Water, sanitation and hygiene knowledge and practices among undergraduate students in Nigeria: a faculty-based comparative study

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This study assessed WASH knowledge and practices among undergraduate students at the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, Bayelsa State, Nigeria, with a focus on variations across different faculties. Methods A cross-sectional comparative study design was employed among 365 300-level undergraduate students selected using a multistage sampling technique. Data were collected using a structured, self-administered questionnaire assessing WASH knowledge and practices. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25, with descriptive and inferential statistics applied. Chi-square tests were used to determine associations between variables at a 5% level of significance. Results Overall, 71.2% of respondents demonstrated adequate WASH knowledge, while 71.2% exhibited good WASH practices. Students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences had significantly higher knowledge (89.9%) and better practices (89.9%) compared to students from Agriculture (66.7%), Social and Management Sciences (66.7%), and Arts and Education (63.1%). The differences in knowledge (p = 0.003) and practices (p = 0.004) across faculties were statistically significant. Despite the relatively high level of knowledge, gaps were observed in key practices such as consistent handwashing with soap, water treatment before drinking, and proper waste disposal, indicating a disparity between knowledge and practice. Conclusions The study reveals that although WASH knowledge among undergraduate students is relatively high, significant disparities exist across faculties, alongside a persistent gap between knowledge and practice. There is a need for targeted interventions, including the integration of WASH education into general studies programmes, improvement of campus WASH infrastructure, and implementation of behaviour change strategies to promote consistent hygiene practices. WASH knowledge practices undergraduate students university Nigeria Introduction Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are essential determinants of public health and play a central role in the prevention of infectious diseases globally. Inadequate access to safe drinking water, improved sanitation and appropriate hygiene practices contributes substantially to the burden of disease, particularly diarrhoeal illnesses, which remain a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [1]. The World Health Organization estimates that poor WASH conditions account for approximately 829,000 diarrhoeal deaths annually, disproportionately affecting children and young adults [1]. Beyond household and community settings, WASH-related risks are increasingly recognised within educational institutions. Adequate WASH infrastructure and positive hygiene behaviours are critical for disease prevention, well-being and educational participation, especially in environments characterised by shared facilities and high population density. These priorities are reflected in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 6, which seeks to ensure universal access to clean water and sanitation, and its linkages with health, education and reduced inequalities [2]. Evidence indicates that inadequate WASH conditions in educational settings are associated with poor health outcomes, increased absenteeism and reduced academic performance [3]. In Nigeria, several studies have documented gaps between WASH knowledge and hygiene practices among students, particularly at the primary and secondary school levels. Comparative studies have shown that although students may possess adequate knowledge of hygiene principles, actual practices are often constrained by limited access to functional water sources, sanitation facilities and handwashing infrastructure [4,5]. These findings highlight that knowledge alone is insufficient to drive sustained hygiene behaviour in the absence of enabling environmental conditions. Despite growing interest in school WASH, research focusing on tertiary institutions in Nigeria remains limited. Universities present distinct public health challenges due to high population density, shared residential and learning spaces, and frequent interpersonal interactions, which may facilitate the transmission of communicable diseases when WASH conditions are inadequate. Existing evidence from selected Nigerian universities suggests that while basic water and toilet facilities may be available, consistent access to functional handwashing stations and reliable water supply remains inadequate in many institutions [6]. Furthermore, WASH knowledge and practices among university students may vary across academic disciplines. Faculties that incorporate health, environmental or behavioural sciences into their curricula may provide greater exposure to WASH-related concepts, potentially influencing hygiene behaviours. However, such intra-institutional differences have received little empirical attention. Understanding variations in WASH knowledge and practices across faculties is essential for designing targeted and effective interventions within higher education settings. The University of Africa, Toru-Orua, Nigeria, provides an appropriate context for examining these issues. The institution comprises multiple faculties with diverse disciplinary orientations, including Basic and Applied Sciences, Social Sciences, Management Siences, Arts and Education and Agriculture. To date, no published study has systematically compared WASH knowledge and practices across faculties within this university or similar Nigerian tertiary institutions. This study therefore aimed to conduct a comparative assessment of WASH knowledge and practices among undergraduate students across five faculties at the University of Africa, Toru-Orua. The findings are intended to inform faculty-specific strategies for improving hygiene behaviours, strengthening campus WASH infrastructure and enhancing student health outcomes. Methods Study design and setting A cross-sectional comparative study was conducted among undergraduate students at the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. The university is a public tertiary institution comprising five faculties: Basic and Applied Sciences, Social Sciences, Arts, Education and Agriculture. The study was carried out between October, 2025 to January 2026. Area of Study Toru-Orua is a semi-urban community located in Sagbama Local Government Area (LGA) of Bayelsa State, in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The community has an estimated population of over 10,000 inhabitants, predominantly of the Ijaw ethnic group. Toru-Orua lies within a low-lying coastal environment characterized by extensive river networks, creeks, and wetlands, which influence both the livelihood and health conditions of the people. The area experiences a tropical rainforest climate, marked by high humidity, significant rainfall, and relatively stable temperatures throughout the year, with an average annual temperature of approximately 26–28°C. The rainy season typically spans from March to November, often leading to flooding, which can affect sanitation infrastructure and water quality. Toru-Orua is widely known as the host community of the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, a state-owned tertiary institution that attracts students from different parts of the country. The presence of the university has contributed to population growth, increased housing demand, and pressure on existing water and sanitation facilities. Despite these developments, the community faces notable challenges related to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). Access to safe drinking water is inconsistent, with many residents relying on boreholes, wells, and in some cases untreated surface water sources. Sanitation facilities are also inadequate in certain parts of the community, leading to practices such as open defecation and poor waste disposal. These conditions increase the risk of waterborne diseases, particularly during the rainy season. In terms of socio-economic activities, the local economy is primarily driven by agriculture, fishing, and small-scale trading. Common agricultural products include cassava, plantain, and vegetables. The community also has access to primary healthcare facilities and educational institutions, although these services are often limited in capacity relative to the growing population. Overall, Toru-Orua provides a relevant setting for assessing WASH knowledge and practices, particularly among university students, due to the interplay between environmental conditions, infrastructural challenges, and increasing population density. Study population and eligibility criteria The study population consisted of full-time undergraduate students in 300-level across selected faculties at the University of Africa, Toru-Orua in Bayelsa State. These faculties included Basic and Applied Sciences, Social and Management Sciences, Arts and Education, and Agriculture. Students were considered eligible for inclusion if they were duly registered 300-level students of the university, present at the time of data collection, and willing to participate in the study by providing informed consent. Participation was voluntary, and only students who consented were included. Students who were not in 300-level, those on leave of absence, and those who declined participation were excluded from the study. The focus on 300-level students was based on the assumption that they had spent sufficient time within the university environment to have been exposed to and to have developed knowledge and practices related to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). This also ensured a more reliable assessment of WASH-related behaviours within the university setting. Sample size estimation The sample size for this study was calculated using the Leslie Kish formula for estimating a single proportion in descriptive studies. A prevalence of 34.5% for good WASH practices, as reported in a previous study by Ekeleme et al. (7) was used as the reference proportion. After factoring in a 10% non-response rate,the final sample size for the study was 365 participants. Since this study was conducted among undergraduate students in the university, proportional allocation was subsequently used to distribute the sample size across the selected faculties based on their respective student populations. This ensured that each faculty was adequately represented in the study in proportion to its size. The next step involved determining how the calculated sample size would be distributed across the study population. Since this study was conducted among undergraduate students in various faculties in the University, proportional allocation was used to ensure that each faculty was adequately represented. Given that the total number of eligible 300-level students across the four faculties was 393, the adjusted sample size of 365 was distributed proportionately based on the population of students in each faculty. This approach ensured that faculties with larger student populations contributed more respondents to the study, while smaller faculties were still adequately represented. Using proportional allocation, the sample size for each faculty was calculated based on its share of the total student population. This resulted in the selection of 30 students from the Faculty of Agriculture, 89 students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, 135 students from the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, and 111 students from the Faculty of Arts and Education. This sampling strategy ensured that all faculties were fairly represented in proportion to their size, thereby enhancing the validity and generalizability of the study findings while achieving the required total sample size of 365 respondents. Sampling technique A multistage sampling technique was employed to ensure the internal validity and representativeness of the study findings. The sampling process followed a structured three-stage approach. In the first stage, the University of Africa, Toru-Orua in Bayelsa State was purposively selected as the study setting. This selection was based on the study’s objective of assessing water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) knowledge and practices among undergraduate students within a tertiary institution. In the second stage, the four faculties included in the study namely; Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Faculty of Arts and Education, and Faculty of Agriculture were treated as strata. A list of departments within each faculty was obtained and served as the sampling frame. From this list, selected departments were chosen using simple random sampling to ensure unbiased representation across different academic disciplines. In the third stage, only 300-level students from the selected departments were considered eligible for participation. Within each department, students were selected using systematic random sampling from lecture halls. A sampling interval was determined based on the number of students present, and participants were selected accordingly until the allocated sample size for each faculty was achieved. This approach ensured that the selection process was random, representative, and proportionate across faculties. Data collection Data for this study were collected using a structured, self-administered questionnaire. The data collection was conducted between October 2025 and January 2026. The questionnaire was developed based on relevant literature and previously validated WASH assessment tools. It was designed to assess students’ knowledge and practices related to water, sanitation, and hygiene. The instrument comprised three sections: Section A captured socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, Section B assessed WASH knowledge using a structured