Entomological Survey of Sandfly Vectors and Molecular Screening for Leishmania Parasite in Refugee Camps in Ethiopia

Entomological Survey of Sandfly Vectors and Molecular Screening for Leishmania Parasite in Refugee Camps in Ethiopia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Entomological Survey of Sandfly Vectors and Molecular Screening for Leishmania Parasite in Refugee Camps in Ethiopia Habtamu Belay, Berhanu Erko, Mahlet Belachew, Myrthe Pareyn, Tesfahun Bishaw, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7808449/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 27 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is transmitted by infected female sandflies. Entomological data in refugee settings remain limited. This study aimed to describe sandfly fauna and assess natural Leishmania infection in refugee camps in Ethiopia. The study was conducted in four refugee camps. Sandflies were collected using standard techniques. Sand flies identified morphologically. Female sandflies dissected, mounted for species confirmation, and preserved for PCR analysis. A total of 2,196 sandflies representing eight species (one Phlebotomus , seven Sergentomyia ) were collected. Phlebotomus rodhaini , the only Phlebotomus species detected, accounted for 1.7% of captures. Sergentomyia antennatus was the most abundant (50.8%), followed by S. africanus (15.7%), S. schwetzi (14.3%), and S. bedfordi (10.9%). Species richness was greatest in Terkidi camp, while diversity was highest in Sherkole. Indoor captures were scarce (< 2.3% of specimens), confirming exophilic resting behavior. Termite hills and peridomestic habitats harbored the highest sandfly densities. PCR screening showed no evidence of Leishmania infection. This first entomological survey in refugee camps in Ethiopia documents a sandfly fauna dominated by outdoor collection very low abundance of Ph. rodhaini and no detectable Leishmania infection. These findings suggest a low vector risk during the survey period but underscore the need for longitudinal monitoring to capture seasonal variation. Health sciences/Diseases Biological sciences/Ecology Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology Biological sciences/Microbiology Biological sciences/Zoology Ethiopia Phlebotomus rodhaini Refugee camps Sergentomyia spp. Vector surveillance Visceral leishmaniasis Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Background Visceral leishmaniasis (VL, kala-azar) is a neglected tropical disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania , which are transmitted through the bites of infected female phlebotomine sand flies 1 . The disease is a significant cause of global morbidity and mortality, with east Africa bearing a substantial burden of cases 2 . Within the east African countries, Ethiopia is highly affected, with six of its regions considered endemic for VL 3 . Sand flies of the genus Phlebotomus are the verified vectors responsible for the transmission of human leishmaniasis in the Old World 4 . In Ethiopia, the principal vectors for VL are Phlebotomus orientalis , found in the lowland and highland foci of the northwest, and Ph. martini/celiae in the south and southwest 3 , 5 – 8 . The distribution and abundance of these vectors are strongly influenced by ecological factors. Phlebotomus orientalis is closely associated with black cotton clay soils (vertisols) and Acacia seyal woodlands, while Ph. martini/celiae is often linked to the presence of termite hills 3 , 9 – 11 . On the other hand, species of sand flies within the genus Sergentomyia are generally considered non-vectors of VL, as many of them do not support the development of Leishmania parasites in their midgut 12 . However, reports in Kenya 13 , West Africa 12 , 14 and other regions 15 , 16 have detected Leishmania DNA in Sergentomyia spp. whose populations often outnumber those of Phlebotomus species. Similarly, reports from Ethiopia indicated that Sergentomyia is the predominant genus in VL endemic areas 9 , 17 , 18 . A strong relationship has been documented between civil unrest and VL transmission 19 , 20 . The VL infection often arise when immunologically naïve migrants are displaced into VL-endemic areas or when Leishmania -infected individuals move into new areas and establish additional foci of transmission. In East Africa, the situation is further intensified by limited access to timely diagnosis and effective treatment, HIV co-infection, food insecurity, and malnutrition 19 , 21 . In addition, VL is common in arid areas with acacias and termite mounds 22 . Ethiopia is the third largest refugee-hosting country in Africa, accommodating more than one million refugees and asylum seekers, mainly from South Sudan, Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea. Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States have hosted nearly half of these refugees (48%) 23 . Environmental risk assessments of VL transmission defined the Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz Regional States as high-risk areas 2 . These refugees, particularly those from Sudan and South Sudan have come from VL endemic foci 19 . Moreover, previous studies in these areas have detected a high prevalence of asymptomatic Leishmania infection using serological and molecular methods 20 , 24 , 25 , while VL confirmed cases continue to be reported annually to the Ethiopian Ministry of Health (MOH unpublished data). However, systematic entomological surveillance is still limited in refugee settings within the Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz Regional States. This scarcity of data hinders the development and implementation of evidence-based vector control interventions, which are a key component of the WHO’s strategy for the elimination of visceral leishmaniasis as a public health problem in East Africa 26 . Therefore, we investigated the species composition, relative abundance, habitat preference and screened natural infections of Leishmania DNA in sand flies from refugee camps in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States, Ethiopia. The present study provides essential evidence to inform targeted vector control strategies, strengthen surveillance, and support public health efforts to reduce VL transmission among these vulnerable populations. Materials and Methods Study Areas The study was conducted in four refugee camps of Terkidi and Kule (Itang district, Gambella Regional State in southwestern Ethiopia) and Sherkole and Tsore (Homosha district, Benishangul-Gumuz Regional State in northwestern). These regions border South Sudan and Sudan. As of 31 May 2025, Gambella hosted 395,203 refugees and Benishangul-Gumuz hosted 110,606 refugees 23 . These camps were randomly selected among a total of seven and five refugee camps in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States, respectively 27 , 28 (Fig. 1 ). Itang is a special district that lies in the low-lying floodplain area of Gambella, characterized by flat to gently undulating landscape. The district is bordered to the south and southeast by the Anuak Zone, to the west by the Nuer Zone, to the north by the Oromia region, and to the northwest by South Sudan, with the Alwero River demarcating part of its southern boundary. The altitude of this district ranges from 350 to 480 meters above sea level 29 . The district’s average annual temperature and total rainfall are 29°C and 1000 mm, respectively. Temperatures remain high year-round with peaks in March–May. Vegetation is dominated by savanna woodland, Acacia seyal , and extensive grasslands 30 . Moreover, there are scattered distribution of small sized termite hills in the village and natural habitats of the refugee camps. Homosha district is found in eastern parts of the Benishangul Gumuz Regional State, which is bordered by Kurmuk in the north west, Menge in the north east, and Assosa in the south. The study area receives 588–1,549 mm of rainfall annually, with maximum temperatures of 21.4–31.5°C during the dry season and minimum temperatures of 7.4–17.6°C. The soil is deep reddish-brown sandy clay, and the landscape is largely covered by natural vegetation, including shrub grassland, dense woodland, bamboo thickets, and open grassland 31 . Termite mounds are common in the district particularly in woodland and grassland habitats but rarely distributed in the refugee camp. Preliminary assessments prior to actual collection Before initiating the main sandfly collection, preliminary field assessments were conducted in order to evaluate the abundance, distribution, and diversity of sandflies in potential collection sites. The first assessment took place during the fourth week of May 2024 in refugee camps in Gambella Regional State. CDC LT and paper based sticky trapping techniques were employed, and a total of 474 sandflies were collected. Morphological examination at the genus level indicated that all collected specimens belonged to the genus Sergentomyia . Species-level identification was not performed at this stage. A second assessment was carried out in Benishangul Gumuz Regional State during August 2024, using the same trapping procedures. However, no sandflies were captured during this attempt. This absence of sandflies was likely influenced by ecological and seasonal variations such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, and differences in habitat suitability. These preliminary assessments provided baseline information on sandfly presence and distribution in the surveyed areas and guided the selection of sites and timing for the subsequent main collection. Collection of sand flies The collection of adult sandflies was conducted by employing two standard techniques: CDC light traps and sticky traps, as detailed elsewhere 4 , 8 , 32 . CDC light trap (LT) two fixed sampling points (indoor and household compounds) were established per refugee camp. A single LT was deployed at each point per night, positioned 30–50 cm above ground level and operating from dusk to dawn. A total of 44 LTs were deployed over an eight-night period, amounting to a cumulative total of 342 trap-nights. This LT sampling was performed over two consecutive nights across all collection sites in the refugee camps of the Gambella (April 6–10, 2025) and Benishangul Gumuz (May 5–9, 2025) Regional States. Specimens were traced and aspirated each morning from the collection LT, inactivated using a combination of cold and mechanical vibration, and subsequently preserved in 95% ethyl alcohol for future morphological and molecular analysis (Fig. 2 ). Sticky traps (STs) White transparent polypropylene sheets (A4 size) coated with a thin layer of castor oil were used as sticky traps for sandfly collection. In each survey site, four traps were deployed in six habitat types including indoors, household compounds, termite mounds within villages, termite mounds in natural habitats, caves, and natural habitats with mixed forest cover. Traps were operating from dusk to dawn. Captured sandflies were collected the following morning using fine-tipped forceps, transferred into labeled vials containing 96% ethanol, and preserved for subsequent morphological identification (Fig. 2 ). Mounting and identification of sandflies All collected sand flies were sex segregated based on the morphology of their reproductive organs observed under a stereomicroscope. Female sand flies were dissected by carefully removing the head and the last three abdominal segments using fine dissecting pins. These parts were mounted on properly labeled glass slides in a drop of Gum chloral mounting medium with the head ventral-side up under a single coverslip. Prepared slides were allowed to clear and dry at room temperature for one to two weeks before examination under a compound optical microscope for species identification. The remaining body parts (thorax and anterior abdominal segments) were preserved in sterile 1.5 mL Eppendorf tubes containing 95% ethanol, labeled identically to the corresponding slide, and stored for subsequent DNA extraction (Fig. 3 ). Species identification was carried out using well established taxonomic keys 33 and additionally 34 , with diagnostic morphological features including the cibarium, cibarial teeth, pharynx, and spermatheca. DNA extraction and molecular screening of Leishmania DNA We individually screened the only Phlebotomus species encountered during our study, Ph. rodhaini , while Sergentomyia genus were pooled in sets of 1–22 female sandfly specimens based on species, trap type, collection site, habitat and blood feeding status. The individually prepared and pooled female specimens were socked in DNA shield solution with beads and homogenized twice at high speed (6.5 m/s for 3 min) using a FastPrep®-24 bead beating homogenizer (MP Biomedicals), followed by centrifugation at 21,000 g for 1 minute. From the clarified homogenate, 180 µl was transferred into a 1.5 ml tube for DNA extraction. DNA was isolated using the DNeasy Blood & Tissue kit (QIAGEN) following the standard manufacturer’s protocol for isolation of insect genomic DNA (Fig. 3 ). A real-time PCR (rtPCR) assay targeting the minicircle kinetoplast DNA (kDNA) was used to screen Leishmania DNA from sand fly specimens. The primers employed were kDNA-CMF (5′-CTTTTCTGGTCCTCCGGGTAGG-3′) and kDNA-CMR (5′-CACCCGG CCCTAT TTTACA CC AA-3′). The assay was performed as previously described 20 . In brief, each reaction was set up in a final volume of 25µl containing 1× HotStarTaq Master Mix (Qiagen, Venlo, The Netherlands), 0.6µM of each primer, 0.4µM of the probe (Integrated DNA Technologies, Leuven, Belgium), 0.1mg/ml bovine serum albumin (Roche, Vilvoorde, Belgium), and 5µl of DNA template. Amplification was carried out on a QuantStudio 5 real-time PCR system (Thermo Fisher, Cat. No. A28568). Each run included genomic DNA from a Leishmania -positive culture as the positive control, a non-template control (NTC) as the negative control and one used extraction control (ExC). Data analysis Data were entered using Microsoft excel 2016, simply calculating the relative proportion from the overall sandfly collected 4 and exported to SPSS software version 20.