Management factors associated with abnormal behaviours in rural Chilean working horses

Management factors associated with abnormal behaviours in rural Chilean working horses | Authorea try { document.documentElement.classList.add('js'); } catch (e) { } var _gaq = _gaq || []; _gaq.push(['_setAccount', 'G-8VDV14Y67G']); _gaq.push(['_trackPageview']); (function() { var ga = document.createElement('script'); ga.type = 'text/javascript'; ga.async = true; ga.src = ('https:' == document.location.protocol ? 'https://ssl' : 'http://www') + '.google-analytics.com/ga.js'; var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(ga, s); })(); Skip to main content Preprints Collections Wiley Open Research IET Open Research Ecological Society of Japan All Collections About About Authorea FAQs Contact Us Quick Search anywhere Search for preprint articles, keywords, etc. Search Search ADVANCED SEARCH SCROLL This is a preprint and has not been peer reviewed. Data may be preliminary. 5 January 2026 V1 Latest version Share on Management factors associated with abnormal behaviours in rural Chilean working horses Authors : Giovanni Moraga , Cristian Ugaz 0000-0002-0950-6804 , Luis de la Cruz-Cruz , and Cristian Larrondo 0000-0002-3994-6173 [email protected] Authors Info & Affiliations https://doi.org/10.22541/au.176760733.39493298/v1 168 views 112 downloads Contents Abstract Information & Authors Metrics & Citations View Options References Figures Tables Media Share Abstract Background: Working horses remain essential for rural livelihoods in Chile and across Latin America. However, housing and management conditions in these systems are poorly characterized, underscoring the need for standardized welfare assessments to generate evidence and guide targeted improvements. Objective: To estimate the prevalence of abnormal behaviours in rural working horses and to examine associations with management and housing related factors. Study Design: A descriptive, cross-sectional, non-experimental study design was employed in a rural area of the Papudo commune, Valparaíso Region, Chile. A total of 77 working horses were evaluated using the Animal Welfare Indicators protocol. To analyze the relationship between behavioral abnormalities, management practices, and housing factors, a multivariable logistic regression model was applied. Results: Most horses had good body condition (67.53%, n = 53) and a low prevalence of health problems (5.19%, n = 4); however, hoof-related disorders were common (41.56%, n = 32). Housing conditions were frequently inadequate (77.92%, n = 60), with insufficient bedding in 53.25% (n = 41) and dirty bedding in 59.74% (n = 51). Only 20.78% (n = 16) of horses performed daily exercise. Overall, 29.87% (n = 23) exhibited abnormal behaviours, most commonly wood chewing (12.99%), crib-biting (10.39%), and windsucking (6.49%). Absent or inadequate bedding was associated with markedly increased odds of abnormal behaviours (OR = 5.31; p = 0.034), whereas longer daily exercise duration was protective (OR = 0.626; p = 0.007). Main Limitations: Single rural area of Chile. Several management variables (e.g., daily time out of the stall) relied on the owner report. Conclusion: A substantial proportion of rural working horses displayed abnormal behaviours. Suboptimal bedding provision and limited time out of the stall were the main modifiable factors associated with these behaviours, highlighting practical opportunities for welfare improvement in Chilean working horse systems. Management factors associated with abnormal behaviours in rural Chilean working horses Abstract Background: Working horses remain essential for rural livelihoods in Chile and across Latin America. However, housing and management conditions in these systems are poorly characterized, underscoring the need for standardized welfare assessments to generate evidence and guide targeted improvements. Objective: To estimate the prevalence of abnormal behaviours in rural working horses and to examine associations with management and housing related factors. Study Design: A descriptive, cross-sectional, non-experimental study design was employed in a rural area of the Papudo commune, Valparaíso Region, Chile. A total of 77 working horses were evaluated using the Animal Welfare Indicators protocol. To analyze the relationship between behavioral abnormalities, management practices, and housing factors, a multivariable logistic regression model was applied. Results: Most horses had good body condition (67.53%, n = 53) and a low prevalence of health problems (5.19%, n = 4); however, hoof-related disorders were common (41.56%, n = 32). Housing conditions were frequently inadequate (77.92%, n = 60), with insufficient bedding in 53.25% (n = 41) and dirty bedding in 59.74% (n = 51). Only 20.78% (n = 16) of horses performed daily exercise. Overall, 29.87% (n = 23) exhibited abnormal behaviours, most commonly wood chewing (12.99%), crib-biting (10.39%), and windsucking (6.49%). Absent or inadequate bedding was associated with markedly increased odds of abnormal behaviours (OR = 5.31; p = 0.034), whereas longer daily exercise duration was protective (OR = 0.626; p = 0.007). Main Limitations: Single rural area of Chile. Several management variables (e.g., daily time out of the stall) relied on the owner report. Conclusion: A substantial proportion of rural working horses displayed abnormal behaviours. Suboptimal bedding provision and limited time out of the stall were the main modifiable factors associated with these