knowledge scale, and Section C evaluated WASH practices using a practice-based scale. The questionnaire was pretested among undergraduate students in a comparable tertiary institution outside the study area, and minor modifications were made to improve clarity and reliability. To ensure validity, the questionnaire was reviewed by the research supervisor and subject experts for face and content validity. Necessary corrections and modifications were made prior to final administration. Reliability of the instrument was assessed using the test–retest method. The questionnaire was pretested among undergraduate students in a tertiary institution outside the study area but with similar characteristics. The internal consistency of the instrument was determined using Cronbach’s alpha, yielding a reliability coefficient of 0.78, which indicated acceptable reliability. Measurement of variables Knowledge and practice scores were generated by assigning one point to each correct response. Aggregate scores were converted to percentages and categorized as adequate or inadequate using a 50% cut-off. Faculty affiliation was the primary independent variable, while WASH knowledge and practice were the primary outcome variables. Data analysis Data collected from the questionnaires were entered, coded, and cleaned using Microsoft Excel 2016 and subsequently exported to Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0 for analysis. Assessment of students’ knowledge and practices related to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) was based on responses obtained from the structured questionnaire. The instrument contained multiple close-ended questions covering key domains such as water safety, sanitation, hand hygiene, disease prevention, environmental hygiene, and WASH-related practices. Each correct response was assigned a score of 1, while incorrect responses were scored 0. The total knowledge and practice scores were computed by summing the individual responses for each participant. The aggregate scores were then converted to percentages. Based on the percentage scores obtained, respondents were categorized as follows: those who scored less than 50% were classified as having inadequate knowledge/practice, while those who scored 50% and above were classified as having adequate knowledge/practice of WASH. Categorical variables such as faculty, sex, and WASH knowledge and practice levels were summarized using frequencies and percentages. Descriptive statistics were used to present the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, and the findings were displayed in tables. Inferential statistics were performed using the Chi-square (χ²) test to determine the association between faculty affiliation and levels of WASH knowledge and practices among students. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents Table 1 summarizes the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents across the four faculties. The majority of students were within the age group of 21–23 years, with a relatively even distribution across all faculties. Smaller proportions were observed among students aged 18–20 and 24–26 years, while only a few respondents were aged 27 years and above. Female students constituted a slightly higher proportion of the overall study population. However, faculty-based variations were observed: the Faculty of Arts and Education and the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences had a higher proportion of female respondents, whereas the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences and the Faculty of Agriculture recorded relatively higher proportions of male students. Christianity was the predominant religion across all faculties, accounting for the vast majority of respondents. A small proportion of students identified as Muslims or practiced traditional religions, indicating limited but present religious diversity within the study population. In terms of ethnicity, the Ijaw ethnic group was the most represented across all faculties, which reflects the geographical location of the university in the Niger Delta region. Nonetheless, other ethnic groups such as Igbo and respondents from other minority ethnic backgrounds were also represented, particularly within the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences and the Faculty of Arts and Education, suggesting a moderate level of ethnic diversity. Parental education levels showed noticeable variation across faculties. Students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences had a higher proportion of parents with tertiary education, while students in the Faculty of Agriculture more commonly reported parents with secondary or no formal education. The Faculties of Social and Management Sciences and Arts and Education showed a mixed distribution, with substantial proportions of parents having both secondary and tertiary education. Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents Variable Category Agriculture n (%) Basic & Applied Sciences n (%) Social & Management Sciences n (%) Arts & Education n (%) Total n (%) Age (years) 18–20 7 (23.3) 18 (20.2) 28 (20.7) 24 (21.6) 77 (21.1) 21–23 17 (56.7) 54 (60.7) 84 (62.2) 67 (60.4) 222 (60.8) 24–26 5 (16.7) 13 (14.6) 18 (13.3) 16 (14.4) 52 (14.2) ≥ 27 1 (3.3) 4 (4.5) 5 (3.7) 4 (3.6) 14 (3.8) Sex Male 17 (56.7) 48 (53.9) 65 (48.1) 48 (43.2) 178 (48.8) Female 13 (43.3) 41 (46.1) 70 (51.9) 63 (56.8) 187 (51.2) Faculty Agriculture 30 (100.0) - - - 30 (8.2) Basic & Applied Sciences - 89 (100.0) - - 89 (24.4) Social & Management Sciences - - 135 (100.0) - 135 (37.0) Arts & Education - - - 111 (100.0) 111 (30.4) Religion Christianity 28 (93.3) 82 (92.1) 124 (91.9) 103 (92.8) 337 (92.3) Islam 1 (3.3) 4 (4.5) 6 (4.4) 4 (3.6) 15 (4.1) Traditional 1 (3.3) 3 (3.4) 5 (3.7) 4 (3.6) 13 (3.6) Ethnicity Ijaw 24 (80.0) 65 (73.0) 95 (70.4) 78 (70.3) 262 (71.8) Igbo 4 (13.3) 15 (16.9) 25 (18.5) 20 (18.0) 64 (17.5) Others 2 (6.7) 9 (10.1) 15 (11.1) 13 (11.7) 39 (10.7) Parents' Education No formal 5 (16.7) 10 (11.2) 18 (13.3) 15 (13.5) 48 (13.2) Secondary 15 (50.0) 35 (39.3) 60 (44.4) 50 (45.0) 160 (43.8) Tertiary 10 (33.3) 44 (49.5) 57 (42.2) 46 (41.5) 157 (43.0) WASH-related knowledge of the respondents Table 2 presents a comparative summary of students’ knowledge of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) across the four faculties. Overall, a high proportion of respondents demonstrated awareness and understanding of key WASH concepts; however, notable differences were observed between faculties. Students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences consistently showed higher levels of knowledge compared to their counterparts in other faculties. With regard to knowledge of safe drinking water, a majority of respondents (74.5%) correctly identified properly treated and protected piped water as the safest source. This knowledge was highest among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (92.1%), compared to 66.7% in the Faculty of Agriculture, 70.4% in the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, and 67.6% in the Faculty of Arts and Education (p = 0.012). Similarly, when asked about the most effective method of making water safe for drinking, most respondents (78.1%) correctly selected boiling water. Students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences again demonstrated the highest level of knowledge (95.5%), compared to 73.3% in Agriculture, 72.6% in Social and Management Sciences, and 72.1% in Arts and Education. This difference was statistically significant (p = 0.018). Knowledge of diseases associated with contaminated water was generally high, with 82.5% of respondents correctly identifying cholera as a major waterborne disease. The proportion of correct responses was highest among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (97.8%), followed by Agriculture (80.0%), Social and Management Sciences (77.8%), and Arts and Education (76.6%) (p = 0.021). In terms of sanitation knowledge, 87.1% of respondents correctly identified the use of improved toilet facilities as the most effective method of preventing faecal-oral disease transmission. Students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences recorded the highest proportion (96.6%), compared to 83.3% in Agriculture, 85.2% in Social and Management Sciences, and 82.9% in Arts and Education (p = 0.009). Regarding knowledge of the risks associated with open defecation, 79.2% of respondents correctly identified contamination of water sources as a major consequence. This was highest among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (94.4%), compared to 76.7% in Agriculture, 74.1% in Social and Management Sciences, and 73.9% in Arts and Education (p = 0.015). Knowledge of hand hygiene practices was also relatively high among respondents. About 75.1% correctly identified handwashing after using the toilet as the most critical time for hand hygiene. Students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences again had the highest proportion of correct responses (93.3%), compared to 70.0% in Agriculture, 70.4% in Social and Management Sciences, and 67.6% in Arts and Education (p = 0.006). Furthermore, 79.2% of respondents correctly identified washing hands with water and soap as the appropriate method of handwashing, with the highest proportion observed among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (95.5%), compared to 73.3% in Agriculture, 74.1% in Social and Management Sciences, and 73.9% in Arts and Education (p = 0.004). In addition, 72.3% of respondents correctly reported that handwashing should last for at least 20 seconds. This knowledge was highest among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (92.1%), compared to 66.7% in Agriculture, 66.7% in Social and Management Sciences, and 64.9% in Arts and Education (p = 0.011). Table 2 WASH-related knowledge of respondents by faculty (n = 365) Variable Response Agriculture n (%) Basic & Applied Sciences n (%) Social & Management Sciences n (%) Arts & Education n (%) Total n (%) p-value Safest source of drinking water Properly treated piped water 20 (66.7) 82 (92.1) 95 (70.4) 75 (67.6) 272 (74.5) 0.012 Others 10 (33.3) 7 (7.9) 40 (29.6) 36 (32.4) 93 (25.5) Most effective method of making water safe Boiling water 22 (73.3) 85 (95.5) 98 (72.6) 80 (72.1) 285 (78.1) 0.018 Others 8 (26.7) 4 (4.5) 37 (27.4) 31 (27.9) 80 (21.9) Disease caused by contaminated water Cholera 24 (80.0) 87 (97.8) 105 (77.8) 85 (76.6) 301 (82.5) 0.021 Others 6 (20.0) 2 (2.2) 30 (22.2) 26 (23.4) 64 (17.5) Best sanitation practice Use of improved toilet 25 (83.3) 86 (96.6) 115 (85.2) 92 (82.9) 318 (87.1) 0.009 Others 5 (16.7) 3 (3.4) 20 (14.8) 19 (17.1) 47 (12.9) Major risk of open defecation Contamination of water sources 23 (76.7) 84 (94.4) 100 (74.1) 82 (73.9) 289 (79.2) 0.015 Others 7 (23.3) 5 (5.6) 35 (25.9) 29 (26.1) 76 (20.8) Most critical time for handwashing After using the toilet 21 (70.0) 83 (93.3) 95 (70.4) 75 (67.6) 274 (75.1) 0.006 Others 9 (30.0) 6 (6.7) 40 (29.6) 36 (32.4) 91 (24.9) Correct handwashing method Water and soap 22 (73.3) 85 (95.5) 100 (74.1) 82 (73.9) 289 (79.2) 0.004 Others 8 (26.7) 4 (4.5) 35 (25.9) 29 (26.1) 76 (20.8) Duration of handwashing At least 20 seconds 20 (66.7) 82 (92.1) 90 (66.7) 72 (64.9) 264 (72.3) 0.011 Others 10 (33.3) 7 (7.9) 45 (33.3) 39 (35.1) 101 (27.7) Overall WASH knowledge of the respondents Table 3 presents the overall level of WASH knowledge among respondents across the four faculties. Overall, the majority of respondents demonstrated adequate knowledge of water, sanitation, and hygiene, with 71.2% classified as having adequate knowledge, while 28.8% had inadequate knowledge. Across the faculties, students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences had the highest proportion of respondents with adequate knowledge (89.9%), followed by students in the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences (66.7%) and the Faculty of Agriculture (66.7%). The lowest proportion of adequate knowledge was observed among students in the Faculty of Arts and Education (63.1%). Conversely, inadequate knowledge was more prevalent among students in the Faculty of Arts and Education (36.9%) and the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences (33.3%), compared to the Faculty of Agriculture (33.3%) and the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (10.1%), which recorded the lowest proportion of respondents with inadequate knowledge. The observed differences in overall WASH knowledge across faculties were statistically significant (p = 0.003), indicating that faculty affiliation was significantly associated with students’ level of WASH knowledge. Table 3 Overall level of WASH knowledge among respondents by faculty (n = 365) Faculty Adequate Knowledge n (%) Inadequate Knowledge n (%) Total n (%) p-value Agriculture 20 (66.7) 10 (33.3) 30 (100.0) 0.005 Basic & Applied Sciences 80 (89.9) 9 (10.1) 89 (100.0) 0.004 Social & Management Sciences 90 (66.7) 45 (33.3) 135 (100.0) 0.006 Arts & Education 70 (63.1) 41 (36.9) 111 (100.0) 0.007 Total 260 (71.2) 105 (28.8) 365 (100.0) 0.022 WASH-related practices of the respondents Table 4 presents the distribution of WASH practices among respondents across the four faculties. Overall, a majority of students demonstrated good WASH practices; however, notable differences were observed between faculties. Students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences consistently exhibited better WASH practices compared to their counterparts in other faculties. With respect to drinking water practices, 76.4% of respondents reported that they usually consumed treated or safe water. This practice was most common among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (91.0%), compared to 70.0% in Agriculture, 75.6% in Social and Management Sciences, and 71.2% in Arts and Education (p = 0.014). Regarding water treatment practices, 72.9% of respondents reported that they treated water before drinking, with