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) for further analysis. Sand fly density was calculated as the number of sand flies collected per trap per night using LT and ST to compare differences between habitats. The normality of the data was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test. When the data did not meet the assumption of normality, the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test was employed. This test was used to compare the mean number of sand fly species collected across different sampling habitats using CDC light traps and sticky traps. The Chi-square (χ²) test was applied to evaluate associations between categorical variables. We calculated the Shannon-Wiener (H) diversity index in PAST v4.03 for each study site using the parameters of the proportion in which each species was collected. The permutation test was employed to assess the statistical significance of differences in Shannon diversity indexes between study sites 35 . Statistical significance was determined at p < 0.05. Results Sand fly species composition and relative abundance across sites In the current study, a total of 2,196 (1542 males and 654 females) adult phlebotomine sand flies comprising eight species in two genera ( Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia ) were collected using LTs and STs. The genus Phlebotomus was represented by a single subgenus ( Anaphlebotomus) whereas the genus Sergentomyia was represented by four subgenera ( Grassomyia, Sergentomyia, Sintonius and Parrotomyia ) (Table 1 ). One Phlebotomus and seven Sergentomyia sandfly species were identified from the four study refugee camps in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States. Majority of the samples (85%, n = 1869) were collected from refugee camps in Gambella; Kule (n = 357) and Terkidi (n = 1012). Whereas, nearly 15% of them were collected from refugee camps located in Benishangul Gumuz Regional States; Sherkole (n = 310) and Tsore (n = 17). The largest proportion of specimens was captured in Terkidi (46.1%), followed by Kule (39.0%), Sherkole (14.1%), and Tsore (0.8%) (Table 1 ). Overall, Sergentomyia antennatus was the most abundant species (50.8%), dominating collections in Kule (60.9%) and Terkidi (54.5%) (p < 0.001). Sergentomyia africanus ranked second in abundance (15.7%), with its highest contribution in Sherkole (39.4%) and Tsore (64.7%). Sergentomyia schwetzi (14.3%) and S. bedfordi (10.9%) were also widely distributed, particularly in Terkidi and Sherkole. Less common species included S. clydei (5.2%), Ph. rodhaini (1.7%), and S. squamipleuris (1.2%), while S. adleri was rare, represented by a single specimen (0.05%). Species richness was greatest in Terkidi, where all eight species were recorded, whereas Tsore exhibited both low abundance and diversity (Table 1 ). Table 1 Distribution of sandfly species by refugee camp in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States of Ethiopia, 2025 Species (genus) Region States Gambella (n = 1869) Benishangul Gumuz (n = 327) Kule Camp Terkidi Sherkole Tsore Over all Ph. rodhaini ( Anaphlebotomus) 0 (0.0) 26 (2.6) 11 (3.5) 1 (5.6) 38 (1.73) S. adleri ( Sintonius) 0(0.0) 1 (0.1) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.05) S. africanus ( Parrotomyia ) 78 (9.1) 134 (13.2) 122 (39.4) 11 (64.7) 345 (15.71) S. antennatus ( Sergentomyia ) 522 (60.9) 552 (54.5) 41 (13.2) 1 (5.6) 1116 (50.82) S. bedfordi group ( Sergentomyia) 105 (12.3) 84 (8.3) 48 (15.5) 2 (11.8) 239 (10.88) S. clydei ( Sintonius ) 84 (9.8) 28 (2.8) 2 (0.6) 1 (5.6) 115 (5.24) S. schwetzi ( Sergentomyia ) 59 (6.9) 169 (16.7) 86 (27.7) 1 (5.6) 315 (14.34) S. squamipleuris ( Grassomyia ) 9 (1.1) 18 (1.8) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 27 (1.23) Grand Total 857 (39.0) 1012 (46.1) 310 (14.1) 17 (0.8) 2196 (100.00) Species composition relative to collection methods Distribution of phlebotomine sand flies by collection method is presented in Supplementary File, Table 2 . The vast majority of sand flies (96.0%) were captured using sticky traps ( X 2 = 22.1; p = 0.016), with males representing 70.9% and females 29.1%. Sticky traps, deployed in household compounds, indoor environments, natural habitats, termite hills, and cave habitats, proved highly effective in capturing all reported sand fly species. Among them, Ph. rodhaini was relatively rare overall (1.7% of ST collections), yet the majority of this species (36/38 individuals) was obtained using this method. In contrast, CDC light traps contributed only 4.0% of the total sand flies collected, with nearly equal proportions of males (52.9%) and females (47.1%). All species were represented in CDC LT collections except S. adleri, and only two individuals of Ph. rodhaini were obtained using this method. Together, these findings demonstrate the superior efficiency of sticky traps for capturing sand flies in diverse habitats, while CDC light traps provided a more balanced representation of sexes and still detected a wide range of species. Indoor and outdoor collections of sand flies Indoor collections were very low across all sites, totally only 49 (2.2%) specimens out of 2,196, however, statistically not significant (p = 0.209). Only 2 (5.3%) out of 38 of the Ph. rodhaini were collected from indoor collections. S. africanus 3.8% (n = 13) and S. antennatus 2.0% (n = 22) were the most frequently captured from indoors collections, while other species, including S. bedfordi, S. clydei, S. adleri , and S. schwetzi , were rarely recorded indoors. This pattern highlights the predominantly outdoor behavior of the species in the study area (Table 2 ). Table 2 Indoor and outdoor abundance of sandfly species across the four study sites in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States, Ethiopia, 2025 Species Kule Sherkole Terkidi Tsore Overall Indoor Outdoor Indoor Outdoor Indoor Outdoor Indoor Outdoor Indoor Outdoor Ph. rodhaini 0 0 0 11 1 25 1 0 2(5.3) 36(94.7) S. adleri 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0(0.0) 1(100.0) S. africanus 8 70 0 122 4 130 1 10 13(3.8) 332(96.2) S. antennatus 10 512 0 41 12 540 0 1 22(2.0) 1094(98.0) S. bedfordi 5 100 0 48 2 82 0 2 7(2.9) 232(97.1) S. clydei 1 83 0 2 0 28 0 1 1(0.9) 114(99.1) S. schwetzi 2 57 0 86 1 168 0 1 3(1.0) 312(99.0) S. squamipleuris 0 9 0 0 1 17 0 0 1(3.7) 26(96.3) Grand Total 26(3.0) 831(97.0) 0(0.0) 310(100.0) 21(2.1) 991(97.9) 2(11.8) 15(88.2) 49(2.2) 2147(97.8_ Sex ratio and abdominal status of sand flies The overall male to female sex ratio was 1.1:1 in sandflies collected using CDC light trap whereas, 2.4:1 recorded from sandflies captured using ST. Across all sites and both collection methods, male sand flies predominated over female (p < 0.001). With the exception of S. africanus (138/182), the male predominance was more pronounced in Ph. rodhani (27/11), S. antennatus (888/228) and S. bedfordi (192/47) based on ST collections. Similarly, female-biased ratios were observed in S. schwetzi, S. bedfordi , and S. squamipleuris , while species such as S. clydei showed a more balanced distribution in some sites (Table 3 ). Overall, sticky traps captured substantially more females than CDC light traps ( X 2 = 13.0; p < 0.001), highlighting their efficiency for sampling host-seeking females. Of the 654 female sand flies examined across all sites, 30 (4.6%) were blood-fed and 75 (11.5%) were gravid. Sergentomyia species accounted for the majority of both categories, with notable proportions of S. schwetzi , S. antennatus , and S. clydei . In contrast, Phlebotomus rodhaini was detected only in Sherkole, represented by a single gravid specimen (Supplementary Table 1). Table 3 Male to female ratio of sandflies among refugee camps by collection methods Species Collection methods Overall Total CDC light trap Sticky trap Kule Sherkole Terkidi Tsore Kule Sherkole Terkidi Tsore Kule Sherkole Terkidi Tsore M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F M/F Ph. rodhaini - 0/1 - 1/0 - 8/2 18/8 - - 8/3 18/8 1/0 S. adleri - - - - - - 1/0 - - - 1/0 - S. africanus 1/3 8/4 3/4 0/2 22/52 60/50 51/76 5/4 23/55 68/54 57/80 5/6 S. antennatus 11/0 2/0 8/12 - 415/96 30/9 421/111 1/0 426/96 32/9 429/123 1/0 S. bedfordi 2/0 1/4 1/1 - 97/6 37/6 53/29 1/1 99/6 38/10 54/30 1/1 S. clydei - 0/1 2/0 - 42/42 0/1 14/12 0/1 42/42 0/2 16/12 0/1 S. schwetzi 1/0 2/0 2/6 - 47/11 61/23 97/64 0/1 48/11 63/23 99/70 0/1 S. squamipleuris - - 1/3 - 4/5 - 11/3 - 4/5 - 12/6 - Grand Total 15/3 13/10 17/26 1/2 627/212 196/91 666/303 7/7 642/215 209/101 683/329 8/9 Habitat preferences of the sand flies The mean number of sand flies collected per trap, per habitat, and per night is presented in Table 4 . The Kruskal–Wallis H test indicated that Ph. rodhaini, S. africanus, S. antennatus, S. bedfordi, and S. schwetzi exhibited significant associations with habitat type, showing a preference for termite hills located in both village and natural environments. However, S. clydei was associated with termite hills in natural habitats only. Additionally, S. bedfordi demonstrated a statistically significant preference for natural habitats, in addition to termite hills in both the village and natural settings (Table 4 ). Table 4 Mean density with Standard Error (± SE) of sandfly species per ST per night across different habitats in refugee camps located in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz regions, Ethiopia, 2025 Species Compound Indoor Natural Habitat TH_in village TH_ Natural Habitat Ph. rodhaini 0.03 ± 0.02 0.07 ± 0.06 0.28 ± 0.25 0.42 ± 0.20* 0.23 ± 0.08* S. africanus 0.52 ± 0.16 0.22 ± 0.12 0.59 ± 0.34 3.50 ± 1.96* 2.84 ± 0.97* S. antennatus 1.09 ± 0.16 0.29 ± 0.12 5.19 ± 0.34 4.00 ± 1.96* 11.59 ± 0.97* S. bedfordi 0.25 ± 0.61 0.09 ± 0.25 1.28 ± 1.34* 1.21 ± 1.26* 2.25 ± 4.04* S. clydei 0.10 ± 0.04) 0.01 ± 0.01 0.16 ± 0.12 0.13 ± 0.13 1.61 ± 0.93* S. schwetzi 0.23 ± 0.81 0.03 ± 0.08 1.16 ± 2.69 0.33 ± 3.30* 2.93 ± 3.48* *Indicated statistically significant TH natural Habitat = termite hill located in the natural habitat of the study site; TH_in village = termite hills located in the village of the study areas Diversity of sand flies among refugee camps The Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H'), evenness (E), and species richness (S) were calculated for sandfly populations across four refugee camps (Table 5 ). The Shannon diversity index was highest in Sherkole (H'=1.430) and lowest in Tsore (H'=1.200). Sherkole harbored a significantly more diverse sandfly community than Kule (p = 0.001). The high diversity in Sherkole is likely driven by a more even species distribution, as indicated by its highest evenness value (0.798). On the other hand, the sandfly species diversity was significantly higher in Kule than in Terkidi (H’=0.690 vs 0.662). In contrast, the low diversity in Tsore can be primarily attributed to its very low total abundance (n = 17), which limits species richness and inflates the influence of small count changes on diversity metrics. The number of species reported in Terkidi (S = 8) was higher than in Kule (S = 6) (p = 0.001). Table 5 The Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H’), evenness (E) and richness (S) of the sand fly species from the