behaviours, highlighting practical opportunities for welfare improvement in Chilean working horse systems. KEYWORDS working horses, abnormal behaviour, welfare, indicators. INTRODUCTION In Latin America, animal traction in agriculture remains a fundamental component of rural development. In Chile, particularly from the Ñuble Province northwards, horses are the main species used for these purposes, most commonly for soil preparation using mouldboard ploughs [1]. Although these animals are effective for draught work, they are not exempt from experiencing physiological and behavioural alterations in response to work demands. In horses, pulling an average load of approximately 1,892 kg has been shown to increase heart rate, respiratory rate and body temperature, and to elevate serum activities of the enzymes creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase and aspartate aminotransferase [2,3]. In addition, marked increases in serum cortisol concentrations have been reported, proportional to the magnitude of the load and the duration of work [4]. Thus, the level of physical effort constitutes a relevant stressor that induces significant elevations in plasma cortisol, particularly towards the end of the work period, when peak concentrations are typically observed [5]. The horse ( Equus caballus ) is a social species that, in free-living conditions, spends most of the day foraging and interacting with conspecifics, behaviours that are essential for maintaining good welfare. Domestication and confinement in stables have markedly altered these natural activity patterns, reducing both foraging time and social contact and potentially predisposing animals to chronic stress [6]. Stress is a key risk factor for the development of undesired and abnormal behaviours, including stereotypies and redirected behaviours, which are regarded as responses to suboptimal environments in which ethological needs are not adequately met [7]. In Chile, the conditions under which working horses are kept in stables have not been systematically described, particularly in relation to their behavioural needs and welfare requirements. In many cases, housing conditions may negatively impact welfare because of behavioural modifications associated with the replacement of a natural environment by individual stalls [6]. The assessment of the welfare of working horses is therefore fundamental, not only from an animal health perspective but also in terms of public health and rural sustainability. The Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) protocol [8], has been widely used to assess animal welfare in horses under different situations with satisfactory results and in their domestic environment, allowing for an evaluation based on a variety of indicators [9]. In this context, the present study aimed to assess the welfare of working horses in a rural area of the commune of Papudo (Valparaíso Region, Chile) by estimating the prevalence of abnormal behaviours and analyzing their association with management practices and stall design. The use of a standardized assessment protocol is expected to generate a robust evidence base that will support future efforts to improve the welfare and health of working horses in the study area. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area and animals The study was conducted between July 2024 and January 2025 in the rural sector of Pullally, Papudo commune (Petorca Province, Valparaíso Region, Chile; 32°26’15” S - 71°19’07” W). The area has a temperate Mediterranean climate (approximately 7.3 °C in winter to 22.4 °C in summer) and is characterized by smallholder horticultural and fruit production. Horse owners were invited to participate voluntarily through contact with the “ Programa de Desarrollo Local” (PRODESAL), a governmental program within the Chilean Ministry of Agriculture. PRODESAL aims to reduce rural poverty in small-scale farmers who face marked productive and commercial constraints by providing technical agricultural advice to enhance their productive capacity. Within this program, farmers owned a total of 381 horses. A sample of 77 animals was selected, corresponding to a 95% confidence level and a 10% margin of error (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). All animals were used for agricultural work, including ploughing and herding, and were kept in stables when not working Study design and welfare assessment protocol Welfare assessments were conducted in the horses’ stalls and were consistently performed by the same veterinarian, who has expertise in animal behaviour and welfare and has completed postgraduate training in Animal Welfare and Applied Ethology at {masked for review} (Chile). No procedures expected to cause pain, distress, or suffering were carried out. Data collection followed the Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) protocol for horses [8]. A structured Excel recording sheet was used to register welfare indicators, grouped according to the four AWIN principles. For “Good feeding” principle, body condition score, availability of drinking points and water cleanliness were evaluated. For “Good housing”, stall dimensions, quantity of bedding and bedding cleanliness were recorded. Under “Good health”, integumentary condition (alopecia, skin lesions), presence of lesions at the lip commissures, joint abnormalities, lameness, nasal or ocular discharge, coughing and hoof condition were assessed. Within the “Appropriate behaviour” principle, the presence of stereotypies and other abnormal