boiling being the most commonly used method. Students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences demonstrated the highest adherence (89.9%), compared to 66.7% in Agriculture, 70.4% in Social and Management Sciences, and 68.5% in Arts and Education (p = 0.021). In terms of sanitation practices, 88.5% of respondents reported consistent use of toilet facilities, with the highest proportion observed among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (96.6%). Lower proportions were recorded in Agriculture (83.3%), Social and Management Sciences (87.4%), and Arts and Education (85.6%) (p = 0.018). Hand hygiene practices were also assessed. Approximately 74.8% of respondents reported washing their hands with soap after using the toilet. This practice was most prevalent among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (92.1%), compared to 70.0% in Agriculture, 72.6% in Social and Management Sciences, and 71.2% in Arts and Education (p = 0.009). Furthermore, 70.7% of respondents reported washing their hands before eating, with students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences again demonstrating the highest compliance (88.8%), compared to 63.3% in Agriculture, 68.1% in Social and Management Sciences, and 67.6% in Arts and Education (p = 0.017). With regard to environmental hygiene practices, 73.2% of respondents reported proper disposal of waste in designated bins. This was highest among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (90.0%), compared to 66.7% in Agriculture, 71.9% in Social and Management Sciences, and 70.3% in Arts and Education (p = 0.012). Table 4 WASH-related practices of respondents by faculty (n = 365) Variable Response Agriculture n (%) Basic & Applied Sciences n (%) Social & Management Sciences n (%) Arts & Education n (%) Total n (%) p-value Drinks treated water Yes 21 (70.0) 81 (91.0) 102 (75.6) 79 (71.2) 283 (76.4) 0.014 No 9 (30.0) 8 (9.0) 33 (24.4) 32 (28.8) 82 (23.6) Treats water before drinking Yes 20 (66.7) 80 (89.9) 95 (70.4) 76 (68.5) 266 (72.9) 0.021 No 10 (33.3) 9 (10.1) 40 (29.6) 35 (31.5) 99 (27.1) Uses toilet regularly Yes 25 (83.3) 86 (96.6) 118 (87.4) 95 (85.6) 324 (88.5) 0.018 No 5 (16.7) 3 (3.4) 17 (12.6) 16 (14.4) 41 (11.5) Washes hands after toilet Yes 21 (70.0) 82 (92.1) 98 (72.6) 79 (71.2) 280 (76.7) 0.009 No 9 (30.0) 7 (7.9) 37 (27.4) 32 (28.8) 85 (23.3) Washes hands before eating Yes 19 (63.3) 79 (88.8) 92 (68.1) 75 (67.6) 258 (70.7) 0.017 No 11 (36.7) 10 (11.2) 43 (31.9) 36 (32.4) 107 (29.3) Proper waste disposal Yes 20 (66.7) 80 (90.0) 97 (71.9) 78 (70.3) 275 (75.3) 0.012 No 10 (33.3) 9 (10.0) 38 (28.1) 33 (29.7) 90 (24.7) Overall WASH Practices of the Respondents Table 5 presents the overall level of WASH practices among respondents across the four faculties. Overall, a majority of respondents demonstrated good WASH practices, with 71.2% classified as having good practices, while 28.8% exhibited poor practices. Across the faculties, students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences recorded the highest proportion of respondents with good WASH practices (89.9%), followed by students in the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences (66.7%) and the Faculty of Agriculture (66.7%). The lowest proportion of good practices was observed among students in the Faculty of Arts and Education (63.1%). Conversely, poor WASH practices were more prevalent among students in the Faculty of Arts and Education (36.9%) and the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences (33.3%), compared to the Faculty of Agriculture (33.3%) and the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (10.1%), which had the lowest proportion of respondents with poor practices. The differences observed in overall WASH practices across the faculties were statistically significant (p = 0.004), indicating that faculty affiliation was significantly associated with students’ WASH practices. Table 5 Overall Level of WASH Practices Among Respondents by Faculty (n = 365) Faculty Good Practices n (%) Poor Practices n (%) Total n (%) p-value Agriculture 20 (66.7) 10 (33.3) 30 (100.0) Basic & Applied Sciences 80 (89.9) 9 (10.1) 89 (100.0) Social & Management Sciences 90 (66.7) 45 (33.3) 135 (100.0) Arts & Education 70 (63.1) 41 (36.9) 111 (100.0) Total 260 (71.2) 105 (28.8) 365 (100.0) 0.004 Discussion This study assessed the knowledge and practices of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) among undergraduate students across different faculties in the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, Nigeria. The findings reveal significant variations in both knowledge and practices across faculties, with students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences consistently demonstrating higher WASH knowledge and better hygiene practices compared to students in other faculties. These findings have important public health implications, particularly in the prevention of waterborne diseases such as cholera and other sanitation-related infections, which remain a major burden in Nigeria (1). The study revealed that approximately 71.2% of respondents demonstrated adequate knowledge of WASH, indicating a relatively high level of awareness among university students. This finding is consistent with previous studies conducted among students in Nigeria, which reported moderate to high levels of WASH knowledge among educated populations (4,5). For instance, Bosede et al. (4) reported that a majority of students possessed adequate knowledge of hygiene practices, although variations existed across different groups. Similarly, Otto et al. (5) found that while students were generally knowledgeable about WASH principles, gaps still existed in specific areas of hygiene behaviour. Notably, students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences had significantly higher knowledge levels compared to students in Agriculture, Social and Management Sciences, and Arts and Education. This finding aligns with evidence suggesting that academic exposure to science-based disciplines enhances understanding of health-related concepts (3). Students in science-oriented faculties are more likely to encounter topics related to microbiology, environmental sanitation, and disease prevention, which may explain their superior performance in WASH knowledge assessments. Despite the relatively high level of knowledge observed, this study identified a gap between knowledge and practice. While 71.2% of respondents demonstrated good WASH practices overall, adherence to specific behaviours such as consistent handwashing with soap, water treatment before drinking, and proper waste disposal was comparatively lower. This disparity between knowledge and practice has been widely reported in previous studies, which emphasize that knowledge alone is insufficient to drive behavioural change (4,5). Factors such as availability of facilities, convenience, and environmental conditions often play a critical role in determining whether knowledge is translated into practice. The study further showed that WASH practices were significantly better among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, with a higher proportion reporting safe water consumption, regular handwashing, and proper sanitation behaviours. This finding is consistent with previous research indicating that improved knowledge, when combined with enabling conditions, can positively influence hygiene practices (3). However, students in other faculties, particularly Arts and Education, demonstrated comparatively lower levels of good practices, suggesting that limited exposure to health-related education may affect behavioural outcomes. Hand hygiene practices, although relatively good overall, were not universally adopted. Approximately three-quarters of respondents reported washing their hands with soap after using the toilet, while fewer reported consistent handwashing before eating. Similar patterns have been reported in earlier studies, where handwashing compliance was higher after toilet use than before meals (5). This inconsistency may be due to behavioural habits, perceived risk, or lack of access to handwashing facilities at critical times. In terms of sanitation practices, the majority of respondents reported regular use of toilet facilities; however, a notable proportion still engaged in suboptimal practices. This may reflect infrastructural challenges within the university environment. Ogunokoya (6) reported that although basic sanitation facilities exist in many Nigerian universities, they are often insufficient, poorly maintained, or inconsistently accessible, thereby limiting effective utilization by students. Access to safe drinking water and water treatment practices also varied across faculties. Although a majority of respondents reported consuming treated water, a considerable proportion still did not treat water before drinking. This finding is consistent with previous studies which have shown that even when students are aware of safe water practices, actual compliance is often influenced by convenience and availability of resources (4,7). The reliance on untreated or inadequately treated water poses a significant risk for waterborne diseases, particularly in environments with inconsistent water supply. The statistically significant association observed between faculty affiliation and both WASH knowledge (p = 0.003) and practices (p = 0.004) highlights the influence of academic discipline on health behaviour. This finding underscores the need for a more inclusive approach to health education that targets students across all faculties. Integrating WASH education into general studies programmes may help bridge the gap observed between science and non-science students. Overall, this study reinforces existing evidence that achieving optimal WASH outcomes requires not only knowledge but also access to adequate infrastructure and supportive environments. While the level of awareness among students is encouraging, the persistence of gaps in practice indicates the need for targeted interventions aimed at promoting sustained behaviour change. Conclusion This study demonstrates that undergraduate students at the University of Africa, Toru-Orua possess relatively high levels of knowledge and moderately good practices regarding water, sanitation, and hygiene. However, significant disparities exist across faculties, with students in science-based disciplines exhibiting better knowledge and practices than those in non-science faculties. The findings also reveal a clear gap between knowledge and practice, reinforcing evidence from previous studies that awareness alone is insufficient to drive sustained hygiene behaviour without adequate environmental support and infrastructure. This underscores the need for a comprehensive and integrated approach to improving WASH outcomes in university settings. To address these gaps, targeted interventions should be implemented, including the integration of WASH education into general studies programmes, promotion of behaviour change communication strategies, and improvement of campus WASH infrastructure such as access to safe water, functional toilets, and handwashing facilities. In conclusion, improving WASH knowledge and practices among university students is essential for reducing the risk of communicable diseases and promoting a healthy campus environment. A combination of education, infrastructure development, and institutional support is required to achieve sustainable improvements in hygiene behaviour. Recommendations The findings of this study highlight the need for a more inclusive and structured approach to WASH education across all academic disciplines. Given the significant variation in knowledge levels between faculties, it is recommended that water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) concepts be integrated into general studies curricula for all undergraduate students. This will ensure that students in non-science faculties, who demonstrated comparatively lower knowledge levels, are adequately equipped with essential public health information necessary for disease prevention and healthy living. In addition, the observed gap between knowledge and actual hygiene practices underscores the importance of improving campus WASH infrastructure. The university administration should prioritize the provision of reliable access to safe water, functional and well-maintained sanitation facilities, and accessible handwashing stations with soap at strategic locations across the campus. Enhancing these environmental conditions will create an enabling environment that supports and reinforces positive hygiene behaviours among students. Furthermore, there is a need for sustained behaviour change interventions to promote the consistent adoption of proper WASH practices. Regular health education campaigns, peer-led initiatives, and practical demonstrations should be implemented to encourage students to translate their knowledge into daily practice. Such interventions should particularly target faculties with lower levels of compliance, thereby ensuring a more uniform improvement in hygiene practices across the university. Limitations This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the cross-sectional design of the study limits the ability to establish causal relationships between faculty affiliation and WASH knowledge or practices. While associations were identified, it is not possible to determine whether differences in academic discipline directly influence hygiene behaviours or whether other underlying factors contribute to these variations. Secondly, the study relied on self-reported data obtained through questionnaires, which may be subject to social desirability and recall bias. Respondents may have overreported good hygiene practices such as handwashing or safe water consumption in an attempt to provide socially acceptable answers, thereby potentially overestimating the true level of WASH practices among students. Finally, the study was conducted in a single tertiary institution and focused only on 300-level students, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other universities or student populations. Differences in institutional infrastructure, cultural practices, and environmental conditions across other settings may influence WASH knowledge and behaviours. Therefore, caution should be exercised when extrapolating the results beyond the study setting. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations, including the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to inclusion in the study. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The author declares that there are no competing interests. Funding The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Author Contribution E.A. Okaba conceptualized and designed the study, conducted data collection and analysis, and drafted the manuscript. The author read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The author appreciates the support of the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, and all students who participated in the study. Availability of data and materials The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References World Health Organization. Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) . Geneva: WHO; 2023. United Nations. Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development . New York: United Nations; 2015. Freeman MC, Garn JV, Sclar GD, et al. The impact of school water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions on health and education outcomes: a systematic review. Int J Hyg Environ Health . 2017;220(6):928–49. Bosede AO, Enwenonu RC, Udensi JU, et al. A comparative assessment of WASH adherence among public and private school students in a rural district in Nigeria. BMC Public Health . 2025;25:xxxx. Otto E, Opatoki A, Luyi D. Water, sanitation and hygiene practice among secondary school students in Ijebu Ode, Nigeria. J Environ Sci Econ . 2022;1(3):15–26. Ogunokoya IT. Assessment of water, sanitation and hygiene in selected public universities, South-West Nigeria . Abeokuta: Federal University of Agriculture; 2024. Ekeleme NC, Egwuonwu KI, Iwuoha EC, Ogunsola AS. Assessment of hand washing knowledge and practice among secondary school students in Aba, Abia State. Abia State University Medical Students’ Association Journal. 2018;11(1). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files facultybasedquestionnaire.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 02 May, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 24 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 13 Apr, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 10 Apr, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 10 Apr, 2026 First submitted to journal 09 Apr, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9372062","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":633942482,"identity":"7621fe08-9ce7-497a-84a4-7319a92082d4","order_by":0,"name":"Ebikonbowei Alexis Okaba","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAzklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACHgY2EMXYDyITCkjRMrMBpMWAFC0bDoAoYrTw8xx+9vBnjo3s5vOrEz88MGCQ5xc7gF+LZG+buTHvtjTjbTfebpYAOsxw5uwE/FoMzjOYSTNuO5y47cbZDSAtCQa3CWph/yb5c9v/xM0zzm7+QZyWsz1mErzbDiRu4O/dRpwtkj1nyoF+STaecYN3m0WCgQRhv/DzpG97+HObnWx//9nNN39U2MjzSxPQggASYJUSxCoH23eAFNWjYBSMglEwkgAAruZHGdWOAHMAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Africa","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ebikonbowei","middleName":"Alexis","lastName":"Okaba","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-09 19:38:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9372062/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9372062/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108546801,"identity":"7a7dcc42-320d-4c9b-8f3d-4c634ba62920","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 20:54:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":473737,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9372062/v1/fda00adc-667b-4db0-858a-bff93df8c79c.pdf"},{"id":108546726,"identity":"c2e785b8-0eb5-41ff-a059-ec458f03014e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 20:54:17","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":16967,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"facultybasedquestionnaire.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9372062/v1/b84fd49d1fcb10dc549dc42a.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Water, sanitation and hygiene knowledge and practices among undergraduate students in Nigeria: a faculty-based comparative study","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are essential determinants of public health and play a central role in the prevention of infectious diseases globally. Inadequate access to safe drinking water, improved sanitation and appropriate hygiene practices contributes substantially to the burden of disease, particularly diarrhoeal illnesses, which remain a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [1]. The World Health Organization estimates that poor WASH conditions account for approximately 829,000 diarrhoeal deaths annually, disproportionately affecting children and young adults [1].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond household and community settings, WASH-related risks are increasingly recognised within educational institutions. Adequate WASH infrastructure and positive hygiene behaviours are critical for disease prevention, well-being and educational participation, especially in environments characterised by shared facilities and high population density. These priorities are reflected in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 6, which seeks to ensure universal access to clean water and sanitation, and its linkages with health, education and reduced inequalities [2]. Evidence indicates that inadequate WASH conditions in educational settings are associated with poor health outcomes, increased absenteeism and reduced academic performance [3].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Nigeria, several studies have documented gaps between WASH knowledge and hygiene practices among students, particularly at the primary and secondary school levels. Comparative studies have shown that although students may possess adequate knowledge of hygiene principles, actual practices are often constrained by limited access to functional water sources, sanitation facilities and handwashing infrastructure [4,5]. These findings highlight that knowledge alone is insufficient to drive sustained hygiene behaviour in the absence of enabling environmental conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite growing interest in school WASH, research focusing on tertiary institutions in Nigeria remains limited. Universities present distinct public health challenges due to high population density, shared residential and learning spaces, and frequent interpersonal interactions, which may facilitate the transmission of communicable diseases when WASH conditions are inadequate. Existing evidence from selected Nigerian universities suggests that while basic water and toilet facilities may be available, consistent access to functional handwashing stations and reliable water supply remains inadequate in many institutions [6].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, WASH knowledge and practices among university students may vary across academic disciplines. Faculties that incorporate health, environmental or behavioural sciences into their curricula may provide greater exposure to WASH-related concepts, potentially influencing hygiene behaviours. However, such intra-institutional differences have received little empirical attention. Understanding variations in WASH knowledge and practices across faculties is essential for designing targeted and effective interventions within higher education settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe University of Africa, Toru-Orua, Nigeria, provides an appropriate context for examining these issues. The institution comprises multiple faculties with diverse disciplinary orientations, including Basic and Applied Sciences, Social Sciences, Management Siences, Arts and Education and Agriculture. To date, no published study has systematically compared WASH knowledge and practices across faculties within this university or similar Nigerian tertiary institutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study therefore aimed to conduct a comparative assessment of WASH knowledge and practices among undergraduate students across five faculties at the University of Africa, Toru-Orua. The findings are intended to inform faculty-specific strategies for improving hygiene behaviours, strengthening campus WASH infrastructure and enhancing student health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy design and setting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional comparative study was conducted among undergraduate students at the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. The university is a public tertiary institution comprising five faculties: Basic and Applied Sciences, Social Sciences, Arts, Education and Agriculture. The study was carried out between October, 2025 to January 2026.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eArea of Study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eToru-Orua is a semi-urban community located in Sagbama Local Government Area (LGA) of Bayelsa State, in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The community has an estimated population of over 10,000 inhabitants, predominantly of the Ijaw ethnic group. Toru-Orua lies within a low-lying coastal environment characterized by extensive river networks, creeks, and wetlands, which influence both the livelihood and health conditions of the people.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe area experiences a tropical rainforest climate, marked by high humidity, significant rainfall, and relatively stable temperatures throughout the year, with an average annual temperature of approximately 26\u0026ndash;28\u0026deg;C. The rainy season typically spans from March to November, often leading to flooding, which can affect sanitation infrastructure and water quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eToru-Orua is widely known as the host community of the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, a state-owned tertiary institution that attracts students from different parts of the country. The presence of the university has contributed to population growth, increased housing demand, and pressure on existing water and sanitation facilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these developments, the community faces notable challenges related to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). Access to safe drinking water is inconsistent, with many residents relying on boreholes, wells, and in some cases untreated surface water sources. Sanitation facilities are also inadequate in certain parts of the community, leading to practices such as open defecation and poor waste disposal. These conditions increase the risk of waterborne diseases, particularly during the rainy season.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of socio-economic activities, the local economy is primarily driven by agriculture, fishing, and small-scale trading. Common agricultural products include cassava, plantain, and vegetables. The community also has access to primary healthcare facilities and educational institutions, although these services are often limited in capacity relative to the growing population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, Toru-Orua provides a relevant setting for assessing WASH knowledge and practices, particularly among university students, due to the interplay between environmental conditions, infrastructural challenges, and increasing population density.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy population and eligibility criteria\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study population consisted of full-time undergraduate students in 300-level across selected faculties at the University of Africa, Toru-Orua in Bayelsa State. These faculties included Basic and Applied Sciences, Social and Management Sciences, Arts and Education, and Agriculture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents were considered eligible for inclusion if they were duly registered 300-level students of the university, present at the time of data collection, and willing to participate in the study by providing informed consent. Participation was voluntary, and only students who consented were included.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents who were not in 300-level, those on leave of absence, and those who declined participation were excluded from the study. The focus on 300-level students was based on the assumption that they had spent sufficient time within the university environment to have been exposed to and to have developed knowledge and practices related to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). This also ensured a more reliable assessment of WASH-related behaviours within the university setting.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample size estimation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sample size for this study was calculated using the Leslie Kish formula for estimating a single proportion in descriptive studies. A prevalence of 34.5% for good WASH practices, as reported in a previous study by Ekeleme et al. (7) was used as the reference proportion. After factoring in a 10% non-response rate,the final sample size for the study was 365 participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince this study was conducted among undergraduate students in the university, proportional allocation was subsequently used to distribute the sample size across the selected faculties based on their respective student populations. This ensured that each faculty was adequately represented in the study in proportion to its size.