study areas. Refugee camp H' E S Kule 1.237 0.690 6 Sherkole 1.430 0.798 6 Terkidi 1.376 0.662 8 Tsore 1.200 0.670 6 PCR screening of sandflies for the detection of Leishmania DNA PCR screening was performed on the 11 individually tested female Ph. rodhaini to detect Leishmania DNA. Whereas, for the female Sergentomyia species; 25 pools of S. africanus (n = 195 ) , 24 pools of S. antennatus (n = 228), 13 pools of S. bedfordi (n = 47), 10 pools of S. clydei (n = 57) and 16 pools of S. schwetzi (n = 105) and 4 pool of S. squamipleuris (n = 11) (each pool comprising material from 1–22 sand flies) were processed using PCR for Leishmania DNA detection. None of the pools screened sand fly positive, and all individually analyzed Ph. rodhaini specimens were also negative for Leishmania kDNA based molecular screening. Discussion This study provides an entomological assessment of sandfly vectors in refugee camps in the Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz Regional States of Ethiopia, regions not known to be endemic for VL but at high risk for VL 2,25 . The present findings reveal a diverse sandfly fauna dominated by species of the genus Sergentomyia , exhibiting clear ecological preferences for outdoor habitats, and importantly, report no molecular evidence of Leishmania infection within the sampled sand fly populations. A total of 2,196 adult phlebotomine sand flies (1,542 males, 654 females) comprising eight species in two genera ( Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia ) were collected using LTs and STs. Phlebotomus was represented by one subgenus ( Anaphlebotomus ), while Sergentomyia included four subgenera; Grassomyia, Sergentomyia, Sintonius, Parrotomyia . Most specimens (85%) were collected from Gambella camps (Kule: 357; Terkidi: 1,012), while 15% came from Benishangul Gumuz (Sherkole: 310; Tsore: 17). One Phlebotomus and seven Sergentomyia species were identified from four refugee camps in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States. The current cross sectional entomological survey revealed that the 98.3% of the collected sand flies belong to the genus Sergentomyia and only 1.7% reported among the genus Phlebotomus sand fly. These Sergentomyia outnumber report are in line with reports from endemic regions of the northern and southern parts of Ethiopia 9 , 17 , 18 . In the present study, the low abundance of Ph. rodhaini (1.73%) is a pivotal result. Similar findings were reported in previous studies in some VL endemic regions including the northern, southern and eastern parts of Ethiopia 7 . An attempt was made to conduct a cross-sectional entomological assessment in the Gambella refugee camps and surrounding areas in 1996 by Hailu et al. (unpublished data); however, this species was not reported. This may be due to climate change and/or other environmental factors contributing to its detection in the current study. This finding suggests that the primary VL vectors reported from other foci in Ethiopia may not have been detected in these specific camp environments, likely due to the cross-sectional nature of the data collection, whereas other studies employed longitudinal and seasonal sampling approaches 6 , 18 , 32 , 36 . Similarly, this species is also distributed in some areas of east Africa including Sudan and South Sudan 37 – 40 . The present entomological survey was the first of its kind conducted in both Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz Regional States, documenting the distribution of Ph. rodhaini in refugee camps located in both studied regions. The finding of Ph. rodhaini , even though in low numbers, is important. Phlebotomus rodhaini has been historically considered a possible vector of L. donovani in Sudan 40 . In a review conducted by Al-Salam and colleagues on VL during the conflict in South Sudan and its consequences for East African countries, the authors highlighted the possible role of this species in the transmission of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis (ZVL) in East Africa 19 . However, due to generally low abundance in the east African region 5 , 41 and suspected preference for feeding on rodents rather than humans 37 , 40 , its role has often been underestimated. Nevertheless, its presence indicates potential risk for VL transmission, especially in settings where other primary vectors are rare or absent. We report seven Sergentomyia species in the current study that showed species of this genus are widely distributed in Ethiopia including VL endemic regions where Phlebotomus is the known vector for the transmission 4 , 17 , 18 , 32 . The striking finding was the overwhelming dominance of S. antennatus , which constituted over 50% of all collected specimens. This was particularly pronounced in the Gambella camps (Kule and Terkidi), while Sergentomyia species are often considered primarily zoophilic and of least importance in VL transmission compared to proven vectors like Ph. orientalis and Ph. martini , however, their extreme abundance warrants attention. Their absolute numbers could increase human-vector contact rates, and the role of some Sergentomyia species as potential vectors. The analysis of sand fly species diversity revealed a heterogeneous distribution across the camps. Sherkole camp exhibited the highest species diversity and evenness, influenced by its more even distribution of species and high density in termite mounds. In contrast, the exceptionally low abundance and diversity in Tsore camp likely reflect less suitable local ecological conditions for sandfly proliferation. The high diversity in Terkidi, where all eight species were present but was dominated by S. antennatus , suggests a complex ecological setting. The exophilic (outdoor-resting) behavior observed across all species, with less than 2.3% of specimens collected indoors, has major implications for vector control strategies. This finding aligns with studies in other reports in Ethiopia, Sudan and South Sudan 41 – 43 . Our data indicate that traditional indoor residual spraying (IRS) remains a cornerstone of VL control; however, control efforts should also consider targeted outdoor interventions. The high densities of S. antennatus and S. africanus associated with termite mounds, particularly those near natural habitats and within villages, identify these structures as key ecological niches. The current report is supported by study conducted in Kenya 44 . Environmental management, such as the modification or destruction of termite mounds in peridomestic areas, could be a highly effective strategy to reduce sandfly breeding and resting sites. The negative results from the highly sensitive kDNA PCR assay, on both pooled Sergentomyia and individual P. rodhaini specimens, are significant and valuable findings. In the context of the camps' distribution of asymptomatic Leishmania infection 20 , this suggests several non-exclusive possibilities: (1) the parasite circulation was at a very low, undetectable level during our specific sampling period, which may not be representative of seasonal peaks in transmission; (2) the zoonotic transmission cycle may involve animal reservoirs not effectively bitten by the sampled sandflies; or (3) the known efficient vectors are present at such low densities that they were not captured in sufficient numbers to detect an infected specimen. This absence of infection will be crucial baseline data indicating a currently low transmission intensity within the vector population, which is essential for monitoring future trends. On the contrary, some studies have demonstrated that either Sergentomyia spp. or Phlebotomus spp. tested positive for Leishmania DNA using molecular techniques. Study conducted in Iran; S. dentata 4/48 (8.33%) and S. sintoni , 2/4 (50%) tested positive for Leishmania major using Nested-PCR of ITS2 16 ; a study conducted in Portugal showed that S. minuta were reported as Leishmania DNA positive (2/1867) 15 . The difference could be these Sergentomyia species not observed in the current study. Another study conducted in Kenya also challenged the long-held dogma that human leishmaniasis in the Old World is exclusively transmitted by sand flies of the genus Phlebotomus . Their findings implicated S. squamipleuris as a potential vector in the transmission of Leishmania 13 . On the other hand, Leishmania DNA and Leishmania promastigotes were found in three female Ph. rodhaini sandfly specimens from Sudan 40 . The absence of Leishmania DNA in P. rodhaini in the present study may be attributed to ecological differences, such as variations in host-feeding preferences and transmission intensity between sites. Additionally, we reported that the predominance of asymptomatic cases in the study areas 20 could also contribute to this discrepancy. Strengths and Limitations The strength of this study is its rigorous design, employing CDC light and sticky traps across diverse habitats to comprehensively assess sandfly ecology in under-surveilled Ethiopian refugee camps. We used highly sensitive PCR screening, providing reliable data on infection status. The focus on a vulnerable population and inclusion of ecological diversity indices generate crucial baseline data for informing targeted public health interventions against visceral leishmaniasis. On the other hand, the study has also several limitations. Findings from four camps may not be generalizable to all other VL endemic settings. The cross-sectional design provides only a snapshot, possibly missing seasonal transmission peaks. Finally, the lack of blood meal analysis limits insights into host preferences and reservoir dynamics. These constraints highlight the need for longitudinal, multi-site studies incorporating additional techniques in future research. Conclusion and recommendation Our study showed a detailed picture of the sandfly fauna in southwestern and northwestern Ethiopian refugee camps for the first time. The vector community is characterized by high diversity, a strong predominance of outdoor-resting Sergentomyia species, and a notable absence of Leishmania DNA in the tested sand fly’s specimen at the time of the study. Integrated vector management has been implemented in these areas that includes environmental management, specifically targeting termite mounds in peridomestic areas. It is recommended to establish longitudinal entomological surveillance across different seasons to better capture temporal variations in sandfly density and Leishmania infection rates. Future studies should employ a larger sample size for Phlebotomus species and consider screening blood-fed females for host preferences to identify potential reservoir hosts involved in the transmission cycle. It is also desirable to investigate potential animal reservoirs in and around the camps to understand the complete transmission cycle. Abbreviations CDC LT: Centers for Diseases control and prevention light trap; CPD: household compounds; DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid; MoH: Ministry of health of Ethiopia; NH: natural habitat; PCR: polymerase chain reaction; ST: sticky trap; TH: termite hill; VL: visceral Leishmaniasis Declarations Authors’ contributions HB, AA, GT, BE and EA conceived and designed the study. All authors were involved in proposal writing and participated in field coordination, data collection, supervision and overall implementation of the study. HB analyzed the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Ethics approval and consent to participate Consent was sought from each refugee camp coordinators including protection, security and health coordinators) and informed consent was also sought from head of households from where sandflies were collected in their compound and/or indoor. The study obtained ethical clearance from the Aklilu Lemma Institute of Health Research-Institutional Research Ethics Review Committee (ALIHR-IRERC) prior to data collection (Ref. No.: ALIPB IRERC/112/2015/23). A permission letter was obtained from Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Refugees and Returnees Service (FDRE RRS) and subsequently from RRS regional office and camp coordination offices. Consent for publication : Not applicable Competing interests : The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding: This study was financially supported by grants from Addis Ababa University Acknowledgements We sincerely thank the FDRE Refugee and Returnee Service (RRS) for their support in facilitating communication with regional offices. Our appreciation also goes to the RRS coordination offices, camp coordinators, volunteers, and refugee community members for their kind cooperation during indoor and household compound sandfly collections, and to the community leaders for their generous help in organizing participants. We are especially grateful to Dr. Abebe Animut and Mr. Wossen Sisay for their thoughtful assistance in providing field supplies and ensuring smooth logistical arrangements before deployment. Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. 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20:25:58","extension":"xml","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":151291,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"0d9ecab962354a0c9dd3ea4009cbcee41structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7808449/v1/b63104f5dbd244f08575fcab.xml"},{"id":96216232,"identity":"00ccadea-dfec-4d33-8d9a-d0fdeb4ab1a5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-18 20:25:58","extension":"html","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":167464,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7808449/v1/1fe73423a702ae16868ebad6.html"},{"id":96251088,"identity":"3cd882b9-d74e-40d3-817e-c5852ec6fbf8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:39:17","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":203562,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy area map showing sandfly collection sites in refugee camps located in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7808449/v1/0587fe86dc1e8c979e638f6e.jpeg"},{"id":96216225,"identity":"dd552937-ba7d-4a1b-82cd-57b857e2d0bf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-18 20:25:58","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1034044,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eField sampling methods and habitat characterization for sandfly collection in selected refugee camps in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States, 2025: (A \u0026amp; B: Landscape views of savanna woodland and shrubland vegetation in Kule and Terkidi refugee camps respectively; C \u0026amp; D: Natural habitat presentation with mixed vegetation plots mainly bamboo tree in Sherkole and Tsore refugee camps respectively; E: Sandfly collection in Kule camp natural habitats; F: Depicted that sandfly collection in the periphery of the compound in Terkidi refugee camps and G: Indicating sandfly collection in Kule refugee camp compound using CDC light trap)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7808449/v1/e53d98c0e26e743e68affb32.jpeg"},{"id":96216226,"identity":"ba9f6c65-5fb0-4905-bb4c-6c2b17794925","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-18 20:25:58","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":280849,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA workflow diagram depicting the process from field collection of sand flies to molecular screening for \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e DNA\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7808449/v1/13ea85b85abfd90b67b0009f.jpeg"},{"id":101691940,"identity":"05f617eb-cf46-4dab-8dcf-8fde06ae18cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-02 16:16:19","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2905824,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7808449/v1/5f8654e7-c4b6-43c4-b60b-b747212e2837.pdf"},{"id":96216222,"identity":"0051703b-d7ac-4cac-9af6-1ccffd7ffcc3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-18 20:25:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":106178,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Additionalfile1.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7808449/v1/6f684ec8f6ac45001b869cd4.pdf"},{"id":96252968,"identity":"4a5395e5-90de-497e-8a60-80044cd15f9d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-19 07:41:45","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":99580,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Additionalfile2.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7808449/v1/2f126e6bc8d793af83f99bf0.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Entomological Survey of Sandfly Vectors and Molecular Screening for Leishmania Parasite in Refugee Camps in Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eVisceral leishmaniasis (VL, kala-azar) is a neglected tropical disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e, which are transmitted through the bites of infected female phlebotomine sand flies \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The disease is a significant cause of global morbidity and mortality, with east Africa bearing a substantial burden of cases \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Within the east African countries, Ethiopia is highly affected, with six of its regions considered endemic for VL \u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. Sand flies of the genus \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e are the verified vectors responsible for the transmission of human leishmaniasis in the Old World \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In Ethiopia, the principal vectors for VL are \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus orientalis\u003c/em\u003e, found in the lowland and highland foci of the northwest, and \u003cem\u003ePh. martini/celiae\u003c/em\u003e in the south and southwest \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6 CR7\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The distribution and abundance of these vectors are strongly influenced by ecological factors. \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus orientalis\u003c/em\u003e is closely associated with black cotton clay soils (vertisols) and \u003cem\u003eAcacia seyal\u003c/em\u003e woodlands, while \u003cem\u003ePh. martini/celiae\u003c/em\u003e is often linked to the presence of termite hills \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. On the other hand, species of sand flies within the genus \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e are generally considered non-vectors of VL, as many of them do not support the development of \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e parasites in their midgut \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, reports in Kenya \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, West Africa \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and other regions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e have detected \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e DNA in \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e spp. whose populations often outnumber those of \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e species. Similarly, reports from Ethiopia indicated that \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e is the predominant genus in VL endemic areas \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA strong relationship has been documented between civil unrest and VL transmission \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The VL infection often arise when immunologically na\u0026iuml;ve migrants are displaced into VL-endemic areas or when \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e-infected individuals move into new areas and establish additional foci of transmission. In East Africa, the situation is further intensified by limited access to timely diagnosis and effective treatment, HIV co-infection, food insecurity, and malnutrition \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, VL is common in arid areas with acacias and termite mounds \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthiopia is the third largest refugee-hosting country in Africa, accommodating more than one million refugees and asylum seekers, mainly from South Sudan, Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea. Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States have hosted nearly half of these refugees (48%) \u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e. Environmental risk assessments of VL transmission defined the Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz Regional States as high-risk areas \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These refugees, particularly those from Sudan and South Sudan have come from VL endemic foci \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, previous studies in these areas have detected a high prevalence of asymptomatic \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e infection using serological and molecular methods \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, while VL confirmed cases continue to be reported annually to the Ethiopian Ministry of Health (MOH unpublished data). However, systematic entomological surveillance is still limited in refugee settings within the Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz Regional States. This scarcity of data hinders the development and implementation of evidence-based vector control interventions, which are a key component of the WHO\u0026rsquo;s strategy for the elimination of visceral leishmaniasis as a public health problem in East Africa \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, we investigated the species composition, relative abundance, habitat preference and screened natural infections of \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e DNA in sand flies from refugee camps in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States, Ethiopia. The present study provides essential evidence to inform targeted vector control strategies, strengthen surveillance, and support public health efforts to reduce VL transmission among these vulnerable populations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy Areas\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in four refugee camps of Terkidi and Kule (Itang district, Gambella Regional State in southwestern Ethiopia) and Sherkole and Tsore (Homosha district, Benishangul-Gumuz Regional State in northwestern). These regions border South Sudan and Sudan. As of 31 May 2025, Gambella hosted 395,203 refugees and Benishangul-Gumuz hosted 110,606 refugees \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These camps were randomly selected among a total of seven and five refugee camps in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States, respectively \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eItang is a special district that lies in the low-lying floodplain area of Gambella, characterized by flat to gently undulating landscape. The district is bordered to the south and southeast by the Anuak Zone, to the west by the Nuer Zone, to the north by the Oromia region, and to the northwest by South Sudan, with the Alwero River demarcating part of its southern boundary. The altitude of this district ranges from 350 to 480 meters above sea level \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The district\u0026rsquo;s average annual temperature and total rainfall are 29\u0026deg;C and 1000 mm, respectively. Temperatures remain high year-round with peaks in March\u0026ndash;May. Vegetation is dominated by savanna woodland, \u003cem\u003eAcacia seyal\u003c/em\u003e, and extensive grasslands \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, there are scattered distribution of small sized termite hills in the village and natural habitats of the refugee camps.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHomosha district is found in eastern parts of the Benishangul Gumuz Regional State, which is bordered by Kurmuk in the north west, Menge in the north east, and Assosa in the south. The study area receives 588\u0026ndash;1,549 mm of rainfall annually, with maximum temperatures of 21.4\u0026ndash;31.5\u0026deg;C during the dry season and minimum temperatures of 7.4\u0026ndash;17.6\u0026deg;C. The soil is deep reddish-brown sandy clay, and the landscape is largely covered by natural vegetation, including shrub grassland, dense woodland, bamboo thickets, and open grassland \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Termite mounds are common in the district particularly in woodland and grassland habitats but rarely distributed in the refugee camp.