behaviours was recorded. Each horse was observed for 1 minute to determine whether it exhibited stereotypic behaviours (e.g., crib-biting, weaving, head nodding, wood chewing, windsucking) and/or whether the stall showed one or more indicators consistent with these behaviours. Opportunities for social interaction were scored on a 0-3 scale, ranging from no possibility of contact to direct physical contact with conspecifics. Avoidance distance (flight zone) was measured, and the horses’ responses to the Voluntary Animal Approach Test (VAAT) and the Forced Human Approach Test (FHAT) were evaluated. In addition, owners provided information on the frequency and duration of the horses’ daily exercise and feeding. Statistical analysis A descriptive analysis was performed to characterize the study population and the welfare indicators. To investigate associations between abnormal behaviours and management/housing factors, a multivariable binary logistic regression model was fitted with abnormal behaviours (present/absent) as the dependent variable and following a stepwise backward procedure. Independent variables and interactions that were not statistically significant (p ≥ 0.05) were excluded from the final model. Odds ratios (OR) are reported with 95% confidence intervals (CI). All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS software, version 26 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). RESULTS The sampled population comprised 54.55% (n = 42) castrated males, 38.96% (n = 30) entire males, and 6.49% (n=5) females, aged between 1 and 25 years. Of these, 28.57% were between 1 and 5 years old and 71.43% were older than 5 years. Regarding breed composition, 22.08% were mixed-breed Thoroughbred-type horses and 77.92% were hybrid crosses that included mixed-breed, Percheron and Chilean Creole horses (Table 1). Of the horses evaluated, height at the withers ranged from approximately 1.43 to 1.75 m. According to the AWIN protocol [8], this range corresponds predominantly to minimum individual space requirements of 9.0-10.5 m² per animal. 3.1. Animal welfare indicators 3.1.1. Nutrition All horses were fed twice daily. Assessment of animal-based welfare indicators revealed that 68.83% of horses (n = 53) had a body condition score (BCS) of 3, considered optimal. In contrast, 24.68% (n = 19) had a BCS of 2, indicating they were underweighted, and 6.49% (n = 5) had a BCS of 4. No horses were classified at the extremes of the scale (BCS 1 or 5). Regarding water provision, 35.06% of horses (n = 27) did not have continuous access to drinkers and received water on average, twice daily. Among horses with access to drinkers (64.94%, n = 50), 33.77% (n = 26) had access to drinkers containing clean water, whereas 31.18% (n = 24) had access to drinkers with visibly dirty water. 3.1.2. Housing and management All stalls conformed to a broadly uniform structural design and were constructed predominantly from low-quality timber. Evidence of structural deterioration (e.g. fractured or missing elements) and hazardous protrusions was recorded in a subset of boxes. Roofs consisted of corrugated metal sheets. Stall size was assessed as an indicator of housing quality within the AWIN framework [8], in which satisfactory stall dimensions are defined according to withers height to ensure sufficient space for turning and recumbency. Usable floor area (m²) was calculated from the measured side lengths of each box and compared against the AWIN [8] satisfactory area thresholds for the corresponding withers-height category. Compliance was dichotomized (compliant vs non-compliant). Under this criterion, 66.2% of stalls were classified as compliant with AWIN standards [8], whereas 33.8% were non-compliant. Only 24.68% (n = 19) of stalls had sufficient bedding, whereas bedding was insufficient in 53.25% (n = 41) and absent in 22.08% (n = 17). Regarding bedding cleanliness, 66.23% (n = 51) of the bedding substrates were classified as dirty, predominantly due to the presence of faeces (Figure 1). Owners were asked how many times per week horses spent time out of the stall (work and/or non-work activities, including hand walking, riding, lunging and grazing) and the estimated average duration (hours/day). One quarter of them (n = 20; 25.97%) did not receive any exercise (Table 2). Reported daily time out of the stall ranged from 0 to 6 h/day (mean 2.6 h/day). 3.1.3. Health Concerning physical health, only four horses (n = 5.19%) presented with an unhealthy, rough and hirsute coat. However, 41.56% of horses (n = 32) showed signs of neglected hoof care. Other clinical problems were less common: 11.69% (n = 9) presented integumentary lesions, and 1.30% (n = 1) showed lameness, lesions at the commissures of the mouth and/or nasal discharge (Figure 2). 