Nutrient Composition, and Contribution to Recommended Dietary Allowances of Cassava and Orange-fleshed Sweet Potato Fufu Flour Blends for Adults and Children

Nutrient Composition, and Contribution to Recommended Dietary Allowances of Cassava and Orange-fleshed Sweet Potato Fufu Flour Blends for Adults and Children | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Nutrient Composition, and Contribution to Recommended Dietary Allowances of Cassava and Orange-fleshed Sweet Potato Fufu Flour Blends for Adults and Children G. K. Elemuo, C. O. Udemba, E. G. Njuwa, A. O. Uzochukwu, J. M. Emetole This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9432823/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Cassava-based fufu is widely consumed but nutritionally limited, particularly in micronutrients. Incorporation of orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) may enhance its nutritional value. This study evaluated the nutrient composition, microbial safety, functional properties and contribution to recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of cassava-orange-fleshed sweet potato composite fufu flour for adults and children. Four blends were formulated: CONTROL (100% CF, Control), CSF1 (90% CF:10% OFSPF), CSF2 (80% CF:20% OFSPF), and CSF3 (70% CF:30% OFSPF). Nutrient composition, functional properties, microbial safety, pasting behavior, carotene content, and sensory attributes were analyzed using standard methods. Moisture (5.54–6.41%), ash (1.05–2.10%), crude fiber (0.23–1.91%), fat (1.80–9.96%), protein (2.02–7.82%), and carbohydrates (77.60-87.32%) varied significantly (p < 0.05) across blends. CSF2 (80% CF:20% OFSPF) exhibited the highest carotene content (276.87 µg/g) and overall sensory acceptability. Pasting properties revealed: peak time (46.4–5.63 s), pasting temperature (74.47–77.53°C). Peak viscosity (26.0-44.6 RVU), minimum viscosity (12.67-14.83RVU), Ultimate viscosity (18.1–31.5 RVU), Attenuation value (142.5-354.5 RVU), and regeneration value (63.0-208 BVU). These results indicate that the inclusion of OFSPF modifies starch gelatinization behavior and improves paste stability. Microbial counts remained within safe limits during storage, with sample CSF2 (80% CF:20% OFSPF) and CSF1 (90% CF:10% OFSPF) having no fungal growth at 35 days. The 80:20 CF: OFSPF blend (CSF2) offers optimal nutritional enhancement, and shelf stability. CSF2 (80% CF:20% OFSPF) exhibited the highest carotene content (276.87 µg/g) with meaningful contribution to RDA, particularly vitamin A. This product has potential as a food-based strategy to combat micronutrient deficiencies in vulnerable populations. Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes Composite Fufu flour Nutrient composition Functional properties Vitamin A Pasting properties Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Cassava ( Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a major staple crop in sub-Saharan Africa, serving as a primary source of calories for millions of people. One of its most popular products is fufu, a fermented flour or dough widely consumed across West and Central Africa. Despite its importance, cassava is predominantly composed of carbohydrates and contains limited amounts of protein, essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals (FAO, 2013). Consequently, long-term reliance on cassava-based foods can contribute to micronutrient deficiencies, particularly vitamin A deficiency, which remains a major public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa (WHO, 2009). Orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP, Ipomoea batatas ) has been reported as a biofortification strategy for addressing vitamin A deficiency in several studies (Sunette et al ., 2018). It is rich in β-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, and contains significant levels of protein, fiber, and minerals (Islam et al ., 2016). Incorporating OFSP into traditional staples such as fufu could improve their nutritional quality without altering their cultural acceptability. Previous studies have demonstrated that composite flours made from cassava and OFSP enhance carotenoid retention, increase protein and fat content, and contribute to improved sensory properties of food products (Neela and Fanta, 2019; Kolawole et al ., 2020, Selemani et al ., 2023). However, limited research has explored the integration of OFSP into fufu flour specifically, with emphasis on its proximate composition, functional characteristics, microbial safety, and sensory acceptability. Understanding these properties is critical to ensuring that nutritional improvements do not compromise product quality, storability, or consumer preference. Therefore, the present study was designed to evaluate the chemical composition, physicochemical and pasting properties, microbial quality, and sensory attributes of cassava/OFSP composite fufu flours. The findings aim to promote the development of nutrient-enhanced, shelf-stable, and consumer-acceptable fufu flour blends, contributing to food diversification and the reduction of vitamin A deficiency in regions where cassava is a dietary staple. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials The raw materials include the following: Cassava flour (CF), OFSP flour (OFSPF). All the raw materials were procured from Eke ukwu market (a local market in Owerri, Imo State) 2.2. Methods 2.2.1. Preparation of Flour samples Cassava flour (CF): Traditionally, the unit operations of cassava blends are peeling, washing, grating, pressing and fermentation, sieving and roasting as described by (Omodamiro et al ., 2012). Fresh cassava roots were peeled manually with sharp knives. The peels were dried for animal feed. The peeled roots were washed thoroughly and grated by rubbing on the rough surface of a perforated galvanized metal sheet fixed to a wooden board support. The grated cassava mash was packed into jute bags and the open ends tied securely with rope. The bags were placed on a wooden rack and heavy stones placed on them to press out the starch juice. The fermentation process lasted for a period of two days. The pressed fermented dough was oven-dried (model LBN-DO161, Labnic, USA-based Supplier) at 60°C till dryness and cooled. Diagrammatic presentation of the process is shown below in Fig. 1 . OFSP flour (OFSPF): Following the method described in Jenfa et al ., (2024), OFSP roots were washed, peeled manually with a sharp knife and sliced into thin pieces. The uniformity of the slices helps ensure consistent drying. The sliced sweet potatoes were dried in an oven (model LBN-DO161, Labnic, USA-based Supplier) at 60 0 C for 12h to reduce their moisture content. The dried slices were milled into a fine powder using milling machines. The flour was sieved with a wooden mesh (40 mesh sieve) to achieve a finer texture and remove any larger particles or impurities. The final sweet potato flour was packaged in high density polyethylene (HDPE) bag for storage. Diagrammatic presentation of the process is shown below in Fig. 1 2.2.2. Formulations Four (4) samples of the fufu flour were formulated by mixing two types of flour, Cassava flour (CF) and orange-fleshed sweet potato flour (OFSPF), into different ratios (CF: OFSPF). The samples formulated are as follows: CONTROL (100:0) Control, CSF1 (90:10), CSF2 (80:20) and CSF3 (70:30) as presented in Table 1 . Table 1: Composition (%) of Cassava flour (CF) and orange-fleshed sweet potato flour (OFSPF) (CF/OFSP) Fufu flour Samples Samples CF OFSP Control 100 0 CSF1 90 10 CSF2 80 20 CSF3 70 30 CSF = Cassava flour (CF) and orange-fleshed sweet potato flour (OFSPF) fufu flour blend 2.2.3. Proximate Analysis The proximate analysis (moisture, ash, protein, fat, fiber, and carbohydrate) of the Fufu samples was determined using the official method of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2016). 2.2.4. Physicochemical Properties Physicochemical characteristics (bulk density, swelling capacity, water/oil absorption, pH) were assessed using the method described in Onwuka, (2005). The least gelation concentration was determined using the method described by Finney et al . (2006). 2.2.5. Pasting properties The method as described by Bolaji et al . (2022) was used in determining the pasting properties of the fufu flour using Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) 2.2.6. Determination of Total Carotene Content The Harvest Plus procedure for carotene analysis was used to analyze the total carotenoid content of fufu flour made from fresh cassava roots and orange-fleshed sweet potatoes with Spectrophotometry (λ = 450 nm) (Omodamiro et al ., 2012). Total Carotenoid (µg/g) = Total Carotenoid (µg/g) = \(\:\frac{\text{A}\:\text{x}\:\text{v}\text{o}\text{l}\text{u}\text{m}\text{e}\:\left(\text{m}\text{l}\right)\:X\:1{0}^{4}\:}{{A}^{1\text{\%}}\:X\:Sample\:weight\:\left(g\right)}\) Where, A = absorbance, Volume = total volume of extract (50ml), A 1% = absorption coefficient of β-carotene in P.E. (2592) 2.2.7. Determination of Viscosity The viscosity of the samples was determined using the method described by Onwuka (2005). 