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePreliminary assessments prior to actual collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore initiating the main sandfly collection, preliminary field assessments were conducted in order to evaluate the abundance, distribution, and diversity of sandflies in potential collection sites. The first assessment took place during the fourth week of May 2024 in refugee camps in Gambella Regional State. CDC LT and paper based sticky trapping techniques were employed, and a total of 474 sandflies were collected. Morphological examination at the genus level indicated that all collected specimens belonged to the genus \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e. Species-level identification was not performed at this stage. A second assessment was carried out in Benishangul Gumuz Regional State during August 2024, using the same trapping procedures. However, no sandflies were captured during this attempt. This absence of sandflies was likely influenced by ecological and seasonal variations such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, and differences in habitat suitability. These preliminary assessments provided baseline information on sandfly presence and distribution in the surveyed areas and guided the selection of sites and timing for the subsequent main collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCollection of sand flies\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe collection of adult sandflies was conducted by employing two standard techniques: CDC light traps and sticky traps, as detailed elsewhere \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCDC light trap (LT)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003etwo fixed sampling points (indoor and household compounds) were established per refugee camp. A single LT was deployed at each point per night, positioned 30\u0026ndash;50 cm above ground level and operating from dusk to dawn. A total of 44 LTs were deployed over an eight-night period, amounting to a cumulative total of 342 trap-nights. This LT sampling was performed over two consecutive nights across all collection sites in the refugee camps of the Gambella (April 6\u0026ndash;10, 2025) and Benishangul Gumuz (May 5\u0026ndash;9, 2025) Regional States. Specimens were traced and aspirated each morning from the collection LT, inactivated using a combination of cold and mechanical vibration, and subsequently preserved in 95% ethyl alcohol for future morphological and molecular analysis (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSticky traps (STs)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhite transparent polypropylene sheets (A4 size) coated with a thin layer of castor oil were used as sticky traps for sandfly collection. In each survey site, four traps were deployed in six habitat types including indoors, household compounds, termite mounds within villages, termite mounds in natural habitats, caves, and natural habitats with mixed forest cover. Traps were operating from dusk to dawn. Captured sandflies were collected the following morning using fine-tipped forceps, transferred into labeled vials containing 96% ethanol, and preserved for subsequent morphological identification (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMounting and identification of sandflies\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll collected sand flies were sex segregated based on the morphology of their reproductive organs observed under a stereomicroscope. Female sand flies were dissected by carefully removing the head and the last three abdominal segments using fine dissecting pins. These parts were mounted on properly labeled glass slides in a drop of Gum chloral mounting medium with the head ventral-side up under a single coverslip. Prepared slides were allowed to clear and dry at room temperature for one to two weeks before examination under a compound optical microscope for species identification. The remaining body parts (thorax and anterior abdominal segments) were preserved in sterile 1.5 mL Eppendorf tubes containing 95% ethanol, labeled identically to the corresponding slide, and stored for subsequent DNA extraction (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Species identification was carried out using well established taxonomic keys \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and additionally \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, with diagnostic morphological features including the cibarium, cibarial teeth, pharynx, and spermatheca.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDNA extraction and molecular screening of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eLeishmania\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eDNA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe individually screened the only \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e species encountered during our study, \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e, while \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e genus were pooled in sets of 1\u0026ndash;22 female sandfly specimens based on species, trap type, collection site, habitat and blood feeding status. The individually prepared and pooled female specimens were socked in DNA shield solution with beads and homogenized twice at high speed (6.5 m/s for 3 min) using a FastPrep\u0026reg;-24 bead beating homogenizer (MP Biomedicals), followed by centrifugation at 21,000 g for 1 minute. From the clarified homogenate, 180 \u0026micro;l was transferred into a 1.5 ml tube for DNA extraction. DNA was isolated using the DNeasy Blood \u0026amp; Tissue kit (QIAGEN) following the standard manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s protocol for isolation of insect genomic DNA (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA real-time PCR (rtPCR) assay targeting the minicircle kinetoplast DNA (kDNA) was used to screen \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e DNA from sand fly specimens. The primers employed were kDNA-CMF (5\u0026prime;-CTTTTCTGGTCCTCCGGGTAGG-3\u0026prime;) and kDNA-CMR (5\u0026prime;-CACCCGG CCCTAT TTTACA CC AA-3\u0026prime;). The assay was performed as previously described \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In brief, each reaction was set up in a final volume of 25\u0026micro;l containing 1\u0026times; HotStarTaq Master Mix (Qiagen, Venlo, The Netherlands), 0.6\u0026micro;M of each primer, 0.4\u0026micro;M of the probe (Integrated DNA Technologies, Leuven, Belgium), 0.1mg/ml bovine serum albumin (Roche, Vilvoorde, Belgium), and 5\u0026micro;l of DNA template. Amplification was carried out on a QuantStudio 5 real-time PCR system (Thermo Fisher, Cat. No. A28568). Each run included genomic DNA from a \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e-positive culture as the positive control, a non-template control (NTC) as the negative control and one used extraction control (ExC).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were entered using Microsoft excel 2016, simply calculating the relative proportion from the overall sandfly collected \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and exported to SPSS software version 20.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) for further analysis. Sand fly density was calculated as the number of sand flies collected per trap per night using LT and ST to compare differences between habitats. The normality of the data was assessed using the Shapiro\u0026ndash;Wilk test. When the data did not meet the assumption of normality, the non-parametric Kruskal\u0026ndash;Wallis test was employed. This test was used to compare the mean number of sand fly species collected across different sampling habitats using CDC light traps and sticky traps. The Chi-square (χ\u0026sup2;) test was applied to evaluate associations between categorical variables. We calculated the Shannon-Wiener (H) diversity index in PAST v4.03 for each study site using the parameters of the proportion in which each species was collected. The permutation test was employed to assess the statistical significance of differences in Shannon diversity indexes between study sites \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Statistical significance was determined at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSand fly species composition and relative abundance across sites\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the current study, a total of 2,196 (1542 males and 654 females) adult phlebotomine sand flies comprising eight species in two genera (\u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e) were collected using LTs and STs. The genus \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e was represented by a single subgenus (\u003cem\u003eAnaphlebotomus)\u003c/em\u003e whereas the genus \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e was represented by four subgenera (\u003cem\u003eGrassomyia, Sergentomyia, Sintonius\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eParrotomyia\u003c/em\u003e) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). One \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e and seven \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e sandfly species were identified from the four study refugee camps in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States. Majority of the samples (85%, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1869) were collected from refugee camps in Gambella; Kule (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;357) and Terkidi (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1012). Whereas, nearly 15% of them were collected from refugee camps located in Benishangul Gumuz Regional States; Sherkole (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;310) and Tsore (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;17). The largest proportion of specimens was captured in Terkidi (46.1%), followed by Kule (39.0%), Sherkole (14.1%), and Tsore (0.8%) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia antennatus\u003c/em\u003e was the most abundant species (50.8%), dominating collections in Kule (60.9%) and Terkidi (54.5%) (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia africanus\u003c/em\u003e ranked second in abundance (15.7%), with its highest contribution in Sherkole (39.4%) and Tsore (64.7%). \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia schwetzi\u003c/em\u003e (14.3%) and \u003cem\u003eS. bedfordi\u003c/em\u003e (10.9%) were also widely distributed, particularly in Terkidi and Sherkole. Less common species included \u003cem\u003eS. clydei\u003c/em\u003e (5.2%), \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e (1.7%), and \u003cem\u003eS. squamipleuris\u003c/em\u003e (1.2%), while \u003cem\u003eS. adleri\u003c/em\u003e was rare, represented by a single specimen (0.05%). Species richness was greatest in Terkidi, where all eight species were recorded, whereas Tsore exhibited both low abundance and diversity (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistribution of sandfly species by refugee camp in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States of Ethiopia, 2025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies (genus)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegion States\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGambella (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1869)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBenishangul Gumuz (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;327)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKule Camp\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerkidi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSherkole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTsore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOver all\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eAnaphlebotomus)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0 (0.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26 (2.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11 (3.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (5.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38 (1.73)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. adleri\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eSintonius)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0(0.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (0.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0 (0.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0 (0.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (0.05)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. africanus\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eParrotomyia\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78 (9.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e134 (13.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122 (39.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11 (64.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e345 (15.71)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. antennatus\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e522 (60.