3.1.4. Behavioural indicators Abnormal behaviours were identified in 29.87% of horses (n = 23/77). The most frequent abnormal behaviours were wood chewing (12.99%, n = 10), crib-biting (10.39%, n = 8) and windsucking (6.49%, n = 5) (Figure 3). Within this population, of the 13 horses exhibiting windsucking and crib-biting, seven were geldings, representing 53.85% of the affected animals; five were entire males (38.46%), and one affected animal was a mare (7.69%). Weaving and head nodding stereotypic behaviours were not observed. Social interaction was limited in a substantial proportion of the horses, with 25.98% (n = 20) having no opportunity for physical contact with conspecifics. Regarding the human–animal relationship, in the standard human-approach test 69 horses (89.61%) showed no avoidance movements, whereas 8 horses (10.39%) displayed clear avoidance behaviour. In the voluntary animal approach test (VAAT), 64 horses (83.12%) showed a positive response, while 13 (16.88%) showed a negative response. In the forced animal approach test (FAAT), 56 horses (72.73%) exhibited a positive response and 21 (27.27%) a negative response 3.2. Factors associated with abnormal behaviours When the occurrence of abnormal behaviours was analyzed in relation to management practices and housing conditions, two variables remained in the final model: bedding quantity and daily time out of the stall. Horses housed in stalls with absent or insufficient bedding material had markedly higher odds of exhibiting abnormal behaviours (OR = 5.31; p = 0.034). In contrast, greater daily time out of the stall was associated with lower odds (OR = 0.626; p = 0.007). Social interaction did not significantly explain the occurrence of abnormal behaviours (p = 0.089; Table 3). Other independent variables, including sex, breed, age, reproductive status, health-related indicators, additional management factors, and their interactions were not statistically significant (p ≥ 0.05) and were therefore excluded from the final model. DISCUSSION Working equids sustain families, communities, and national economies, providing invaluable contributions through direct and indirect income-generating activities, social and domestic support, subsistence, and food security [10,11]. Therefore, nowadays, animal welfare has become an increasingly important social concern for equids used as working animals [12]. However, despite their social importance, the welfare of working equids often tends to be neglected [13]. Several factors that affect the welfare of working equids have been described, such as housing conditions, inadequate feeding, inappropriate harnesses, poor veterinary attention, and the provision of medication, among others [14]. Studies conducted in Brazil report frequent welfare issues in working equids, including indicators of forced handling, hoof disorders, suboptimal body condition scores, integumentary alterations, and lesions at the oral commissures, among others [15]. In the present study, most animals exhibited an adequate body condition and a low prevalence of general health problems. Nevertheless, nearly half of the evaluated horses presented hoof abnormalities, which may be related to inadequate housing conditions, such as insufficient bedding, persistent dirt/moisture, and limited opportunities for exercise. These conditions can predispose horses to lameness, a clinical disorder that compromises the structure and function of the locomotor system, primarily affecting the limbs and, in some cases, the vertebral column [16]. Lameness impairs gait and performance, commonly mediated by inflammation and chronic pain [17]. Previous research has emphasized that welfare emerges from an individual’s perception of its environment, which can differentially shape multiple welfare indicators. Accordingly, despite broadly comparable living conditions, the horses in this study displayed heterogeneous welfare profiles, potentially linked to differences in physical activity [18]. Although the AWIN protocol [8] establishes a minimum age of 5 years for assessment, five younger horses were included in the present study, all of which exhibited abnormal behaviours. This observation is consistent with Mason’s [19] proposal that stereotypies may emerge early in animals exposed to challenges that exceed their coping capacity. In line with this, Dodman and Shuster [20] differentiate between abnormal behaviours broadly and stereotypies specifically, defining the latter as repetitive, persistent patterns that may arise at any life stage in response to insoluble environmental stimuli. In the current population, abnormal behaviours were observed in horses between 1 and 20 years of age, with a mean of 9.7 years, making age an unlikely primary determinant of their occurrence. These findings are consistent with Patiño et al . [21], who reported higher prevalence of windsucking in horses aged 6-10 years, a range that was also frequently represented among affected animals in Papudo. Prevalence of abnormal behaviours The present study observed a prevalence of abnormal behaviours of 29.87% (23/77) in the working horses evaluated, a value considerably higher than that reported in previous studies of stabled horses in Chile and Spain. Although the stables in Papudo were relatively homogeneous in their physical characteristics, the marked individual variability in behavioural expression suggests that the primary problem does not reside in infrastructure per se, but rather in environmental and management-related factors. Sanmartín et al. [22] described a prevalence of 8.16% of abnormal behaviours in stabled breeding horses, while Márquez et al. [23] reported 18.4% in sport horses, and Tadich et al. [24] observed 10% in stabled Chilean rodeo horses. Thus, the horses from Papudo showed approximately 18% more abnormal behaviour than the average of these comparative studies, indicating a particularly compromised welfare status in this specific rural context. Wood chewing was the most prevalent abnormal behaviour (12.99%), exceeding the rates reported by several Chilean studies [23] (5.7%), [24] (8%), [25] (3%). Comparisons with international studies, despite methodological differences, consistently relate wood chewing to low-fibre diets, prolonged intervals without