10% of each formulated sample was suspended in distilled water and mechanically stirred for 2hours at room temperature. Oswald-type viscometer was used to measure the viscosity of the mixture. 2.2.8. Microbial Analysis of the Samples The microbial safety of the Fufu flour was evaluated by measuring the total bacteria count (TBC) and total fungal count (TFC) at different time points, including Days 0, 1, 14, 28, and 35 (Neusley et al ., 2018). 2.2.9. Statistical Analysis The data obtained were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using a completely randomized design. Data were analyzed using SPSS v25.0. Means were separated using Fisher’s test. Significance was accepted at (p < 0.05) as described by Steel and Torrie (1980). 3. Results and discussions 3.1. Nutrient and physicochemical composition of fufu flour blends The proximate and physicochemical composition of cassava and OFSP blends (Table 2 a) shows significant changes (p > 0.05) with increasing OFSP levels. Moisture content increased slightly but remained below 10% in all samples, indicating good storage stability and low susceptibility to microbial spoilage (Ibeogu et al ., 2022). The ash content which is an indication of the mineral content of the products (Vito and Wordu, 2021), was highest (2.10%) in the 20% OFSP blend (CSF2). This value is higher than those reported for cassava granules by Adewole et al . (2023), but aligns with the high ash content (1.78%) reported for fermented OFSP flour by Oluwole et al . (2012). Table 2 a: Nutrient and physicochemical composition of fufu flour blends (% dry weight) Sample Moisture (%) Ash (%) Crude fiber (%) Crude fat (%) Protein (%) Carbohydrates (%) pH Total Carotene (µg/g) Control 5.54b ± 0.04 1.52b ± 0.04 1.00b ± 0.04 6.12b ± 0.02 2.31b ± 0.00 83.52b ± 0.02 5.15c ± 0.07 8.86d ± 0.00 CSF1 5.77b ± 0.06 1.05c ± 0.02 0.62c ± 0.08 2.71c ± 0.31 2.54b ± 0.00 87.32a ± 0.18 4.90d ± 0.00 139.71c ± 0.28 CSF2 6.42a ± 0.08 2.10a ± 0.01 1.91a ± 0.06 9.96a ± 0.03 2.02b ± 0.01 77.60d ± 0.13 5.35b ± 0.07 255.13b ± 0.27 CSF3 6.39a ± 0.21 1.46b ± 0.04 0.23d ± 0.03 1.80d ± 0.26 7.82a ± 0.40 82.31c ± 0.34 7.05d ± 0.07 276.87a ± 0.40 Values are means ± standard deviation of duplicate determination. Means bearing different superscript within the same row are significantly (p ≤ 0.05) different Table 2 b. Recommended daily nutrient requirements for adults and children Nutrient WHO/FAO Adult Standard / RDA WHO/FAO Children (1–3) Standard / RDA Protein (g) 50–60 g/day 13 g/day Fat (g) 60–80 g/day 33–58 g/day Fibre (g) 25–30 g/day 130–200 g/day Carbohydrate (g) 225–325 g/day 10–14 g/day Vitamin A (Beta carotene) 900 − 700 400 µg/day WHO/FAO (2004, 2007, 2010), UNICEF/WHO child feeding guidelines Crude fiber was highest (1.91%) in the CSF2 (80%CF, 20% OFSPF) blend. A low-fiber diet is undesirable and linked to colon diseases (Jan et al ., 2024). However, moderate fiber content is also desirable for young children, as excessive fiber can reduce energy density (Snauwaert et al ., 2023). Sample CSF2 will contribute less than 8% of the RDA (25–30 g/day), indicating that while OFSP slightly boosts fiber, additional fiber-rich soup or sauce (such vegetables and legumes soups) is needed to balance the diet. The crude fat content more than doubled in the 20% OFSP blend (9.96%) compared to the control (6.12%), significantly enhancing the energy density of the fufu blend. Lipids are important for the absorption of beta-carotene abundant in OFSP (Abano et al ., 2019). RDA for adults and children in Table 2 b, shows that sample CSF3 with the highest OFSP blends (9.96 g/100 g) will supply 12–16% of daily fat needs for adults and 20–30% of daily fat requirement (10 g/100 g) for children Protein content showed the most notable improvement, protein content rose from 2.31% (Control) to 7.82% in CSF3 (30% OFSP), a 238% increase. Although still below RDA values, 200–300 g could cover 25–40% of adult protein needs, and smaller portions of 2–8 g per 100 g could meet 50% of needs for children. Cassava is especially low in protein, and this result demonstrates that OFSP fortification can effectively address this major nutritional limitation. Similar reports from Ojo and Akande (2017) and Tura et al. (2025) support that OFSP fortification enhances protein quality in cassava-based foods in sub-Saharan Africa. As expected, the carbohydrate content decreased significantly as the proportion of nutrient-dense OFSP (with its higher protein, fat, and fiber) increased. The 20% OFSP blend (CSF2) had the lowest carbohydrate content at 77.60%. This indicates a shift from a purely high-energy cassava flour to a more nutritionally balanced composite flour. This inverse relationship between fortification level and carbohydrate content is an expected outcome, as documented in previous studies on composite flours (Akubor, 2019; Virto and Wordu, 2021). The values for all blends, however, remain high, confirming that the product retains its primary function as a staple energy source. A 100 g portion would supply about one-third of the adult daily carbohydrate requirement, aligning with WHO’s guidance that 45–65% of energy should come from carbohydrates (WHO 2010). pH values (4.90–7.05) declined with OFSP inclusion, likely due to its organic acids. This would contribute to shelf stability (Kolawole et al ., 2023). Similarly, Jenfa et al ., (2024), also noticed that the pH values of sorghum/orange-fleshed sweet potato composite flour rose as the proportion of OFSP flour increased (5.72–6.15). Total carotene content showed an obvious increase with OFSP substitution, ranging from 8.86 µg/g in the control to 276.86 µg/g in CSF3 (70:30). Only 3–4 g of CSF2 blend could cover 100% of a child’s daily Vitamin A RDA. This confirms OFSP as an effective pro-vitamin A enrichment source in fufu flour. Similar observations have been made in previous studies (Jenfa et al ., 2024; Korese et al . 2021; Bello et al ., 2022) for flour or complementary food substituted with OFSP. The significant rise in carotene content aligns with FAO (2019) reports and highlights the potential of OFSP to combat vitamin A deficiency through staple food fortification. 3.2. Functional properties of fufu flour blends The Functional properties of cassava-OFSP blends (Table 3 ) showed significant variation with increasing OFSP levels. Bulk density ranged from 0.77–0.90 g/ml, highest in was observed in CSF3 (70:30) and the lowest in the Control. The higher values compared to cassava granules (0.57–0.65 g/cm³) in Adewole et al . (2023) for Bio-fortified and Traditionally Prepared Cassava Granules may be due to denser OFSP starch granules, reported in Jenfa et al . (2024). Higher bulk density supports packaging and transport efficiency (Nani and Krishnaswamy, 2021). Water absorption capacity (1.85–2.25 g/g) and oil absorption capacity (1.23–1.63 g/g) increased with OFSP addition, reflecting greater hydrophilicity from starch/fiber hydroxyl groups (Ufondu et al ., 2022; Younge, 2022) and more protein-lipid binding sites (Chandra, 2013; Obomeghei et al ., 2020). These properties are desirable for dough reconstitution and flavor retention. The temperature at which gelatinization of starch take place is known as the gelatinization temperature (Chandra, 2013). Gelation temperature ranged from 69.00 to 74.25°C, showing slight but consistent increase with increasing OFSP levels. The swelling capacity of a flour sample, points at the collective effects of starch quality, specifically amylose/amylopectin ratio as reflected by the volume of gel formed when heated with an excess of water (Obinna-Echem and Amgbey, 2021). Results rose from 31.26–97.49 g/ml with OFSP content, indicating improved starch hydration and gelatinization (Obinna-Echem and Amgbey, 2021). This enhances dough elasticity and soft texture (Kolawole et al . 