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe next step involved determining how the calculated sample size would be distributed across the study population. Since this study was conducted among undergraduate students in various faculties in the University, proportional allocation was used to ensure that each faculty was adequately represented.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven that the total number of eligible 300-level students across the four faculties was 393, the adjusted sample size of 365 was distributed proportionately based on the population of students in each faculty. This approach ensured that faculties with larger student populations contributed more respondents to the study, while smaller faculties were still adequately represented.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing proportional allocation, the sample size for each faculty was calculated based on its share of the total student population. This resulted in the selection of 30 students from the Faculty of Agriculture, 89 students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, 135 students from the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, and 111 students from the Faculty of Arts and Education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis sampling strategy ensured that all faculties were fairly represented in proportion to their size, thereby enhancing the validity and generalizability of the study findings while achieving the required total sample size of 365 respondents.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSampling technique\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA multistage sampling technique was employed to ensure the internal validity and representativeness of the study findings. The sampling process followed a structured three-stage approach.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the first stage, the University of Africa, Toru-Orua in Bayelsa State was purposively selected as the study setting. This selection was based on the study\u0026rsquo;s objective of assessing water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) knowledge and practices among undergraduate students within a tertiary institution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the second stage, the four faculties included in the study namely; Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Faculty of Arts and Education, and Faculty of Agriculture were treated as strata. A list of departments within each faculty was obtained and served as the sampling frame. From this list, selected departments were chosen using simple random sampling to ensure unbiased representation across different academic disciplines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the third stage, only 300-level students from the selected departments were considered eligible for participation. Within each department, students were selected using systematic random sampling from lecture halls. A sampling interval was determined based on the number of students present, and participants were selected accordingly until the allocated sample size for each faculty was achieved. This approach ensured that the selection process was random, representative, and proportionate across faculties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData for this study were collected using a structured, self-administered questionnaire. The data collection was conducted between October 2025 and January 2026.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire was developed based on relevant literature and previously validated WASH assessment tools. It was designed to assess students\u0026rsquo; knowledge and practices related to water, sanitation, and hygiene. The instrument comprised three sections: Section A captured socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, Section B assessed WASH knowledge using a structured knowledge scale, and Section C evaluated WASH practices using a practice-based scale. The questionnaire was pretested among undergraduate students in a comparable tertiary institution outside the study area, and minor modifications were made to improve clarity and reliability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ensure validity, the questionnaire was reviewed by the research supervisor and subject experts for face and content validity. Necessary corrections and modifications were made prior to final administration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReliability of the instrument was assessed using the test\u0026ndash;retest method. The questionnaire was pretested among undergraduate students in a tertiary institution outside the study area but with similar characteristics. The internal consistency of the instrument was determined using Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha, yielding a reliability coefficient of 0.78, which indicated acceptable reliability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasurement of variables\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKnowledge and practice scores were generated by assigning one point to each correct response. Aggregate scores were converted to percentages and categorized as \u003cem\u003eadequate\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003einadequate\u003c/em\u003e using a 50% cut-off. Faculty affiliation was the primary independent variable, while WASH knowledge and practice were the primary outcome variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData collected from the questionnaires were entered, coded, and cleaned using Microsoft Excel 2016 and subsequently exported to Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0 for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssessment of students\u0026rsquo; knowledge and practices related to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) was based on responses obtained from the structured questionnaire. The instrument contained multiple close-ended questions covering key domains such as water safety, sanitation, hand hygiene, disease prevention, environmental hygiene, and WASH-related practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach correct response was assigned a score of 1, while incorrect responses were scored 0. The total knowledge and practice scores were computed by summing the individual responses for each participant. The aggregate scores were then converted to percentages.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the percentage scores obtained, respondents were categorized as follows: those who scored less than 50% were classified as having inadequate knowledge/practice, while those who scored 50% and above were classified as having adequate knowledge/practice of WASH.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategorical variables such as faculty, sex, and WASH knowledge and practice levels were summarized using frequencies and percentages. Descriptive statistics were used to present the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, and the findings were displayed in tables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInferential statistics were performed using the Chi-square (χ\u0026sup2;) test to determine the association between faculty affiliation and levels of WASH knowledge and practices among students. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e "},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSocio-demographic characteristics of the respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e summarizes the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents across the four faculties. The majority of students were within the age group of 21\u0026ndash;23 years, with a relatively even distribution across all faculties. Smaller proportions were observed among students aged 18\u0026ndash;20 and 24\u0026ndash;26 years, while only a few respondents were aged 27 years and above.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale students constituted a slightly higher proportion of the overall study population. However, faculty-based variations were observed: the Faculty of Arts and Education and the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences had a higher proportion of female respondents, whereas the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences and the Faculty of Agriculture recorded relatively higher proportions of male students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChristianity was the predominant religion across all faculties, accounting for the vast majority of respondents. A small proportion of students identified as Muslims or practiced traditional religions, indicating limited but present religious diversity within the study population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of ethnicity, the Ijaw ethnic group was the most represented across all faculties, which reflects the geographical location of the university in the Niger Delta region. Nonetheless, other ethnic groups such as Igbo and respondents from other minority ethnic backgrounds were also represented, particularly within the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences and the Faculty of Arts and Education, suggesting a moderate level of ethnic diversity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParental education levels showed noticeable variation across faculties. Students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences had a higher proportion of parents with tertiary education, while students in the Faculty of Agriculture more commonly reported parents with secondary or no formal education. The Faculties of Social and Management Sciences and Arts and Education showed a mixed distribution, with substantial proportions of parents having both secondary and tertiary education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocio-demographic characteristics of the respondents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgriculture n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic \u0026amp; Applied Sciences n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial \u0026amp; Management Sciences n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArts \u0026amp; Education n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (23.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 (20.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28 (20.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 (21.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77 (21.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 (56.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54 (60.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84 (62.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67 (60.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e222 (60.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u0026ndash;26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (16.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (14.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 (13.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16 (14.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52 (14.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (3.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (4.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (3.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (3.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (3.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 (56.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48 (53.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65 (48.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48 (43.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e178 (48.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (43.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41 (46.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (51.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63 (56.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e187 (51.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFaculty\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgriculture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (8.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic \u0026amp; Applied Sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89 (24.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial \u0026amp; Management Sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135 (37.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArts \u0026amp; Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111 (30.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChristianity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28 (93.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (92.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e124 (91.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103 (92.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e337 (92.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIslam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (3.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (4.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 (4.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (3.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 (4.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (3.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (3.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (3.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (3.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (3.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIjaw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 (80.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65 (73.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95 (70.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78 (70.