feed and restricted opportunities for foraging behaviour [26]. In Papudo, although horses exhibiting wood chewing maintained an adequate body condition (BCS 2-3/5), they were typically fed only twice daily. This feeding pattern may generate transient peaks of satiety followed by extended fasting periods, favoring the development of abnormal ingestive behaviours. Normando et al . [27] demonstrated that ad libitum access to forage reduces the likelihood of wood chewing, supporting the hypothesis that the patterns observed in Papudo are more likely related to inadequate feeding management than to absolute nutritional deficiency. The visible damage to wooden partitions and doors observed in this study further supports the hypothesis of Nicol [28], who suggested that wood chewing often precedes the onset of crib-biting. Crib-biting prevalence was 10.39%, exceeding the 6.12% previously reported in a Chilean study [29] and being broadly comparable to the 10.5% described in Thoroughbred and part-Thoroughbred horses in England [30]. Notably, in the present study, all horses displaying crib-biting had a prior history of behaviours consistent with wood chewing. The apparent transition from wood chewing to crib-biting observed in this population is consistent with McBride and Hemmings [31], who proposed that well-established stereotypies reflect underlying neuroendocrine alterations involving dopaminergic, serotonergic and endogenous opioid pathways, which may maintain the behaviour even after environmental modifications. In addition to physical consequences, particularly in horses exhibiting aerophagia, these include excessive incisor wear, gastritis, gastric ulceration and colonic impaction [32,33,34]. A noteworthy case in the present study was a 15-year-old mare whose crib-biting ceased after being turned out to pasture with free access to forage. This observation supports Jiménez [35], who highlighted the beneficial impact of environmental enrichment on the reduction of stereotypies. However, longitudinal studies would be required to determine whether such improvements are sustained if animals are subsequently re-exposed to the original stressors. Windsucking was observed in 6.49% of horses, which is higher than the 2.8% prevalence previously reported in Brazilian military horses [36]. Although generally considered less severe than crib-biting, windsucking nonetheless remains an indicator of compromised welfare and has been associated with an increased risk of colic [37]. No history or clinical signs of colic were detected in the Papudo horses during the study period; however, the potential long-term gastrointestinal impact cannot be ruled out. When both windsucking and crib-biting are considered together, the overall prevalence reaches 16.88%, placing this population among those with the highest reported burden of abnormal behaviour in South American studies [23,24,25,38,39] and reinforcing the diagnosis of a relevant, multifactorial welfare problem. Abnormal behaviours and management factors Although several authors have reported a higher predisposition to stereotypies in Thoroughbreds and related breeds [40,41], only five of the 23 affected horses in the present study were crossbred with Thoroughbred. This distribution supports the hypothesis that management conditions, particularly lack of exercise, social isolation and environmental control, are more influential than breed in the development of abnormal behaviours [30,42]. The present findings are also consistent with most studies that have not demonstrated a clear association between sex and stereotypies [7,41,43]. However, the Papudo data showed a trend towards higher prevalence in geldings (53.85%), partially consistent with Mills et al. [44]. This result should be interpreted with caution owing to the limited sample size and potential confounding factors. In contrast to horses routinely engaged in structured physical activity for sport or work (e.g., herding/cattle handling) [23,39], those in the present study showed a notably low frequency and duration of exercise, with an estimated mean of 2.6 h of activity per day. This pattern diverges from common recommendations of three to four exercise sessions per week, each lasting approximately 45-90. The absence of regular, structured physical activity appears to be a key factor associated with the development of abnormal behaviours. Consistent with this, higher exercise frequency was associated with a substantial reduction in the odds of exhibiting these behaviours (OR = 0.626; p = 0.007). This finding is consistent with the results of Christie et al. [7], who reported that prolonged periods of stabling without exercise are associated with an increased risk of stereotypic and redirected behaviours. Furthermore, exercise acted as a protective factor against their occurrence. However, these findings should be interpreted cautiously, as several management variables (e.g., daily time spent outside the stall) relied on owner reported information, and the study was conducted in a single rural area of Chile. In the present study, horses housed in stalls with absent or inadequate bedding were more likely to exhibit behavioural problems than those provided with an adequate bedding substrate (OR = 5.31; p = 0.034), indicating a more than fivefold increase in the odds of abnormal behaviour under poor bedding conditions. McGreevy et al. [45] suggested that straw bedding may help mitigate certain abnormal behaviours linked to restricted fibre intake (e.g., wood chewing). In