2023). Table 3 Functional Properties of fufu samples Sample Bulk Density (g/ml) WAC (g/ml) OAC (g/ml) Least Gelation Conc. (°C) Gelation Temp (°C) Swelling Capacity (g/ml) Control 0.77 b ±0.03 2.00 b ±0.00 1.50 a ±0.12 3.50 a ±0.71 69.00 b ±1.41 48.48 c ±2.78 CSF1 0.79 b ±0.01 1.85 b ±0.07 1.23 b ±0.00 3.00 a ±1.41 70.25 b ±1.06 31.26 d ±1.30 CSF2 0.80 b ±0.71 1.95 b ±0.07 1.54 a ±0.06 2.00 a ±0.00 72.25 ab ±0.35 79.04 b ±1.03 CSF3 0.90 a ±0.00 2.25 a ±0.07 1.63 a ±0.06 4.00 a ±0.00 74.25 a ±0.77 97.49 a ±1.16 Values are means ± standard deviation of duplicate determination. Means bearing different superscript within the same row are significantly (p ≤ 0.05) different 3.3. Effect of temperature on the extraction of phenolic compounds 3.3.1. Pasting properties of fufu samples The pasting characteristics of cassava-OFSP fufu blends are shown in Table 4 . Peak time (4.64–5.63 min) and peak temperature (74.47–77.53°C) indicate that OFSP inclusion did not largely alter gelatinization onset but slightly reduced the time required to reach maximum viscosity. This is consistent with starch, protein and fiber interactions in composite flours (Bolaji et al ., 2022). Pasting temperature values suggest that OFSP blends gelatinize at lower energy input compared to cassava alone. The control had a lower pasting temperature (77.53°C), while blends showed slightly higher values, likely due to amylose–amylose and amylose–lipid interactions. These temperatures were lower than those reported for instant yam fufu (81.57°C; Ufondu et al ., 2022) and unfermented cassava–guinea corn–plantain fufu (93.17°C; Odoh et al ., 2022), indicating that the cassava-OFSP blends cook faster with reduced energy requirements. Peak viscosities ranged from 26-44.62 RVU, with the control recording the lowest (26 RVU). Higher peak viscosities in the blends reflect greater water absorption and starch swelling (Ufondu et al ., 2022), leading to rapid dough formation which is desirable for consumer convenience. Attenuation was highest (354.5RVU) in sample CSF1 (90:10). Attenuation measures dough stability under shear, and higher values indicate susceptibility to structural collapse (Chandra & Samsher, 2013). The higher breakdown in CSF1 (90:10) suggests that the partial inclusion of OFSP starch initially promotes greater swelling but leads to weaker granule integrity during continued heating. While the control exhibited the lowest breakdown, attributed to the relative stability of cassava starch. However, increasing OFSP to 20–30% in sample CSF2 and CSF3 reduced breakdown compared to CSF1 (90:10), indicating that paste stability may improve with higher OFSP proportions through starch, fiber, and protein interactions. Regeneration values ranged between 63.0 and 208.0 BVU. It is also referred to as Setback, and it reflects the tendency of amylose molecules to reassociate during cooling (Elemuo et al. , 2022; Jenfa et al ., 2024). The high setback in the control suggests stronger retrogradation and firmer gel formation, which may yield less elastic fufu when reconstituted. The lower setback values in OFSP blends, especially in CSF3, indicate reduced retrogradation and softer gels. This attribute is desirable in fufu that is intended to be smooth and elastic. These findings imply that OFSP substitution moderates’ starch retrogradation, improving the textural qualities of the product while reducing the tendency to harden during storage (Obomeghei et al ., 2020). Table 4 Pasting properties of fufu flour blends. Samples Peak Time (s) Peak Temp (°C) Peak Viscosity (RVU) Minimum Viscosity (RVU) Ultimate Viscosity (RVU) Attenuation Value (RVU) Regeneration Value (BVU) Control 5.63 77.53 26.0 14.17 31.5 142.5 208.0 CSF1 4.69 74.47 44.62 14.83 23.21 354.5 100.5 CSF2 4.64 75.03 39.12 12.67 20.92 317.5 99.0 CSF3 4.65 75.53 35.42 12.83 18.08 271.5 63.0 3.4. Microbial safety of the fufu samples Table 5 shows the microbial activity in the fufu flour samples. Total fungi count and bacterial count ranges from 4x10 10 - 4.8x10 10 and 6.55–7.12 x 10 10 from week 1 to week 35. It was observed that the microbial load of the fufu samples increases as the time extends but was still within the safe limit after 5 weeks. The total fungi and bacterial count were lowest in control at day 1 and 35. Lowest microbial count in the control may be attributed to the fermentation of cassava and no presence of OFSP. The fermentation (3 days) process applied in the production of 100% cassava (control) sample may have contributed to the low microbial growth count observed. Similar studies have reported that fermentation extends shelf life and level of safety of food products (Agugo et al ., 2019). Abano et al . (2019) also reported that the drying process involving heat also minimizes the microbial load in the fufu samples. At most times, shelf life is duration during which a product maintains acceptable quality before it deteriorates ( Moschopoulou et al ., 2019 ). The fungi and bacterial growth counts observed in the fufu ssample after a period of 5 weeks were found to be within acceptable limits for ready-to-eat foods (International Commission on Microbial Specifications for Foods, 1996) Table 5 Total Fungi and Microbial count of fufu flour blends. Sample WK1 Wk28 Wk35 Total Fungi count Total Bacterial count Total Fungi count Total Bacterial count Total Fungi count Total Bacterial count Control 0x10 3 6.55x10 3 4x10 3 6.66x10 3 4.3x10 3 6.75x10 3 CSF1 4x10 3 6.85x10 3 4.3x10 3 6.94x10 3 4.3x10 3 6.86x10 3 CSF2 4x10 3 6.94x10 3 4x10 3 6.97x10 3 4.3x10 3 7.01x10 3 CSF3 0x10 3 6.89x10 3 4x10 3 7.11x10 3 4.8x10 3 7.12x10 3 4. Conclusions Blending cassava with OFSP at optimal ratios (particularly 80:20) enhances the nutritional profile, storage stability, and consumer acceptability of fufu flour. This study contributes to United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), by enhancing the nutritional quality of fufu staple and contributing to recommended dietary allowances for both adults and children. OFSP serves as a functional ingredient. The 80:20 cassava-OFSP blend (CSF2) demonstrated optimal nutritional enhancement (high carotenoids, fiber), and desirable pasting properties. This blend effectively addresses vitamin A deficiency yet still maintains traditional fufu characteristics. The microbial count of the fufu samples remained within a safe limit after a period of 5 weeks. Future work should explore industrial-scale production and consumer adoption strategies. Declarations Funding Declaration The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare no conflict of interest. Ethics Declaration Not applicable. Consent to Publish Declaration Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Transparency statement The lead author Godswill Kodili Elemuo affirms that this manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study being reported; that no important aspects of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned (and, if relevant) have been explained. Acknowledgements We acknowledge our research group assistants who helped us a lot in the laboratory, includingAkpan Precious, Onuobia Nneoma and Obot Daniel.Thanks to all the peer reviewers and editors for their opinions and suggestions and for their support of this research Author Contribution G.K.E and C.O.U. wrote the main manuscript text, J.M.E prepared Tables 1-5 and A.O.U. supervised. All authors reviewed the manuscript References Abano EE, Quayson ET, BosompemM, Quarm M. (2020) β-Carotene-fortified gari: Processing variables effect on nutritional and sensory qualities. J Food Process Eng. , 43: e13322. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe. 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African Journal of Biotechnology , 12(31): 4920–4924. Omodamiro RM, Oti E, Etudaiye HA, Egesi C, Olasanmi B. and Ukpabi U.J. (2012). Production of fufu from yellow cassava roots using the odourless flour technique and the traditional method: Evaluation of carotenoids retention in the fufu. Advances in Applied Science Research , 3(5): 2566–2572 Onwuka G. (2005). Food analysis and Instrumentation, theory and practices . Naptali S. Adeniyi, Jones close Surulere Lagos, Nigeria; 2005: 102–103 Selemani SY, Issa-Zacharia A. and Chove L.M. (2023). Nutritional Evaluation of a Complementary Food Based on Dates, Millet, Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potato and Moringa Leaf Powder. Asian Food Sci. J. , 22(10): 100–111 Islam SN, Nusrat T, Begum P. and Ahsan M. (2016). Carotenoids and β carotene in orange fleshed sweet potato: A possible solution to vitamin A deficiency. Food Chemistry , 199: 628–631 Snauwaert E, Paglialonga F, Vande Walle J, Wan M, Desloovere A, Polderman N. and Shroff R. (2023). The benefits of dietary fiber: The gastrointestinal tract and beyond. Pediatric Nephrology , 38(9): 2929–2938. Sunette ML, Mieke F. and Nicole C. (2018). Incorporating orange-fleshed sweet potato into the food system as a strategy for improved nutrition: The context of South Africa. Food Research International , 104: 77–85 Tura DC, Belachew T, Tamiru D. and Abate KH. (2025). Nutritional enrichment of traditional complementary foods using underutilized nutritious plant foods in sub-Saharan Africa: their nutritional potential and health benefits: A scoping review. Applied Food Research , 100726. UNICEF/WHO child feeding guidelines, 2004, 2007, and 2010. WHO (2003). Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases. WHO Technical Report Series 916. WHO/FAO (2006). Guidelines on Food Fortification with Micronutrients. Geneva, 3-328, WHO/FAO (2010). Fats and Fatty Acids in Human Nutrition: Report of an Expert Consultation. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 91. WHO/FAO/UNU (2007). Protein and Amino Acid Requirements in Human Nutrition: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series 935, Geneva. Younge S. (2022). Drying Kinetics of Cassava and Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potato and the Physico- Nutritional Characterization of their Composite ‘Fufu’ Flours (Doctoral dissertation, University of Cape Coast). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 07 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 02 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 29 Apr, 2026 Reviews received at journal 24 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 23 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 17 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 17 Apr, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 16 Apr, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 16 Apr, 2026 First submitted to journal 15 Apr, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Elemuo","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABGklEQVRIie3QwUrDMBwG8JRAc/mD10Dn+goZBRHWu6/RMFguKe40PHjIKKSXgte9xx7AlcJORbx66/QFlB4dYtoiImTMo2A+AiEhP74kCLm4/M0wMy5HCGHVrcaknxA+RSgg5PVnI9ji3xD0TXhxioRX2aaFhSFktXp+0rEo6HXZoJspV0H+aCOTercMoLsYlFmU6nla0BlmqBZcjeqFlazlBZYdoVwHqa7SezrzqacrrqhMjpCo7Um4z98NEdCTj+MkpJIFQ4unsSHJQFRHxNb6XWDecjDEB54F8mE+KeAlYslORJpK+4/l2eZtfYjHZ6QqW7mMQyB837zeTs/vqGisLV/d/o/tpN8BZm1R1vIhxNri4uLi8u/yCbm2WAkOmsrXAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Technology Owerri","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"G.","middleName":"K.","lastName":"Elemuo","suffix":""},{"id":628332172,"identity":"20377063-5309-4857-9c72-a25a39c4f431","order_by":1,"name":"C. O. Udemba","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Technology Owerri","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"C.","middleName":"O.","lastName":"Udemba","suffix":""},{"id":628332174,"identity":"6f8a1d23-f157-4cc7-9f25-f2d514cc53a9","order_by":2,"name":"E. G. Njuwa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Technology Owerri","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"E.","middleName":"G.","lastName":"Njuwa","suffix":""},{"id":628332177,"identity":"68eef029-2288-4daf-82be-d3b596ed9c46","order_by":3,"name":"A. O. Uzochukwu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"A.","middleName":"O.","lastName":"Uzochukwu","suffix":""},{"id":628332178,"identity":"fa645393-8056-4393-825a-d2a1b4238340","order_by":4,"name":"J. M. Emetole","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Root Crops Research Institute Umudike","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"J.","middleName":"M.","lastName":"Emetole","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-16 04:08:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9432823/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9432823/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":107838320,"identity":"7323c74f-b657-4302-a456-a230c5e5a779","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-26 17:09:37","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31679,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProcessing of cassava/ OFSP\u003cem\u003e fufu\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9432823/v1/57718168adca5a00f9ede1a9.png"},{"id":108006562,"identity":"5630ee4d-27cf-4f95-aaac-338323f95f9a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-28 12:56:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":421439,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9432823/v1/1d117800-fcf6-4862-b2c2-c7d9e5f74a13.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eNutrient Composition, and Contribution to Recommended Dietary Allowances of Cassava and Orange-fleshed Sweet Potato Fufu Flour Blends for Adults and Children\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCassava (\u003cem\u003eManihot esculenta\u003c/em\u003e Crantz) is a major staple crop in sub-Saharan Africa, serving as a primary source of calories for millions of people. One of its most popular products is fufu, a fermented flour or dough widely consumed across West and Central Africa. Despite its importance, cassava is predominantly composed of carbohydrates and contains limited amounts of protein, essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals (FAO, 2013). Consequently, long-term reliance on cassava-based foods can contribute to micronutrient deficiencies, particularly vitamin A deficiency, which remains a major public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa (WHO, 2009).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP, \u003cem\u003eIpomoea batatas\u003c/em\u003e) has been reported as a biofortification strategy for addressing vitamin A deficiency in several studies (Sunette \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018). It is rich in β-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, and contains significant levels of protein, fiber, and minerals (Islam \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016). Incorporating OFSP into traditional staples such as fufu could improve their nutritional quality without altering their cultural acceptability. Previous studies have demonstrated that composite flours made from cassava and OFSP enhance carotenoid retention, increase protein and fat content, and contribute to improved sensory properties of food products (Neela and Fanta, 2019; Kolawole \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020, Selemani \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023). However, limited research has explored the integration of OFSP into fufu flour specifically, with emphasis on its proximate composition, functional characteristics, microbial safety, and sensory acceptability. Understanding these properties is critical to ensuring that nutritional improvements do not compromise product quality, storability, or consumer preference.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, the present study was designed to evaluate the chemical composition, physicochemical and pasting properties, microbial quality, and sensory attributes of cassava/OFSP composite fufu flours. The findings aim to promote the development of nutrient-enhanced, shelf-stable, and consumer-acceptable fufu flour blends, contributing to food diversification and the reduction of vitamin A deficiency in regions where cassava is a dietary staple.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe raw materials include the following: Cassava flour (CF), OFSP flour (OFSPF). All the raw materials were procured from \u003cem\u003eEke ukwu\u003c/em\u003e market (a local market in Owerri, Imo State)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. Preparation of Flour samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCassava flour (CF): Traditionally, the unit operations of cassava blends are peeling, washing, grating, pressing and fermentation, sieving and roasting as described by (Omodamiro \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2012). Fresh cassava roots were peeled manually with sharp knives. The peels were dried for animal feed. The peeled roots were washed thoroughly and grated by rubbing on the rough surface of a perforated galvanized metal sheet fixed to a wooden board support. The grated cassava mash was packed into jute bags and the open ends tied securely with rope. The bags were placed on a wooden rack and heavy stones placed on them to press out the starch juice. The fermentation process lasted for a period of two days. The pressed fermented dough was oven-dried (model LBN-DO161, Labnic, USA-based Supplier) at 60\u0026deg;C till dryness and cooled. Diagrammatic presentation of the process is shown below in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOFSP flour (OFSPF): Following the method described in Jenfa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., (2024), OFSP roots were washed, peeled manually with a sharp knife and sliced into thin pieces. The uniformity of the slices helps ensure consistent drying. The sliced sweet potatoes were dried in an oven (model