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e552 (54.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41 (13.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (5.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1116 (50.82)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. bedfordi\u003c/em\u003e group (\u003cem\u003eSergentomyia)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105 (12.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e84 (8.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48 (15.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 (11.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e239 (10.88)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. clydei\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eSintonius\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e84 (9.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28 (2.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 (0.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (5.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115 (5.24)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. schwetzi\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59 (6.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e169 (16.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86 (27.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (5.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e315 (14.34)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. squamipleuris\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eGrassomyia\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9 (1.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18 (1.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0 (0.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0 (0.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27 (1.23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrand Total\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e857 (39.0)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1012 (46.1)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e310 (14.1)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17 (0.8)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2196 (100.00)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSpecies composition relative to collection methods\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDistribution of phlebotomine sand flies by collection method is presented in Supplementary File, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The vast majority of sand flies (96.0%) were captured using sticky traps (\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22.1; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.016), with males representing 70.9% and females 29.1%. Sticky traps, deployed in household compounds, indoor environments, natural habitats, termite hills, and cave habitats, proved highly effective in capturing all reported sand fly species. Among them, \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e was relatively rare overall (1.7% of ST collections), yet the majority of this species (36/38 individuals) was obtained using this method. In contrast, CDC light traps contributed only 4.0% of the total sand flies collected, with nearly equal proportions of males (52.9%) and females (47.1%). All species were represented in CDC LT collections except S. adleri, and only two individuals of \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e were obtained using this method. Together, these findings demonstrate the superior efficiency of sticky traps for capturing sand flies in diverse habitats, while CDC light traps provided a more balanced representation of sexes and still detected a wide range of species.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eIndoor and outdoor collections of sand flies\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor collections were very low across all sites, totally only 49 (2.2%) specimens out of 2,196, however, statistically not significant (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.209). Only 2 (5.3%) out of 38 of the \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e were collected from indoor collections. \u003cem\u003eS. africanus\u003c/em\u003e 3.8% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13) and \u003cem\u003eS. antennatus\u003c/em\u003e 2.0% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22) were the most frequently captured from indoors collections, while other species, including \u003cem\u003eS. bedfordi, S. clydei, S. adleri\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eS. schwetzi\u003c/em\u003e, were rarely recorded indoors. This pattern highlights the predominantly outdoor behavior of the species in the study area (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor and outdoor abundance of sandfly species across the four study sites in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States, Ethiopia, 2025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKule\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSherkole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerkidi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTsore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutdoor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutdoor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutdoor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutdoor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutdoor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2(5.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36(94.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. adleri\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0(0.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1(100.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. africanus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13(3.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e332(96.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. antennatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e512\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e540\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22(2.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1094(98.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. bedfordi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7(2.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e232(97.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. clydei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1(0.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114(99.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. schwetzi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e168\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3(1.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e312(99.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. squamipleuris\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1(3.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26(96.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrand Total\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e26(3.0)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e831(97.0)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0(0.0)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e310(100.0)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e21(2.1)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e991(97.9)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2(11.8)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15(88.2)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e49(2.2)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2147(97.8_\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSex ratio and abdominal status of sand flies\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe overall male to female sex ratio was 1.1:1 in sandflies collected using CDC light trap whereas, 2.4:1 recorded from sandflies captured using ST. Across all sites and both collection methods, male sand flies predominated over female (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). With the exception of \u003cem\u003eS. africanus\u003c/em\u003e (138/182), the male predominance was more pronounced in \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhani\u003c/em\u003e (27/11), \u003cem\u003eS. antennatus\u003c/em\u003e (888/228) and \u003cem\u003eS. bedfordi\u003c/em\u003e (192/47) based on ST collections. Similarly, female-biased ratios were observed in \u003cem\u003eS. schwetzi, S. bedfordi\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eS. squamipleuris\u003c/em\u003e, while species such as \u003cem\u003eS. clydei\u003c/em\u003e showed a more balanced distribution in some sites (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, sticky traps captured substantially more females than CDC light traps (\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.0; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), highlighting their efficiency for sampling host-seeking females. Of the 654 female sand flies examined across all sites, 30 (4.6%) were blood-fed and 75 (11.5%) were gravid. \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e species accounted for the majority of both categories, with notable proportions of \u003cem\u003eS. schwetzi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eS. antennatus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eS. clydei\u003c/em\u003e. In contrast, \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e was detected only in Sherkole, represented by a single gravid specimen (Supplementary Table\u0026nbsp;1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale to female ratio of sandflies among refugee camps by collection methods\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollection methods\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c10\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall Total\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCDC light trap\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSticky trap\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKule\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSherkole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerkidi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTsore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKule\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSherkole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerkidi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTsore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKule\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSherkole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerkidi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTsore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM/F\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0/1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8/2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18/8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8/3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18/8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. adleri\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. africanus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8/4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3/4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0/2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22/52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60/50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51/76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5/4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23/55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68/54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57/80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5/6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. antennatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8/12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e415/96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30/9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e421/111\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e426/96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32/9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e429/123\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. bedfordi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97/6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37/6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53/29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e99/6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38/10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54/30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. clydei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0/1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42/42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0/1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14/12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0/1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42/42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0/2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16/12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0/1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. schwetzi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2/6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47/11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61/23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97/64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0/1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48/11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63/23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e99/70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0/1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. squamipleuris\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4/5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11/3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4/5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12/6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrand Total\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15/3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13/10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17/26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1/2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e627/212\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e196/91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e666/303\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7/7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e642/215\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e209/101\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e683/329\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8/9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eHabitat preferences of the sand flies\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mean number of sand flies collected per trap, per habitat, and per night is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The Kruskal\u0026ndash;Wallis H test indicated that Ph. rodhaini, S. africanus, S. antennatus, S. bedfordi, and S. schwetzi exhibited significant associations with habitat type, showing a preference for termite hills located in both village and natural environments. However, S. clydei was associated with termite hills in natural habitats only. Additionally, S. bedfordi demonstrated a statistically significant preference for natural habitats, in addition to termite hills in both the village and natural settings (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean density with Standard Error (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE) of sandfly species per ST per night across different habitats in refugee camps located in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz regions, Ethiopia, 2025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompound\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNatural Habitat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTH_in village\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTH_ Natural Habitat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. africanus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.96*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.97*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. antennatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.96*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.97*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. bedfordi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.34*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.26*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.04*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. clydei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.93*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. schwetzi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.30*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.93 \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.48*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e*Indicated statistically significant\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eTH natural Habitat\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;termite hill located in the natural habitat of the study site; TH_in village\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;termite hills located in the village of the study areas\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDiversity of sand flies among refugee camps\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H'), evenness (E), and species richness (S) were calculated for sandfly populations across four refugee camps (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The Shannon diversity index was highest in Sherkole (H'=1.430) and lowest in Tsore (H'=1.200). Sherkole harbored a significantly more diverse sandfly community than Kule (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). The high diversity in Sherkole is likely driven by a more even species distribution, as indicated by its highest evenness value (0.798). On the other hand, the sandfly species diversity was significantly higher in Kule than in Terkidi (H\u0026rsquo;=0.690 vs 0.662). In contrast, the low diversity in Tsore can be primarily attributed to its very low total abundance (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;17), which limits species richness and inflates the influence of small count changes on diversity metrics. The number of species reported in Terkidi (S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8) was higher than in Kule (S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6) (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H\u0026rsquo;), evenness (E) and richness (S) of the sand fly species from the study areas.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRefugee camp\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH'\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKule\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.237\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.690\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSherkole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.430\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.798\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerkidi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.376\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.662\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTsore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.670\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePCR screening of sandflies for the detection of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eLeishmania\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eDNA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePCR screening was performed on the 11 individually tested female \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e to detect \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e DNA. Whereas, for the female \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e species; 25 pools of \u003cem\u003eS. africanus\u003c/em\u003e (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;195\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, 24 pools of \u003cem\u003eS. antennatus\u003c/em\u003e (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;228), 13 pools of \u003cem\u003eS. bedfordi\u003c/em\u003e (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;47), 10 pools of \u003cem\u003eS. clydei\u003c/em\u003e (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;57) and 16 pools of \u003cem\u003eS. schwetzi\u003c/em\u003e (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;105) and 4 pool of \u003cem\u003eS. squamipleuris\u003c/em\u003e (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11) (each pool comprising material from 1\u0026ndash;22 sand flies) were processed using PCR for \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e DNA detection. None of the pools screened sand fly positive, and all individually analyzed \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e specimens were also negative for Leishmania kDNA based molecular screening.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides an entomological assessment of sandfly vectors in refugee camps in the Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz Regional States of Ethiopia, regions not known to be endemic for VL but at high risk for VL \u003csup\u003e2,25\u003c/sup\u003e. The present findings reveal a diverse sandfly fauna dominated by species of the genus \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e, exhibiting clear ecological preferences for outdoor habitats, and importantly, report no molecular evidence of \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e infection within the sampled sand fly populations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 2,196 adult phlebotomine sand flies (1,542 males, 654 females) comprising eight species in two genera (\u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e) were collected using LTs and STs. Phlebotomus was represented by one subgenus (\u003cem\u003eAnaphlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e), while \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e included four subgenera; \u003cem\u003eGrassomyia, Sergentomyia, Sintonius, Parrotomyia\u003c/em\u003e. Most specimens (85%) were collected from Gambella camps (Kule: 357; Terkidi: 1,012), while 15% came from Benishangul Gumuz (Sherkole: 310; Tsore: 17). One \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e and seven \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e species were identified from four refugee camps in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States. The current cross sectional entomological survey revealed that the 98.3% of the collected sand flies belong to the genus \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e and only 1.7% reported among the genus \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e sand fly. These \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e outnumber report are in line with reports from endemic regions of the northern and southern parts of Ethiopia \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, the low abundance of \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e (1.73%) is a pivotal result. Similar findings were reported in previous studies in some VL endemic regions including the northern, southern and eastern parts of Ethiopia \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. An attempt was made to conduct a cross-sectional entomological assessment in the Gambella refugee camps and surrounding areas in 1996 by Hailu et al. (unpublished data); however, this species was not reported. This may be due to climate change and/or other environmental factors contributing to its detection in the current study. This finding suggests that the primary VL vectors reported from other foci in Ethiopia may not have been detected in these specific camp environments, likely due to the cross-sectional nature of the data collection, whereas other studies employed longitudinal and seasonal sampling approaches \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Similarly, this species is also distributed in some areas of east Africa including Sudan and South Sudan \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR38 CR39\" citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The present entomological survey was the first of its kind conducted in both Gambella and Benishangul-Gumuz Regional States, documenting the distribution of \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e in refugee camps located in both studied regions. The finding of \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e, even though in low numbers, is important. \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e has been historically considered a possible vector of \u003cem\u003eL. donovani\u003c/em\u003e in Sudan \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In a review conducted by Al-Salam and colleagues on VL during the conflict in South Sudan and its consequences for East African countries, the authors highlighted the possible role of this species in the transmission of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis (ZVL) in East Africa \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, due to generally low abundance in the east African region \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and suspected preference for feeding on rodents rather than humans \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, its role has often been underestimated. Nevertheless, its presence indicates potential risk for VL transmission, especially in settings where other primary vectors are rare or absent.