our study, all horses were fed only twice daily. Beyond potential dietary effects, the absence of bedding may also reduce opportunities for exploration and foraging-related activities, thereby constraining the expression of these behaviours and increasing the risk of stereotypic and redirected behaviours. Overall, the high prevalence and diversity of abnormal behaviours observed in the Papudo horses indicate a welfare context in which management practices, particularly those related to feeding, exercise, and the stall environment play a central role. Accordingly, targeted interventions should be prioritized to reduce both the emergence and persistence of stereotypies and redirected behaviours in this population, including increased turnout and structured exercise, improved forage availability and quality, and optimization of bedding provision. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the horse owners for their cooperation, as well as the Local Development Programme (PRODESAL) of the Papudo commune, for their valuable contributions to this study. FUNDING INFORMATION None. CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT The authors declare no conflicts of interest. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS {masked for review}: Conceptualization; investigation; writing – original draft; methodology; writing – review and editing; formal analysis; project administration; data curation. {masked for review}: Conceptualization; writing – review and editing; methodology. {masked for review}: Conceptualization; writing – review and editing; methodology; {masked for review}: Supervision; conceptualization; methodology; writing – review and editing; formal analysis; project administration. DATA INTEGRITY STATEMENT {masked for review} and {masked for review} had full access to all study data and take responsibility for data integrity and the accuracy of the analyses. ETHICAL ANIMAL RESEARCH The study was approved by the Bioethics Committee, Faculty of Life Sciences, {masked for review} (Protocol 11/2024). INFORMED CONSENT Owners gave informed consent for their horses’ inclusion in this study. DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in “figshare” at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.30978856 Table 1 . Descriptive characteristics of working horses (n = 77) from Pullally, Valparaíso Region, Chile. Variable Frequency Percentage Sex Male Female 72 5 93.50 6.49 Reproductive status Entire male Castrated male Female 30 42 5 38.96 54.55 6.49 Age (years) 1-5 6-10 11-15 ≥16 22 28 13 14 28.57 36.36 16.88 18.18 Breed Thoroughbred-type Hybrid crosses and Chilean Creole 17 60 22.08 77.92 Table 2 . Exercise frequency in working horses (n = 77) from Pullally, Valparaíso Region, Chile. Frequency of time out of the stall Horses (n) Percentage (%) Daily 16 20.78 5 days/week 7 9.10 1-4 times/week 29 37.66 <1 time/week 5 6.49 No activity 20 25.97 Table 3. Association between abnormal behaviours, management and stall factors in working horses (n = 77). Results from the binary logistic regression model. Variable β SE OR CI for Exp(β) p-value Bedding quantity 1.670 0.787 5.310 1.135-24.846 0.034 Exercise (h) -0.469 0.175 0.626 0.444-0.882 0.007 Social interaction -0.555 0.326 0.574 0.303-1.088 0.089 a) b) Figure 1 . Examples of stall bedding conditions observed in assessed horses: (a) insufficient bedding material; (b) dirty and wet bedding. b) Figure 2 . Examples of clinical/welfare findings in assessed horses: (a) foot injury; (b) skin lesion. a) b) Figure 3 . Abnormal behaviours and indirect behavioural indicators recorded during assessment: (a) horse performing windsucking.; (b) wooden substrate chewed by a horse. REFERENCES 1. Reyes JF, Hetz E. Fundamento de mecanización agrícola con tracción animal. 1988. Universidad de Concepción, Ingeniería Agrícola. 2. Pérez R, Recabarren S, Valdés P, Hetz E. Biochemical and physiological parameters and estimated work output in draught horses pulling loads for long periods. Vet Res Commun. 1992;16, 231–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01839160 3. Islas A, Pérez R, Rojas R, Jara C, Mora G, Recabarren S, Hetz E. Actividad sérica de creatin fosfoquinasa, aspartato amino transferasa, deshidrogenasa láctica y fosfatasa alcalina en equinos mestizos de tiro sometidos a esfuerzo prolongado de tracción. Arch Med Vet. 1992; 24(1), 53–56. 4. Pérez R, Recabarren SE, Islas A, Cárdenas H, Mora G, Candia B, Ibañez, M, Hetz E. Cambios hematológicos en los niveles de cortisol del caballo mestizo de tiro en respuesta a la tracción de carga. Agrociencia 1991;7(1), 23–31. 5. Freestone JF, Wolfheimer KJ, Kamerling SG, Church G, Hamra J, Bagwell C. Exercise-induced hormonal and metabolic changes in thoroughbred horses: Effects of conditioning and acepromazine. Equine Vet J 1991;23, 219–223. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-3306.1991.tb02760.x 6. McGreevy PD. 2004. Equine behavior: a guide for veterinarians and equine scientists. Saunders, Elsevier, London, UK. 7. Christie JL, Hewson CJ, Riley CB, McNiven MA, Dohoo IR, Bate LA. Management factors affecting stereotypies and body condition score in nonracing horses in Prince Edward Island. Can Vet J. 2006;47(2):136-43. 8. AWIN welfare assessment protocol for horses. 2015. Available at: (accessed 19 November 2025). http://dx.doi.org/10.13130/AWIN_HORSES_2015 9. Hausberger MN, Lerch E, Guilbaud M, Stomp M, Grandgeorge S, Henry Lesimple C. On-Farm Welfare Assessment of Horses: The Risks of Putting the Cart before the Horse. Animals. 