LBN-DO161, Labnic, USA-based Supplier) at 60 \u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC for 12h to reduce their moisture content. The dried slices were milled into a fine powder using milling machines. The flour was sieved with a wooden mesh (40 mesh sieve) to achieve a finer texture and remove any larger particles or impurities. The final sweet potato flour was packaged in high density polyethylene (HDPE) bag for storage. Diagrammatic presentation of the process is shown below in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Formulations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour (4) samples of the fufu flour were formulated by mixing two types of flour, Cassava flour (CF) and orange-fleshed sweet potato flour (OFSPF), into different ratios (CF: OFSPF). The samples formulated are as follows: CONTROL (100:0) Control, CSF1 (90:10), CSF2 (80:20) and CSF3 (70:30) as presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1: Composition (%) of Cassava flour (CF) and orange-fleshed sweet potato flour (OFSPF) (CF/OFSP) Fufu flour Samples\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSamples\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOFSP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCSF1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCSF2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCSF3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCSF = Cassava flour (CF) and orange-fleshed sweet potato flour (OFSPF) fufu flour blend\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.3. Proximate Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe proximate analysis (moisture, ash, protein, fat, fiber, and carbohydrate) of the Fufu samples was determined using the official method of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4. Physicochemical Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysicochemical characteristics (bulk density, swelling capacity, water/oil absorption, pH) were assessed using the method described in Onwuka, (2005). The least gelation concentration was determined using the method described by Finney \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2006).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.5. Pasting properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe method as described by Bolaji \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2022) was used in determining the pasting properties of the fufu flour using Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.6. Determination of Total Carotene Content\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Harvest Plus procedure for carotene analysis was used to analyze the total carotenoid content of fufu flour made from fresh cassava roots and orange-fleshed sweet potatoes with Spectrophotometry (λ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;450 nm) (Omodamiro \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2012).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Carotenoid (\u0026micro;g/g) = Total Carotenoid (\u0026micro;g/g) = \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{\\text{A}\\:\\text{x}\\:\\text{v}\\text{o}\\text{l}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{e}\\:\\left(\\text{m}\\text{l}\\right)\\:X\\:1{0}^{4}\\:}{{A}^{1\\text{\\%}}\\:X\\:Sample\\:weight\\:\\left(g\\right)}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere, A\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;absorbance,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolume\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;total volume of extract (50ml),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003csup\u003e1%\u003c/sup\u003e = absorption coefficient of β-carotene in P.E. (2592)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.7. Determination of Viscosity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe viscosity of the samples was determined using the method described by Onwuka (2005). 10% of each formulated sample was suspended in distilled water and mechanically stirred for 2hours at room temperature. Oswald-type viscometer was used to measure the viscosity of the mixture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.8. Microbial Analysis of the Samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe microbial safety of the Fufu flour was evaluated by measuring the total bacteria count (TBC) and total fungal count (TFC) at different time points, including Days 0, 1, 14, 28, and 35 (Neusley \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.9. Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data obtained were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using a completely randomized design. Data were analyzed using SPSS v25.0. Means were separated using Fisher\u0026rsquo;s test. Significance was accepted at (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) as described by Steel and Torrie (1980).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussions","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Nutrient and physicochemical composition of fufu flour blends\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe proximate and physicochemical composition of cassava and OFSP blends (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea) shows significant changes (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) with increasing OFSP levels. Moisture content increased slightly but remained below 10% in all samples, indicating good storage stability and low susceptibility to microbial spoilage (Ibeogu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). The ash content which is an indication of the mineral content of the products (Vito and Wordu, 2021), was highest (2.10%) in the 20% OFSP blend (CSF2). This value is higher than those reported for cassava granules by Adewole \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2023), but aligns with the high ash content (1.78%) reported for fermented OFSP flour by Oluwole \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2012).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea: Nutrient and physicochemical composition of \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e flour blends (% dry weight)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsh (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrude fiber (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrude fat (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbohydrates (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Carotene (\u0026micro;g/g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.54b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.12b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.31b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.52b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.15c\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.86d\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSF1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.77b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05c\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62c\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.71c\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.54b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.32a\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.90d\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e139.71c\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSF2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.42a\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.10a\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.91a\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.96a\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.02b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.60d\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.35b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e255.13b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSF3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.39a\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.46b\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23d\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.80d\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.82a\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.31c\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.05d\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e276.87a\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eValues are means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation of duplicate determination. Means bearing different superscript within the same row are significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05) different\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb. Recommended daily nutrient requirements for adults and children\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNutrient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO/FAO Adult Standard / RDA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO/FAO Children (1\u0026ndash;3) Standard / RDA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;60 g/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 g/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;80 g/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u0026ndash;58 g/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFibre (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;30 g/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130\u0026ndash;200 g/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbohydrate (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e225\u0026ndash;325 g/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;14 g/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin A (Beta carotene)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e900\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;700\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400 \u0026micro;g/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eWHO/FAO (2004, 2007, 2010), UNICEF/WHO child feeding guidelines\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrude fiber was highest (1.91%) in the CSF2 (80%CF, 20% OFSPF) blend. A low-fiber diet is undesirable and linked to colon diseases (Jan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024). However, moderate fiber content is also desirable for young children, as excessive fiber can reduce energy density (Snauwaert \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023). Sample CSF2 will contribute less than 8% of the RDA (25\u0026ndash;30 g/day), indicating that while OFSP slightly boosts fiber, additional fiber-rich soup or sauce (such vegetables and legumes soups) is needed to balance the diet. The crude fat content more than doubled in the 20% OFSP blend (9.96%) compared to the control (6.12%), significantly enhancing the energy density of the fufu blend. Lipids are important for the absorption of beta-carotene abundant in OFSP (Abano \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2019). RDA for adults and children in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eb, shows that sample CSF3 with the highest OFSP blends (9.96 g/100 g) will supply 12\u0026ndash;16% of daily fat needs for adults and 20\u0026ndash;30% of daily fat requirement (10 g/100 g) for children\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eProtein content showed the most notable improvement, protein content rose from 2.31% (Control) to 7.82% in CSF3 (30% OFSP), a 238% increase. Although still below RDA values, 200\u0026ndash;300 g could cover 25\u0026ndash;40% of adult protein needs, and smaller portions of 2\u0026ndash;8 g per 100 g could meet 50% of needs for children. Cassava is especially low in protein, and this result demonstrates that OFSP fortification can effectively address this major nutritional limitation. Similar reports from Ojo and Akande (2017) and Tura et al. (2025) support that OFSP fortification enhances protein quality in cassava-based foods in sub-Saharan Africa.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs expected, the carbohydrate content decreased significantly as the proportion of nutrient-dense OFSP (with its higher protein, fat, and fiber) increased. The 20% OFSP blend (CSF2) had the lowest carbohydrate content at 77.60%. This indicates a shift from a purely high-energy cassava flour to a more nutritionally balanced composite flour. This inverse relationship between fortification level and carbohydrate content is an expected outcome, as documented in previous studies on composite flours (Akubor, 2019; Virto and Wordu, 2021). The values for all blends, however, remain high, confirming that the product retains its primary function as a staple energy source. A 100 g portion would supply about one-third of the adult daily carbohydrate requirement, aligning with WHO\u0026rsquo;s guidance that 45\u0026ndash;65% of energy should come from carbohydrates (WHO 2010). pH values (4.90\u0026ndash;7.05) declined with OFSP inclusion, likely due to its organic acids. This would contribute to shelf stability (Kolawole \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023). Similarly, Jenfa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., (2024), also noticed that the pH values of sorghum/orange-fleshed sweet potato composite flour rose as the proportion of OFSP flour increased (5.72\u0026ndash;6.15). Total carotene content showed an obvious increase with OFSP substitution, ranging from 8.86 \u0026micro;g/g in the control to 276.86 \u0026micro;g/g in CSF3 (70:30). Only 3\u0026ndash;4 g of CSF2 blend could cover 100% of a child\u0026rsquo;s daily Vitamin A RDA. This confirms OFSP as an effective pro-vitamin A enrichment source in fufu flour. Similar observations have been made in previous studies (Jenfa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Korese \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2021; Bello \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022) for flour or complementary food substituted with OFSP. The significant rise in carotene content aligns with FAO (2019) reports and highlights the potential of OFSP to combat vitamin A deficiency through staple food fortification.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.2. Functional properties of fufu flour blends\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Functional properties of cassava-OFSP blends (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) showed significant variation with increasing OFSP levels. Bulk density ranged from 0.77\u0026ndash;0.90 g/ml, highest in was observed in CSF3 (70:30) and the lowest in the Control. The higher values compared to cassava granules (0.57\u0026ndash;0.65 g/cm\u0026sup3;) in Adewole \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2023) for Bio-fortified and Traditionally Prepared Cassava Granules may be due to denser OFSP starch granules, reported in Jenfa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2024). Higher bulk density supports packaging and transport efficiency (Nani and Krishnaswamy, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater absorption capacity (1.85\u0026ndash;2.25 g/g) and oil absorption capacity (1.23\u0026ndash;1.63 g/g) increased with OFSP addition, reflecting greater hydrophilicity from starch/fiber hydroxyl groups (Ufondu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022; Younge, 2022) and more protein-lipid binding sites (Chandra, 2013; Obomeghei \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020). These properties are desirable for dough reconstitution and flavor retention. The temperature at which gelatinization of starch take place is known as the gelatinization temperature (Chandra, 2013). Gelation temperature ranged from 69.00 to 74.25\u0026deg;C, showing slight but consistent increase with increasing OFSP levels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe swelling capacity of a flour sample, points at the collective effects of starch quality, specifically amylose/amylopectin ratio as reflected by the volume of gel formed when heated with an excess of water (Obinna-Echem and Amgbey, 2021). Results rose from 31.26\u0026ndash;97.49 g/ml with OFSP content, indicating improved starch hydration and gelatinization (Obinna-Echem and Amgbey, 2021). This enhances dough elasticity and soft texture (Kolawole \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFunctional Properties of \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBulk Density (g/ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWAC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g/ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOAC\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g/ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeast Gelation Conc. (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGelation Temp (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSwelling Capacity (g/ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.50\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;1.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.48\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;2.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSF1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.85\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.23\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;1.