg Cu eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOzone formation, Human health\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.103025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg NOx eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOzone formation, Terrestrial ecosystems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.109590\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg NOx eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStratospheric ozone depletion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg CFC11 eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerrestrial acidification\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.268268\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg SO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerrestrial ecotoxicity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e598.470000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg 1,4-DCB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater consumption\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.394690\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003em\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe comparison of Global Warming Potential (GWP) values demonstrates that ASFB bricks offer a significant environmental advantage over conventional brick types, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. Red burnt bricks exhibit the highest GWP, being 121.8% more carbon-intensive than ASFB, making them the least sustainable choice. Fly ash bricks show a moderate increase of 7.7%. Overall, the data underscore the potential of ASFB bricks to reduce the carbon footprint of masonry construction and promote sustainable building practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGWP Comparison Table (Relative to ASFB):\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBrick Type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal Warming Potential\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kg CO₂ eq/m\u0026sup3;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e% Higher or Lower than ASFB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASFB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRed Burnt Brick\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e227.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026#128314; 121.8% higher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFly Ash Brick\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026#128314; 7.7% higher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Embodied energy of AFSB","content":"\u003cp\u003eEmbodied Energy (EE) states the total amount of primary energy utilized in the direct and indirect processes involved in producing a product or service. This covers all tasks up until the product is prepared to exit the last factory gate, from material extraction and production to transportation and fabrication procedures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. The amounts of components per cubic meter of AFSB have been multiplied by their corresponding coefficients for EE to determine the total embodied energy (EE) for the AFSB.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe indirect energy component (A) includes the embodied energy necessary for the extraction and preparation of raw ingredients. BFSFP, which is crucial in the binder system, was used in a significant quantity of 591 kg/m\u0026sup3;. With an energy intensity of 1.6 MJ/kg, the indirect EE for BFSFP amounted to 945.6 MJ/m\u0026sup3;, representing a substantial portion of the total embodied energy. ASS, though used in a much smaller quantity of 66 kg/m\u0026sup3;, had a much higher energy intensity of 10.95 MJ/kg [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e] due to its complex production process. This resulted in an indirect EE of 722.7 MJ/m\u0026sup3; for ASS. The WFS used in the current research are industrial by-products that have not been purposely produced and used in their as-received form. The embodied energy of WFS has been considered as zero due to its status as an industrial by-product that is not intentionally produced [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, EE has also been regarded as nil for other by-products, such as stone processing dust [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the embodied energy (EE) used for removing iron particles and crushing waste foundry sand (WFS) to make it usable as aggregate cannot be ignored. Therefore, in this study, the EE of WFS is considered as the sum of the EE from the magnetic separator (0.009 MJ/kg) and the ball mill (0.072 MJ/kg), totaling 0.081 MJ/kg. Water, essential for the chemical reactions and workability of the mixture, was used at 230 kg/m\u0026sup3;. Although its energy intensity was minimal at 0.01 MJ/kg, the indirect EE contribution from water was 2.3 MJ/m\u0026sup3;, a relatively negligible value compared to the other raw materials. Transportation of raw materials and finished products (B) accounted for 218 MJ/m\u0026sup3;, while direct process energy (C), which includes the energy consumed during the operation of machinery, added 98 MJ/m\u0026sup3; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. The total embodied energy of AFSB was computed by summing the contributions from raw material extraction, transportation, and process energy, resulting in a final embodied energy value of 2095.66 MJ/m\u0026sup3; as presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmbodied Energy of AFSB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnergy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaterial\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantity (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEE\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(MJ/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEE\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(MJ/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(MJ/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndirect Energy\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA. Excavation / EE of Raw Materials\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(MJ/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBFSFP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e591\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e945.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1777.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e722.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWFS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1314\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.081\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndirect Energy\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eB. Transportation of Raw Materials \u0026amp; Finished Products (MJ/m3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e218\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDirect Energy\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eC. Process Energy- Electricity used for operating the plant machinery (MJ/m3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEmbodied Energy of AFSB (MJ/m\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e) = (A\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2093.63\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the LCA, the EE of burnt clay brick varied from 4.9 GJ/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 7.8 GJ/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. On the other hand, the EE of fly ash blocks and AAC blocks varied from 2.4 GJ/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 4.5 GJ/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. While as per calculation the EE of AFBS is 2.1 GJ/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. The EE essential in the manufacture of AFSB was found to be around 57% and 12% less compared to the energy needed to produce burnt clay bricks and fly ash bricks respectively.