2020;10(3):371. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10030371 10. Seck M, Jobling R, Brown AF. Trialling Locally Made, Low-Cost Bits to Improve Bit-Related Welfare Problems in Cart Horses: Findings from a Study in Senegal. Animals 2023:13(1):2. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13010002 11. Robledo-Reyes EE, Hernández-Gil M, Rojas-Hernández S, Camacho-Díaz LM, Cipriano-Salazar M, Villa-Macera A, Olivares-Pérez J. Management and welfare of working equids in the Guerrero state. Ecosis Recur Agropec. 2020; 7(2): e2333. https://doi.org/10.19136/era.a7n2.2333 12. Arfuso F, Rizzo M, Arrigo F, Francaviglia F, Perillo L, Schembri P, Zumbo LEM, Disclafani R, Piccione G, Monteverde V. Welfare and stress assessment of tourism carriage horses under real working conditions in Sicily. J Equine Vet Sci. 2024; 139:105136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2024.105136 13. Adam SY, Fedail JS, Musa HH, Musa TH, Ahmed AA. Working horses welfare assessment and their owners perceive in middle and north Darfur states Sudan. Appl Anim Behav Sci. 2023; 259:105834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2023.105834 14. Romero MH, Meneses F, Sanchez JA. Welfare assessment of horses and mules used in recreational and muleteer work in the Colombian coffee region. Front Vet Sci. 2022; 9:1031192. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.1031192 15. Zuliani L, Trindade PHE, Paranhos da Costa MJR. Welfare assessment of horses and mules used in commercial beef cattle ranches in Brazil. Appl Anim Behav Sci. 2023; 264:105964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2023.105964 16. Stashak TS. 2004. Adam’s lameness in horses. Fifth edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Philadelphia USA Pp 135, 312, 613, 695. 17. Thomassian A. 2005. Enfermidades dos Cavalos. Exame de Claudicação. Editora Varela. Botucatu, Brasil. 18. Gueguen L, Palme R, Jego P, Henry S, Hausberger H. Differences between facilities in horse welfare profiles: slight differences in management/working conditions may be enough. Animal. 2025;19(6):101520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2025.101520 19. Mason GJ. Stereotypies – a critical review. Anim Behav. 1991;41(6):1015-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80640-2 20. Dodman NH, Shuster L. Animal models of obsessive-compulsive behavior: a neurobiological and ethological perspective. In: Stein DJ, editor. Concepts and controversies in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Springer; 2005. p. 53-71. 21. Patiño Marulanda JJ, Vélez Gil SA, Martínez Aranzales JR. Prevalencia y factores de riesgo del comportamiento anormal estereotipado aerofagia en el caballo criollo colombiano. Rev Fac Med Vet Zootec. 2021;68(1):37-51. https://doi.org/10.15446/rfmvz.v68n1.97250 22. Sanmartín Sánchez L, Perea J, Blanco-Penedo I, Pérez-Rico A, Vega-Pla JL. Bienestar animal en equinos ( Equus caballus ): una evaluación comparativa en reproductores del sur de España. Rev Cient. 2015;25(6):471-80. 23. Márquez C, Escobar A, Tadich TA. Características de manejo y conducta en caballos estabulados en el sur de Chile: estudio preliminar. Arch Med Vet. 2010;42(3):203-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0301-732X2010000300012 24. Tadich T, Smulders JP, Araya O, Nicol C. Husbandry practices associated with the presentation of abnormal behaviours in Chilean creole horses. Arch Med Vet. 2012;44(3):279-84 25. Navarrete D, Hamilton-West C, Stephens N, Weber C, Tadich T. Factores de riesgo para la presentación de conductas no deseadas en equinos de deporte en Chile. Arch Med Vet. 2015;47(1):77-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0301-732X2015000100013 26. Hothersall B, Nicol C. Role of diet and feeding in normal and stereotypic behaviors in horses. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract. 2009;25(1):167-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2009.01.002 27. Normando S, Meers L, Ellery W, Faustini M, Ödberg F. Variables affecting the prevalence of behavioural problems in horses: can riding style and other management factors be significant? Appl Anim Behav Sci. 2011;133(1-2):186-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2011.06.012 28. Nicol CJ. Understanding equine stereotypies. Equine Vet J Suppl. 1999; 28:20-5. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05151.x 29. Muñoz L, Sepúlveda C, Cruces J, Ortiz R, Rehhof C, Briones M. Prevalencia de estereotipias clásicas en caballos de salto de la región del Biobío, Chile. Chil J Agric Anim Sci. 2013;29(2):169-75. 30. Waters AJ, Nicol CJ, French NP. Factors influencing the development of stereotypic and redirected behaviours in young horses: findings of a four year prospective epidemiological study. Equine Vet J. 2002;34(6):572-9. https://doi.org/10.2746/042516402776180241 31. McBride SD, Hemmings A. Altered mesoaccumbens and nigro-striatal dopamine physiology is associated with stereotypy development in a non rodent species. Behav Brain Res. 2005;159(1):113-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2004.10.014 32. Archer DC, Freeman DE, Doyle AJ, Proudman CJ, Edwards GB. Association between cribbing and entrapment of the small intestine in the epiploic foramen in horses: 68 cases (1991-2002). J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2004;224(4):562-564. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2004.224.562 33. McGreevy PD, Webster AJ, Nicol CJ. Study of the behaviuor, digestive efficiency and gut transit times of crib-biting horses. Vet Rec. 2001; 148, 592-596. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.148.19.592 34. Turner S, White N, Ismay J. Modified Forssell’s operation for crib-biting in the horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1984;184(3):309-312. 35. Jiménez N. Prevalencia de estereotipias en equinos deportivos en Buenos Aires. Undergraduate thesis. Univ Buenos Aires, Fac Cs Vet. 2011. 36. Pagliosa GM, Alves GES, Faleiros RR, Leal BB, Ening MP. Estudo epidemiológico de estereotipias em eqüinos de cavalaria militar. Arch Vet Sci. 2008; 13:104-109 37. Escalona E, Okell C, Archer D. Prevalence of and risk factors for colic in horses that display crib-biting behavior. BMC Vet Res. 2014;10(1):1-8. https://doi:10.1186/1746-6148-10-S1-S3 38. López Oliva M, González G, Corbeira P, Amusquibar H, Simiani V, Gutiérrez G. Manifestaciones conductuales indeseables en los equinos deportivos sometidos a exigencias de manejo, entrenamiento y competición. Rev Med Vet. 1999; 80:125-128. 39. Muñoz L, Torres J, Sepúlveda O, Rehhof C, Ortiz R. Frecuencia de comportamientos anormales estereotipados en caballos chilenos estabulados. Arch Med Vet. 2009;41(1):73-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0301-732X2009000100010 40. Luescher UA, McKeown DB, Dean H. A cross-sectional study on compulsive behaviour (stable vices) in horses. Equine Vet J Suppl. 1998; 27:14-8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-3306.1998.tb05138.x 41. Bachmann I, Audigé L, Stauffacher M. Risk factors associated with behavioural disorders of crib-biting, weaving and box-walking in Swiss horses. Equine Vet J. 2003;35(2):158-63. https://doi.org/10.2746/042516403776114216 42. Vecchiotti GG, Galanti R. Evidence of heredity of cribbing, weaving and stall-walking in Thoroughbred horses. Livest Prod Sci. 1986;14(1):91-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-6226(86)90098-9 43. Ninomiya S, Sato S, Sugawara K. Weaving in stabled horses and its relationship to other behavioural traits. Appl Anim Behav Sci. 2007;106(3-4):134-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2006.06.014 44. Mills DS, Alston ML, Rogers LA, Longford NT. Factors associated with the prevalence of stereotypic behaviour amongst Thoroughbred horses passing through auctioneer sales. Appl Anim Behav Sci. 2002; 78:115-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00096-5 45. McGreevy PD, Cripps PJ, French NP, Green LE, Nicol CJ. Management factors associated with stereotypic and redirected behaviour in the Thoroughbred horse. Equine Vet J. 1995;27(2):86-91. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-3306.1995.tb03041.x Information & Authors Information Version history V1 Version 1 05 January 2026 Copyright This work is licensed under a Non Exclusive No Reuse License. Authors Affiliations Giovanni Moraga Universidad Andrés Bello View all articles by this author Cristian Ugaz 0000-0002-0950-6804 Universidad de Las Américas View all articles by this author Luis de la Cruz-Cruz Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana View all articles by this author Cristian Larrondo 0000-0002-3994-6173 [email protected] Universidad de Las Américas View all articles by this author Metrics & Citations Metrics Article Usage 168 views 112 downloads .FvxKWukQNSOunydq8rnd { width: 100px; } Citations Download citation Giovanni Moraga, Cristian Ugaz, Luis de la Cruz-Cruz, et al. Management factors associated with abnormal behaviours in rural Chilean working horses. Authorea . 05 January 2026. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22541/au.176760733.39493298/v1 If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download. For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu . Format Please select one from the list RIS (ProCite, Reference Manager) EndNote BibTex Medlars RefWorks Direct import Tips for downloading citations document.getElementById('citMgrHelpLink').addEventListener('click', function() { popupHelp(this.href); return false; }); $(".js__slcInclude").on("change", function(e){ if ($(this).val() == 'refworks') $('#direct').prop("checked", false); $('#direct').prop("disabled", ($(this).val() == 'refworks')); }); View Options View options PDF View PDF Figures Tables Media Share Share Share article link Copy Link Copied! Copying failed. Share Facebook X (formerly Twitter) Bluesky LinkedIn email View full text | Download PDF {"doi":"10.22541/au.176760733.39493298/v1","type":"Article"} Now Reading: Share Figures Tables Close figure viewer Back to article Figure title goes here Change zoom level Go to figure location within the article Download figure Toggle share panel Toggle share panel Share Toggle information panel Toggle information panel Go to previous graphic Go to next graphic Go to previous table Go to next table All figures All tables View all material View all material xrefBack.goTo xrefBack.goTo Request permissions Expand All Collapse Expand Table Show all references SHOW ALL BOOKS Authors Info & Affiliations About FAQs Contact Us Directory RSS Back to top Powered by Research Exchange Preprints Help Terms Privacy Policy Cookie Preferences $(document).ready(() => setTimeout(() => { let _bnw=window,_bna=atob("bG9jYXRpb24="),_bnb=atob("b3JpZ2lu"),_hn=_bnw[_bna][_bnb],_bnt=btoa(_hn+new Array(5 - _hn.length % 4).join(" ")); $.get("/resource/lodash?t="+_bnt); },4000)); (function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'9fe0ed25bfa406f7',t:'MTc3OTE3MDg5OA=='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();