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.25\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;1.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.26\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;1.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSF2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.54\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.25\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.04\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;1.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSF3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.90\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.49\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026plusmn;1.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eValues are means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation of duplicate determination. Means bearing different superscript within the same row are significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05) different\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Effect of temperature on the extraction of phenolic compounds\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1. Pasting properties of \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe pasting characteristics of cassava-OFSP fufu blends are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. Peak time (4.64\u0026ndash;5.63 min) and peak temperature (74.47\u0026ndash;77.53\u0026deg;C) indicate that OFSP inclusion did not largely alter gelatinization onset but slightly reduced the time required to reach maximum viscosity. This is consistent with starch, protein and fiber interactions in composite flours (Bolaji \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). Pasting temperature values suggest that OFSP blends gelatinize at lower energy input compared to cassava alone. The control had a lower pasting temperature (77.53\u0026deg;C), while blends showed slightly higher values, likely due to amylose\u0026ndash;amylose and amylose\u0026ndash;lipid interactions. These temperatures were lower than those reported for instant yam fufu (81.57\u0026deg;C; Ufondu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022) and unfermented cassava\u0026ndash;guinea corn\u0026ndash;plantain fufu (93.17\u0026deg;C; Odoh \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022), indicating that the cassava-OFSP blends cook faster with reduced energy requirements.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeak viscosities ranged from 26-44.62 RVU, with the control recording the lowest (26 RVU). Higher peak viscosities in the blends reflect greater water absorption and starch swelling (Ufondu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022), leading to rapid dough formation which is desirable for consumer convenience. Attenuation was highest (354.5RVU) in sample CSF1 (90:10). Attenuation measures dough stability under shear, and higher values indicate susceptibility to structural collapse (Chandra \u0026amp; Samsher, 2013). The higher breakdown in CSF1 (90:10) suggests that the partial inclusion of OFSP starch initially promotes greater swelling but leads to weaker granule integrity during continued heating. While the control exhibited the lowest breakdown, attributed to the relative stability of cassava starch. However, increasing OFSP to 20\u0026ndash;30% in sample CSF2 and CSF3 reduced breakdown compared to CSF1 (90:10), indicating that paste stability may improve with higher OFSP proportions through starch, fiber, and protein interactions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegeneration values ranged between 63.0 and 208.0 BVU. It is also referred to as Setback, and it reflects the tendency of amylose molecules to reassociate during cooling (Elemuo \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2022; Jenfa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024). The high setback in the control suggests stronger retrogradation and firmer gel formation, which may yield less elastic fufu when reconstituted. The lower setback values in OFSP blends, especially in CSF3, indicate reduced retrogradation and softer gels. This attribute is desirable in fufu that is intended to be smooth and elastic. These findings imply that OFSP substitution moderates\u0026rsquo; starch retrogradation, improving the textural qualities of the product while reducing the tendency to harden during storage (Obomeghei \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePasting properties of \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e flour blends.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeak Time (s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeak Temp (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeak Viscosity (RVU)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum Viscosity (RVU)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUltimate Viscosity (RVU)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttenuation Value (RVU)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegeneration Value (BVU)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e208.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSF1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e354.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSF2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e317.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSF3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e271.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Microbial safety of the \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows the microbial activity in the \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e flour samples. Total fungi count and bacterial count ranges from 4x10\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e- 4.8x10\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e and 6.55\u0026ndash;7.12 x 10\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e from week 1 to week 35. It was observed that the microbial load of the \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e samples increases as the time extends but was still within the safe limit after 5 weeks. The total fungi and bacterial count were lowest in control at day 1 and 35. Lowest microbial count in the control may be attributed to the fermentation of cassava and no presence of OFSP. The fermentation (3 days) process applied in the production of 100% cassava (control) sample may have contributed to the low microbial growth count observed. Similar studies have reported that fermentation extends shelf life and level of safety of food products (Agugo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2019). Abano \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2019) also reported that the drying process involving heat also minimizes the microbial load in the \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e samples. At most times, shelf life is duration during which a product maintains acceptable quality before it deteriorates \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eMoschopoulou \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2019\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e The fungi and bacterial growth counts observed in the \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e ssample after a period of 5 weeks were found to be within acceptable limits for ready-to-eat foods (International Commission on Microbial Specifications for Foods, 1996)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Fungi and Microbial count of \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e flour blends.