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e262 (71.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIgbo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (13.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 (16.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 (18.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (18.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64 (17.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 (6.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (10.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 (11.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (11.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39 (10.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParents' Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo formal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (16.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (11.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 (13.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 (13.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48 (13.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 (50.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 (39.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 (44.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 (45.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160 (43.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTertiary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44 (49.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57 (42.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46 (41.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e157 (43.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWASH-related knowledge of the respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents a comparative summary of students\u0026rsquo; knowledge of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) across the four faculties. Overall, a high proportion of respondents demonstrated awareness and understanding of key WASH concepts; however, notable differences were observed between faculties. Students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences consistently showed higher levels of knowledge compared to their counterparts in other faculties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith regard to knowledge of safe drinking water, a majority of respondents (74.5%) correctly identified properly treated and protected piped water as the safest source. This knowledge was highest among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (92.1%), compared to 66.7% in the Faculty of Agriculture, 70.4% in the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, and 67.6% in the Faculty of Arts and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.012).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, when asked about the most effective method of making water safe for drinking, most respondents (78.1%) correctly selected boiling water. Students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences again demonstrated the highest level of knowledge (95.5%), compared to 73.3% in Agriculture, 72.6% in Social and Management Sciences, and 72.1% in Arts and Education. This difference was statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnowledge of diseases associated with contaminated water was generally high, with 82.5% of respondents correctly identifying cholera as a major waterborne disease. The proportion of correct responses was highest among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (97.8%), followed by Agriculture (80.0%), Social and Management Sciences (77.8%), and Arts and Education (76.6%) (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of sanitation knowledge, 87.1% of respondents correctly identified the use of improved toilet facilities as the most effective method of preventing faecal-oral disease transmission. Students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences recorded the highest proportion (96.6%), compared to 83.3% in Agriculture, 85.2% in Social and Management Sciences, and 82.9% in Arts and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.009).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding knowledge of the risks associated with open defecation, 79.2% of respondents correctly identified contamination of water sources as a major consequence. This was highest among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (94.4%), compared to 76.7% in Agriculture, 74.1% in Social and Management Sciences, and 73.9% in Arts and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnowledge of hand hygiene practices was also relatively high among respondents. About 75.1% correctly identified handwashing after using the toilet as the most critical time for hand hygiene. Students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences again had the highest proportion of correct responses (93.3%), compared to 70.0% in Agriculture, 70.4% in Social and Management Sciences, and 67.6% in Arts and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, 79.2% of respondents correctly identified washing hands with water and soap as the appropriate method of handwashing, with the highest proportion observed among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (95.5%), compared to 73.3% in Agriculture, 74.1% in Social and Management Sciences, and 73.9% in Arts and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, 72.3% of respondents correctly reported that handwashing should last for at least 20 seconds. This knowledge was highest among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (92.1%), compared to 66.7% in Agriculture, 66.7% in Social and Management Sciences, and 64.9% in Arts and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.011).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWASH-related knowledge of respondents by faculty (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;365)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgriculture\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic \u0026amp; Applied Sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial \u0026amp; Management Sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArts \u0026amp; Education n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSafest source of drinking water\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProperly treated piped water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (66.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (92.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95 (70.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 (67.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e272 (74.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (7.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (29.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36 (32.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93 (25.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMost effective method of making water safe\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoiling water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22 (73.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85 (95.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98 (72.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (72.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e285 (78.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (26.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (4.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37 (27.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31 (27.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (21.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDisease caused by contaminated water\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCholera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 (80.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87 (97.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105 (77.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85 (76.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e301 (82.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 (20.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 (2.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (22.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26 (23.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64 (17.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBest sanitation practice\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of improved toilet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 (83.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86 (96.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115 (85.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92 (82.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e318 (87.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (16.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (3.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (14.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (17.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47 (12.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMajor risk of open defecation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContamination of water sources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23 (76.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84 (94.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 (74.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (73.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289 (79.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (23.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (5.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 (25.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29 (26.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76 (20.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMost critical time for handwashing\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter using the toilet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 (70.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83 (93.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95 (70.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 (67.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e274 (75.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (30.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 (6.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (29.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36 (32.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91 (24.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCorrect handwashing method\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater and soap\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22 (73.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85 (95.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 (74.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (73.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289 (79.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (26.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (4.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 (25.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29 (26.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76 (20.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDuration of handwashing\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt least 20 seconds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (66.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (92.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90 (66.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72 (64.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e264 (72.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (7.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39 (35.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101 (27.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOverall WASH knowledge of the respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the overall level of WASH knowledge among respondents across the four faculties. Overall, the majority of respondents demonstrated adequate knowledge of water, sanitation, and hygiene, with 71.2% classified as having adequate knowledge, while 28.8% had inadequate knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross the faculties, students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences had the highest proportion of respondents with adequate knowledge (89.9%), followed by students in the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences (66.7%) and the Faculty of Agriculture (66.7%). The lowest proportion of adequate knowledge was observed among students in the Faculty of Arts and Education (63.1%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, inadequate knowledge was more prevalent among students in the Faculty of Arts and Education (36.9%) and the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences (33.3%), compared to the Faculty of Agriculture (33.3%) and the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (10.1%), which recorded the lowest proportion of respondents with inadequate knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observed differences in overall WASH knowledge across faculties were statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003), indicating that faculty affiliation was significantly associated with students\u0026rsquo; level of WASH knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall level of WASH knowledge among respondents by faculty (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;365)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFaculty\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdequate Knowledge n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInadequate Knowledge n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAgriculture\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (66.