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"8. Cost analysis of AFSB","content":"\u003cp\u003eBased on the supply and price of materials in local markets, the cost analysis of AFSB is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCost Analysis of AFSB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSr.no\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaterial\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantity (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRates (INR)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCost (INR)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBFSFP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e591\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1500 / t\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e887\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50 / kg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWFS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1314\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1000 / t\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1314\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaterial cost (per m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;2\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5501\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLabor cost (per m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal Cost (per m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7001 INR (85 \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e )\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBurnt clay bricks in India range in price from 6500 to 8500 INR per cubic meter, based on area, supplier, and market circumstances. High-quality fly ash bricks are priced around 5600 and 7400 INR per cubic meter and have compressive strength of 10\u0026ndash;15 MPa. AFSB are slightly more costly than fly ash bricks, but their superior quality and consistency justify the additional cost. AFSB bricks outperform burnt clay bricks at equivalent or lower costs, making them additional appealing choice for long-lasting and sustainable structures.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"9. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study successfully demonstrated the evolution of alkali-activated waste foundry sand bricks (AFSB) utilizing waste foundry sand (WFS) as a fine aggregate, along with BFSFP and anhydrous sodium metasilicate (ASS) as binders. The optimized mix (MD16) exhibited superior mechanical, thermal, and durability properties, creating it a feasible alternative to conventional bricks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe AFSB accomplished a compressive strength of 10.52 MPa, meeting the requirements for first-class bricks as per IS 1077:1992. Additionally, the bricks exhibited a density of 2050 kg/m\u0026sup3;, low water absorption of 4.25%, and negligible efflorescence, ensuring durability and resistance to moisture-related deterioration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eMicrostructural analysis through XRD and SEM confirmed the formation of geopolymeric hydration products like calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H), sodium-alumino-silicate-hydrate (N-A-S-H), and calcium-alumino-silicate-hydrate (C-A-S-H), contributing to the enhanced strength and stability of AFSB.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe thermal performance analysis indicated a thermal conductivity range of 0.32\u0026ndash;0.40 W/(m\u0026middot;K), demonstrating improved insulation compared to conventional bricks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings highlight ASFB's significant potential in lowering the carbon footprint of masonry construction, thereby contributing to more sustainable building practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe embodied energy analysis revealed that AFSB required 57% less energy than burnt clay bricks and 12% less than fly ash bricks, emphasizing its energy efficiency and sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe cost analysis of AFSB indicated a total production cost of 7001 INR per cubic meter (~\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e85), making it competitive with traditional bricks while offering superior performance and environmental benefits. The integration of WFS as a primary fine aggregate substitution contributes to effective waste management, reducing landfill disposal and promoting a sustainable economy in the construction sector.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the study highlights that AFSB provides an economically viable, energy efficient, and environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional bricks. The research findings emphasize the potential of alkali-activated technology in promoting cleaner and more sustainable building materials while addressing industrial waste management challenges.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo, there is no conflict of interest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors thank Truform Techno Products Pvt Ltd and Kapilansh Dhatu Udyog (P) Ltd, Nagpur, India for their financial support. (TTPL/21\u0026ndash;22/121/1257, Date \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;21/12/2021)\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eManoj Wankhede (Execution of task related to experimentation \u0026amp; manuscript preparation)Shrirang Bhoot (Computation Analysis related to LCA)Rahul Ralegaonkar (Overall Supervision)\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors thank Truform Techno Products Pvt Ltd and Kapilansh Dhatu Udyog (P) Ltd, Nagpur, India for their financial support. (TTPL/21-22/121/1257, Date - 21/12/2021)\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll relevant data are included in the paper or its supplementary information.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eD. N. Huntzinger and T. D. 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Today Proc.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 47, pp. 5338\u0026ndash;5344, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2021.06.061.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Alkali-activated bricks, Waste foundry sand, Embodied energy, Carbon footprint","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7019733/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7019733/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003elandfills. It is produced at a rate of around 0.6 tons per 1 ton of foundry industry production. Conventional clay brick manufacturing is highly energy-intensive, primarily due to the high-temperature kiln firing process, resulting in substantial fossil fuel consumption and associated greenhouse gas emissions. The current work describes the development of one-part alkali-activated walling materials utilizing waste foundry sand (WFS) to provide a sustainable solid waste management solution and reduce the embodied energy of the manufactured bricks. Fly ash (FA) and blast furnace slag fine powder (BFSFP) were found to be regionally accessible materials for experiments, along with anhydrous sodium metasilicate (ASS) as the activator. WFS was utilized as a full replacement for natural fine aggregate, serving as a sustainable alternative in the granular matrix of the alkali-activated binder system. To create alkali-activated waste foundry sand bricks (AFSB), FA and BFSFP were combined in varying amounts with ASS (8% and 10% of the binder). The binder-WFS proportions were 1:1,\u0026nbsp;1:2, and 1:3, whereas the water-to-binder ratio was adjusted to maintain constant consistency. AFSB were divided into three classes according to their compressive strength (which ranged from 4 to 18 MPa) following an evaluation of their various physico-mechanical characteristics, following IS 3495 (Part 1- 3), 1992. It was observed that the produced bricks had an average density of 2015–2057 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and a 4-6% water absorption rate. AFSB's thermal conductivity was between 0.32 and 0.40 W/(m.K). In comparison to burnt clay bricks and fly ash bricks, the embodied energy utilized to create AFSB was determined to be about 50% and 10% lower, respectively. \u0026nbsp;Experimental analysis validated the high performance and sustainability of the developed low-carbon, energy-efficient alkali-activated modular walling materials, manufactured using industrial byproducts, demonstrating enhanced mechanical strength, durability, and a significantly reduced carbon footprint.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Design \u0026amp; development of alkali-activated walling materials using waste foundry sand","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-10 13:10:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7019733/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9a0d2da9-6218-4b7d-a105-84efacdc7dc4","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 10th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":51277660,"name":"Physical sciences/Energy science and technology"},{"id":51277661,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering"},{"id":51277662,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"},{"id":51277663,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-21T04:38:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-10 13:10:05","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7019733","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7019733","identity":"rs-7019733","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}