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWK1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWk28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWk35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Fungi count\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Bacterial count\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Fungi count\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Bacterial count\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Fungi count\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Bacterial count\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eControl\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.55x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.66x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.75x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCSF1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.85x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.94x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.86x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCSF2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.94x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.97x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.01x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCSF3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.89x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.11x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.12x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eBlending cassava with OFSP at optimal ratios (particularly 80:20) enhances the nutritional profile, storage stability, and consumer acceptability of \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e flour. This study contributes to United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), by enhancing the nutritional quality of \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e staple and contributing to recommended dietary allowances for both adults and children. OFSP serves as a functional ingredient. The 80:20 cassava-OFSP blend (CSF2) demonstrated optimal nutritional enhancement (high carotenoids, fiber), and desirable pasting properties. This blend effectively addresses vitamin A deficiency yet still maintains traditional \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e characteristics. The microbial count of the fufu samples remained within a safe limit after a period of 5 weeks. Future work should explore industrial-scale production and consumer adoption strategies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTransparency statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lead author Godswill Kodili Elemuo affirms that this manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study being reported; that no important aspects of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned (and, if relevant) have been explained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe acknowledge our research group assistants who helped us a lot in the laboratory, includingAkpan Precious, Onuobia Nneoma and Obot Daniel.Thanks to all the peer reviewers and editors for their opinions and suggestions and for their support of this research\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eG.K.E and C.O.U. wrote the main manuscript text, J.M.E prepared Tables 1-5 and A.O.U. supervised. All authors reviewed the manuscript\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbano EE, Quayson ET, BosompemM, Quarm M. (2020) β-Carotene-fortified gari: Processing variables effect on nutritional and sensory qualities. \u003cem\u003eJ Food Process Eng.\u003c/em\u003e, 43: e13322. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAgugo UA, Asinobi CO. and Afam-Anene C. (2019). Investigating the nutritional, sensory and storage qualities of substituted mungbean- garri diets. \u003cem\u003eJ. Food Technol Pres.\u003c/em\u003e, 3(1):1\u0026ndash;6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkubor PI. (2019). Evaluation of the quality of instant fufu flours prepared from corn, cassava and soybean flour blends Evaluation of the quality of instant fufu flours prepared from corn, cassava and soybean flour blends. \u003cem\u003eSouth Asian J. Food Technol. 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Protein and Amino Acid Requirements in Human Nutrition: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series 935, Geneva.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYounge S. (2022). Drying Kinetics of Cassava and Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potato and the Physico- Nutritional Characterization of their Composite \u0026lsquo;Fufu\u0026rsquo; Flours (Doctoral dissertation, University of Cape Coast).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-nutrition","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"nutn","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Nutrition](http://bmcnutr.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/nutn/default.aspx","title":"BMC Nutrition","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes, Composite Fufu flour, Nutrient composition, Functional properties, Vitamin A, Pasting properties","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9432823/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9432823/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eCassava-based \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e is widely consumed but nutritionally limited, particularly in micronutrients. Incorporation of orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) may enhance its nutritional value. This study evaluated the nutrient composition, microbial safety, functional properties and contribution to recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of cassava-orange-fleshed sweet potato composite \u003cem\u003efufu\u003c/em\u003e flour for adults and children. Four blends were formulated: CONTROL (100% CF, Control), CSF1 (90% CF:10% OFSPF), CSF2 (80% CF:20% OFSPF), and CSF3 (70% CF:30% OFSPF). Nutrient composition, functional properties, microbial safety, pasting behavior, carotene content, and sensory attributes were analyzed using standard methods. Moisture (5.54\u0026ndash;6.41%), ash (1.05\u0026ndash;2.10%), crude fiber (0.23\u0026ndash;1.91%), fat (1.80\u0026ndash;9.96%), protein (2.02\u0026ndash;7.82%), and carbohydrates (77.60-87.32%) varied significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) across blends. CSF2 (80% CF:20% OFSPF) exhibited the highest carotene content (276.87 \u0026micro;g/g) and overall sensory acceptability. Pasting properties revealed: peak time (46.4\u0026ndash;5.63 s), pasting temperature (74.47\u0026ndash;77.53\u0026deg;C). Peak viscosity (26.0-44.6 RVU), minimum viscosity (12.67-14.83RVU), Ultimate viscosity (18.1\u0026ndash;31.5 RVU), Attenuation value (142.5-354.5 RVU), and regeneration value (63.0-208 BVU). These results indicate that the inclusion of OFSPF modifies starch gelatinization behavior and improves paste stability. Microbial counts remained within safe limits during storage, with sample CSF2 (80% CF:20% OFSPF) and CSF1 (90% CF:10% OFSPF) having no fungal growth at 35 days. The 80:20 CF: OFSPF blend (CSF2) offers optimal nutritional enhancement, and shelf stability. CSF2 (80% CF:20% OFSPF) exhibited the highest carotene content (276.87 \u0026micro;g/g) with meaningful contribution to RDA, particularly vitamin A. This product has potential as a food-based strategy to combat micronutrient deficiencies in vulnerable populations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Nutrient Composition, and Contribution to Recommended Dietary Allowances of Cassava and Orange-fleshed Sweet Potato Fufu Flour Blends for Adults and Children","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-26 17:09:16","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9432823/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-07T20:06:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-02T17:02:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"117404795135815039516450695895121171385","date":"2026-04-29T06:59:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-24T07:03:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"80683195539796638916241813515227067011","date":"2026-04-23T11:05:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-17T07:39:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-17T07:07:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-17T01:05:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-17T01:05:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Nutrition","date":"2026-04-16T03:53:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-nutrition","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"nutn","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Nutrition](http://bmcnutr.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/nutn/default.aspx","title":"BMC Nutrition","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"dbd9fadb-1428-4ea8-8934-fb0e532d44dd","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 26th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-07T20:06:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-02T17:02:14+00:00","index":23,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"117404795135815039516450695895121171385","date":"2026-04-29T06:59:52+00:00","index":22,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-18T03:55:06+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-26 17:09:16","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9432823","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9432823","identity":"rs-9432823","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}