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBasic \u0026amp; Applied Sciences\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (89.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (10.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSocial \u0026amp; Management Sciences\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90 (66.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eArts \u0026amp; Education\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (63.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41 (36.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e260 (71.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105 (28.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e365 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWASH-related practices of the respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the distribution of WASH practices among respondents across the four faculties. Overall, a majority of students demonstrated good WASH practices; however, notable differences were observed between faculties. Students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences consistently exhibited better WASH practices compared to their counterparts in other faculties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith respect to drinking water practices, 76.4% of respondents reported that they usually consumed treated or safe water. This practice was most common among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (91.0%), compared to 70.0% in Agriculture, 75.6% in Social and Management Sciences, and 71.2% in Arts and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.014).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding water treatment practices, 72.9% of respondents reported that they treated water before drinking, with boiling being the most commonly used method. Students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences demonstrated the highest adherence (89.9%), compared to 66.7% in Agriculture, 70.4% in Social and Management Sciences, and 68.5% in Arts and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of sanitation practices, 88.5% of respondents reported consistent use of toilet facilities, with the highest proportion observed among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (96.6%). Lower proportions were recorded in Agriculture (83.3%), Social and Management Sciences (87.4%), and Arts and Education (85.6%) (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHand hygiene practices were also assessed. Approximately 74.8% of respondents reported washing their hands with soap after using the toilet. This practice was most prevalent among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (92.1%), compared to 70.0% in Agriculture, 72.6% in Social and Management Sciences, and 71.2% in Arts and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.009).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, 70.7% of respondents reported washing their hands before eating, with students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences again demonstrating the highest compliance (88.8%), compared to 63.3% in Agriculture, 68.1% in Social and Management Sciences, and 67.6% in Arts and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith regard to environmental hygiene practices, 73.2% of respondents reported proper disposal of waste in designated bins. This was highest among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (90.0%), compared to 66.7% in Agriculture, 71.9% in Social and Management Sciences, and 70.3% in Arts and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.012).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWASH-related practices of respondents by faculty (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;365)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgriculture n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic \u0026amp; Applied Sciences n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial \u0026amp; Management Sciences n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArts \u0026amp; Education n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDrinks treated water\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 (70.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81 (91.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102 (75.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79 (71.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e283 (76.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (30.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (9.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33 (24.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32 (28.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (23.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTreats water before drinking\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (66.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (89.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95 (70.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76 (68.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e266 (72.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (10.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (29.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35 (31.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99 (27.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUses toilet regularly\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 (83.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86 (96.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118 (87.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95 (85.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e324 (88.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (16.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (3.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 (12.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16 (14.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41 (11.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWashes hands after toilet\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 (70.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (92.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98 (72.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79 (71.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e280 (76.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (30.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (7.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37 (27.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32 (28.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85 (23.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWashes hands before eating\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (63.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79 (88.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92 (68.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 (67.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e258 (70.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (36.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (11.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43 (31.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36 (32.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e107 (29.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProper waste disposal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (66.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (90.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97 (71.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78 (70.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e275 (75.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (10.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38 (28.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33 (29.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90 (24.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOverall WASH Practices of the Respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e presents the overall level of WASH practices among respondents across the four faculties. Overall, a majority of respondents demonstrated good WASH practices, with 71.2% classified as having good practices, while 28.8% exhibited poor practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross the faculties, students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences recorded the highest proportion of respondents with good WASH practices (89.9%), followed by students in the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences (66.7%) and the Faculty of Agriculture (66.7%). The lowest proportion of good practices was observed among students in the Faculty of Arts and Education (63.1%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, poor WASH practices were more prevalent among students in the Faculty of Arts and Education (36.9%) and the Faculty of Social and Management Sciences (33.3%), compared to the Faculty of Agriculture (33.3%) and the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences (10.1%), which had the lowest proportion of respondents with poor practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe differences observed in overall WASH practices across the faculties were statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004), indicating that faculty affiliation was significantly associated with students\u0026rsquo; WASH practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall Level of WASH Practices Among Respondents by Faculty (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;365)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFaculty\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGood Practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor Practices n\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgriculture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 (66.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic \u0026amp; Applied Sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (89.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (10.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial \u0026amp; Management Sciences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90 (66.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArts \u0026amp; Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 (63.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41 (36.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e260 (71.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105 (28.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e365 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study assessed the knowledge and practices of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) among undergraduate students across different faculties in the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, Nigeria. The findings reveal significant variations in both knowledge and practices across faculties, with students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences consistently demonstrating higher WASH knowledge and better hygiene practices compared to students in other faculties. These findings have important public health implications, particularly in the prevention of waterborne diseases such as cholera and other sanitation-related infections, which remain a major burden in Nigeria (1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study revealed that approximately 71.2% of respondents demonstrated adequate knowledge of WASH, indicating a relatively high level of awareness among university students. This finding is consistent with previous studies conducted among students in Nigeria, which reported moderate to high levels of WASH knowledge among educated populations (4,5). For instance, Bosede et al. (4) reported that a majority of students possessed adequate knowledge of hygiene practices, although variations existed across different groups. Similarly, Otto et al. (5) found that while students were generally knowledgeable about WASH principles, gaps still existed in specific areas of hygiene behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotably, students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences had significantly higher knowledge levels compared to students in Agriculture, Social and Management Sciences, and Arts and Education. This finding aligns with evidence suggesting that academic exposure to science-based disciplines enhances understanding of health-related concepts (3). Students in science-oriented faculties are more likely to encounter topics related to microbiology, environmental sanitation, and disease prevention, which may explain their superior performance in WASH knowledge assessments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the relatively high level of knowledge observed, this study identified a gap between knowledge and practice. While 71.2% of respondents demonstrated good WASH practices overall, adherence to specific behaviours such as consistent handwashing with soap, water treatment before drinking, and proper waste disposal was comparatively lower. This disparity between knowledge and practice has been widely reported in previous studies, which emphasize that knowledge alone is insufficient to drive behavioural change (4,5). Factors such as availability of facilities, convenience, and environmental conditions often play a critical role in determining whether knowledge is translated into practice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study further showed that WASH practices were significantly better among students in the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, with a higher proportion reporting safe water consumption, regular handwashing, and proper sanitation behaviours. This finding is consistent with previous research indicating that improved knowledge, when combined with enabling conditions, can positively influence hygiene practices (3). However, students in other faculties, particularly Arts and Education, demonstrated comparatively lower levels of good practices, suggesting that limited exposure to health-related education may affect behavioural outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHand hygiene practices, although relatively good overall, were not universally adopted. Approximately three-quarters of respondents reported washing their hands with soap after using the toilet, while fewer reported consistent handwashing before eating. Similar patterns have been reported in earlier studies, where handwashing compliance was higher after toilet use than before meals (5). This inconsistency may be due to behavioural habits, perceived risk, or lack of access to handwashing facilities at critical times.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of sanitation practices, the majority of respondents reported regular use of toilet facilities; however, a notable proportion still engaged in suboptimal practices. This may reflect infrastructural challenges within the university environment. Ogunokoya (6) reported that although basic sanitation facilities exist in many Nigerian universities, they are often insufficient, poorly maintained, or inconsistently accessible, thereby limiting effective utilization by students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccess to safe drinking water and water treatment practices also varied across faculties. Although a majority of respondents reported consuming treated water, a considerable proportion still did not treat water before drinking. This finding is consistent with previous studies which have shown that even when students are aware of safe water practices, actual compliance is often influenced by convenience and availability of resources (4,7). The reliance on untreated or inadequately treated water poses a significant risk for waterborne diseases, particularly in environments with inconsistent water supply.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe statistically significant association observed between faculty affiliation and both WASH knowledge (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003) and practices (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004) highlights the influence of academic discipline on health behaviour. This finding underscores the need for a more inclusive approach to health education that targets students across all faculties. Integrating WASH education into general studies programmes may help bridge the gap observed between science and non-science students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, this study reinforces existing evidence that achieving optimal WASH outcomes requires not only knowledge but also access to adequate infrastructure and supportive environments. While the level of awareness among students is encouraging, the persistence of gaps in practice indicates the need for targeted interventions aimed at promoting sustained behaviour change.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that undergraduate students at the University of Africa, Toru-Orua possess relatively high levels of knowledge and moderately good practices regarding water, sanitation, and hygiene. However, significant disparities exist across faculties, with students in science-based disciplines exhibiting better knowledge and practices than those in non-science faculties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings also reveal a clear gap between knowledge and practice, reinforcing evidence from previous studies that awareness alone is insufficient to drive sustained hygiene behaviour without adequate environmental support and infrastructure. This underscores the need for a comprehensive and integrated approach to improving WASH outcomes in university settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address these gaps, targeted interventions should be implemented, including the integration of WASH education into general studies programmes, promotion of behaviour change communication strategies, and improvement of campus WASH infrastructure such as access to safe water, functional toilets, and handwashing facilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, improving WASH knowledge and practices among university students is essential for reducing the risk of communicable diseases and promoting a healthy campus environment. A combination of education, infrastructure development, and institutional support is required to achieve sustainable improvements in hygiene behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRecommendations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study highlight the need for a more inclusive and structured approach to WASH education across all academic disciplines. Given the significant variation in knowledge levels between faculties, it is recommended that water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) concepts be integrated into general studies curricula for all undergraduate students. This will ensure that students in non-science faculties, who demonstrated comparatively lower knowledge levels, are adequately equipped with essential public health information necessary for disease prevention and healthy living.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, the observed gap between knowledge and actual hygiene practices underscores the importance of improving campus WASH infrastructure. The university administration should prioritize the provision of reliable access to safe water, functional and well-maintained sanitation facilities, and accessible handwashing stations with soap at strategic locations across the campus. Enhancing these environmental conditions will create an enabling environment that supports and reinforces positive hygiene behaviours among students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, there is a need for sustained behaviour change interventions to promote the consistent adoption of proper WASH practices. Regular health education campaigns, peer-led initiatives, and practical demonstrations should be implemented to encourage students to translate their knowledge into daily practice. Such interventions should particularly target faculties with lower levels of compliance, thereby ensuring a more uniform improvement in hygiene practices across the university.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the cross-sectional design of the study limits the ability to establish causal relationships between faculty affiliation and WASH knowledge or practices. While associations were identified, it is not possible to determine whether differences in academic discipline directly influence hygiene behaviours or whether other underlying factors contribute to these variations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondly, the study relied on self-reported data obtained through questionnaires, which may be subject to social desirability and recall bias. Respondents may have overreported good hygiene practices such as handwashing or safe water consumption in an attempt to provide socially acceptable answers, thereby potentially overestimating the true level of WASH practices among students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the study was conducted in a single tertiary institution and focused only on 300-level students, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other universities or student populations. Differences in institutional infrastructure, cultural practices, and environmental conditions across other settings may influence WASH knowledge and behaviours. Therefore, caution should be exercised when extrapolating the results beyond the study setting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations, including the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to inclusion in the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe author declares that there are no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eE.A. Okaba conceptualized and designed the study, conducted data collection and analysis, and drafted the manuscript. The author read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e The author appreciates the support of the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, and all students who participated in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organization. \u003cem\u003eWater, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)\u003c/em\u003e. Geneva: WHO; 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUnited Nations. \u003cem\u003eTransforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development\u003c/em\u003e. New York: United Nations; 2015.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFreeman MC, Garn JV, Sclar GD, et al. The impact of school water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions on health and education outcomes: a systematic review. \u003cem\u003eInt J Hyg Environ Health\u003c/em\u003e. 2017;220(6):928–49.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBosede AO, Enwenonu RC, Udensi JU, et al. A comparative assessment of WASH adherence among public and private school students in a rural district in Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eBMC Public Health\u003c/em\u003e. 2025;25:xxxx.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOtto E, Opatoki A, Luyi D. Water, sanitation and hygiene practice among secondary school students in Ijebu Ode, Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eJ Environ Sci Econ\u003c/em\u003e. 2022;1(3):15–26.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOgunokoya IT. \u003cem\u003eAssessment of water, sanitation and hygiene in selected public universities, South-West Nigeria\u003c/em\u003e. Abeokuta: Federal University of Agriculture; 2024.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEkeleme NC, Egwuonwu KI, Iwuoha EC, Ogunsola AS. Assessment of hand washing knowledge and practice among secondary school students in Aba, Abia State. Abia State University Medical Students’ Association Journal. 2018;11(1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"WASH, knowledge, practices, undergraduate students, university, Nigeria","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9372062/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9372062/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are essential for preventing infectious diseases and promoting public health, particularly in high-density settings such as universities. This study assessed WASH knowledge and practices among undergraduate students at the University of Africa, Toru-Orua, Bayelsa State, Nigeria, with a focus on variations across different faculties.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional comparative study design was employed among 365 300-level undergraduate students selected using a multistage sampling technique. Data were collected using a structured, self-administered questionnaire assessing WASH knowledge and practices. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25, with descriptive and inferential statistics applied. Chi-square tests were used to determine associations between variables at a 5% level of significance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, 71.2% of respondents demonstrated adequate WASH knowledge, while 71.2% exhibited good WASH practices. Students from the Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences had significantly higher knowledge (89.9%) and better practices (89.9%) compared to students from Agriculture (66.7%), Social and Management Sciences (66.7%), and Arts and Education (63.1%). The differences in knowledge (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003) and practices (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004) across faculties were statistically significant. Despite the relatively high level of knowledge, gaps were observed in key practices such as consistent handwashing with soap, water treatment before drinking, and proper waste disposal, indicating a disparity between knowledge and practice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study reveals that although WASH knowledge among undergraduate students is relatively high, significant disparities exist across faculties, alongside a persistent gap between knowledge and practice. There is a need for targeted interventions, including the integration of WASH education into general studies programmes, improvement of campus WASH infrastructure, and implementation of behaviour change strategies to promote consistent hygiene practices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Water, sanitation and hygiene knowledge and practices among undergraduate students in Nigeria: a faculty-based comparative study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-05 20:54:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9372062/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"309789995122244573301470874265578908962","date":"2026-05-02T15:37:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-24T07:38:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-13T07:03:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-10T04:29:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-10T04:29:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Public Health","date":"2026-04-09T19:22:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b7ecfe3b-2ea4-482b-96a0-0bee3886af92","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 5th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"309789995122244573301470874265578908962","date":"2026-05-02T15:37:50+00:00","index":36,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-05T20:54:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-05 20:54:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9372062","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9372062","identity":"rs-9372062","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}