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe report seven \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e species in the current study that showed species of this genus are widely distributed in Ethiopia including VL endemic regions where \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e is the known vector for the transmission \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The striking finding was the overwhelming dominance of \u003cem\u003eS. antennatus\u003c/em\u003e, which constituted over 50% of all collected specimens. This was particularly pronounced in the Gambella camps (Kule and Terkidi), while \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e species are often considered primarily zoophilic and of least importance in VL transmission compared to proven vectors like \u003cem\u003ePh. orientalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePh. martini\u003c/em\u003e, however, their extreme abundance warrants attention. Their absolute numbers could increase human-vector contact rates, and the role of some \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e species as potential vectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of sand fly species diversity revealed a heterogeneous distribution across the camps. Sherkole camp exhibited the highest species diversity and evenness, influenced by its more even distribution of species and high density in termite mounds. In contrast, the exceptionally low abundance and diversity in Tsore camp likely reflect less suitable local ecological conditions for sandfly proliferation. The high diversity in Terkidi, where all eight species were present but was dominated by \u003cem\u003eS. antennatus\u003c/em\u003e, suggests a complex ecological setting. The exophilic (outdoor-resting) behavior observed across all species, with less than 2.3% of specimens collected indoors, has major implications for vector control strategies. This finding aligns with studies in other reports in Ethiopia, Sudan and South Sudan \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR42\" citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e–\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Our data indicate that traditional indoor residual spraying (IRS) remains a cornerstone of VL control; however, control efforts should also consider targeted outdoor interventions. The high densities of \u003cem\u003eS. antennatus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. africanus\u003c/em\u003e associated with termite mounds, particularly those near natural habitats and within villages, identify these structures as key ecological niches. The current report is supported by study conducted in Kenya \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Environmental management, such as the modification or destruction of termite mounds in peridomestic areas, could be a highly effective strategy to reduce sandfly breeding and resting sites.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe negative results from the highly sensitive kDNA PCR assay, on both pooled \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e and individual \u003cem\u003eP. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e specimens, are significant and valuable findings. In the context of the camps' distribution of asymptomatic \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e infection \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, this suggests several non-exclusive possibilities: (1) the parasite circulation was at a very low, undetectable level during our specific sampling period, which may not be representative of seasonal peaks in transmission; (2) the zoonotic transmission cycle may involve animal reservoirs not effectively bitten by the sampled sandflies; or (3) the known efficient vectors are present at such low densities that they were not captured in sufficient numbers to detect an infected specimen. This absence of infection will be crucial baseline data indicating a currently low transmission intensity within the vector population, which is essential for monitoring future trends. On the contrary, some studies have demonstrated that either \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e spp. or \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e spp. tested positive for \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e DNA using molecular techniques. Study conducted in Iran; \u003cem\u003eS. dentata\u003c/em\u003e 4/48 (8.33%) and \u003cem\u003eS. sintoni\u003c/em\u003e, 2/4 (50%) tested positive for \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e major using Nested-PCR of ITS2 \u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e; a study conducted in Portugal showed that \u003cem\u003eS. minuta\u003c/em\u003e were reported as \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e DNA positive (2/1867) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The difference could be these \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e species not observed in the current study. Another study conducted in Kenya also challenged the long-held dogma that human leishmaniasis in the Old World is exclusively transmitted by sand flies of the genus \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e. Their findings implicated \u003cem\u003eS. squamipleuris\u003c/em\u003e as a potential vector in the transmission of \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. On the other hand, \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e DNA and \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e promastigotes were found in three female \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e sandfly specimens from Sudan \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The absence of \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e DNA in \u003cem\u003eP. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e in the present study may be attributed to ecological differences, such as variations in host-feeding preferences and transmission intensity between sites. Additionally, we reported that the predominance of asymptomatic cases in the study areas \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e could also contribute to this discrepancy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStrengths and Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe strength of this study is its rigorous design, employing CDC light and sticky traps across diverse habitats to comprehensively assess sandfly ecology in under-surveilled Ethiopian refugee camps. We used highly sensitive PCR screening, providing reliable data on infection status. The focus on a vulnerable population and inclusion of ecological diversity indices generate crucial baseline data for informing targeted public health interventions against visceral leishmaniasis. On the other hand, the study has also several limitations. Findings from four camps may not be generalizable to all other VL endemic settings. The cross-sectional design provides only a snapshot, possibly missing seasonal transmission peaks. Finally, the lack of blood meal analysis limits insights into host preferences and reservoir dynamics. These constraints highlight the need for longitudinal, multi-site studies incorporating additional techniques in future research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion and recommendation","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur study showed a detailed picture of the sandfly fauna in southwestern and northwestern Ethiopian refugee camps for the first time. The vector community is characterized by high diversity, a strong predominance of outdoor-resting \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e species, and a notable absence of \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e DNA in the tested sand fly’s specimen at the time of the study. Integrated vector management has been implemented in these areas that includes environmental management, specifically targeting termite mounds in peridomestic areas. It is recommended to establish longitudinal entomological surveillance across different seasons to better capture temporal variations in sandfly density and \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e infection rates. Future studies should employ a larger sample size for \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e species and consider screening blood-fed females for host preferences to identify potential reservoir hosts involved in the transmission cycle. It is also desirable to investigate potential animal reservoirs in and around the camps to understand the complete transmission cycle.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eCDC LT: Centers for Diseases control and prevention light trap; CPD: household compounds; DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid; MoH: Ministry of health of Ethiopia; NH: natural habitat; PCR: polymerase chain reaction; ST: sticky trap; TH: termite hill; VL: visceral Leishmaniasis\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eHB, AA, GT, BE and EA conceived and designed the study. All authors were involved in proposal writing and participated in field coordination, data collection, supervision and overall implementation of the study. HB analyzed the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsent was sought from each refugee camp coordinators including protection, security and health coordinators) and informed consent was also sought from head of households from where sandflies were collected in their compound and/or indoor. The study obtained ethical clearance from the Aklilu Lemma Institute of Health Research-Institutional Research Ethics Review Committee (ALIHR-IRERC) prior to data collection (Ref. No.: ALIPB IRERC/112/2015/23). A permission letter was obtained from Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Refugees and Returnees Service (FDRE RRS) and subsequently from RRS regional office and camp coordination offices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cb\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cb\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was financially supported by grants from Addis Ababa University\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe sincerely thank the FDRE Refugee and Returnee Service (RRS) for their support in facilitating communication with regional offices. Our appreciation also goes to the RRS coordination offices, camp coordinators, volunteers, and refugee community members for their kind cooperation during indoor and household compound sandfly collections, and to the community leaders for their generous help in organizing participants. We are especially grateful to Dr. Abebe Animut and Mr. Wossen Sisay for their thoughtful assistance in providing field supplies and ensuring smooth logistical arrangements before deployment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWHO. Leishmaniasis. 2023. Accessed September 7, 2024. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leishmaniasis\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTsegaw T, Gadisa E, Seid A, et al. Identification of environmental parameters and risk mapping of visceral leishmaniasis in Ethiopia by using geographical information systems and a statistical approach. \u003cem\u003eGeospat Health\u003c/em\u003e. 2013;7(2):299-308. doi:10.4081/gh.2013.88\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGadisa E, Tsegaw T, Abera A, Elnaiem D eldin, Boer M Den. Eco-epidemiology of visceral leishmaniasis in Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eParasit Vectors\u003c/em\u003e. 2015;8(381). doi:10.1186/s13071-015-0987-y\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAklilu E, Gebresilassie A, Yared S, et al. Studies on sand fly fauna and ecological analysis of Phlebotomus orientalis in the highland and lowland foci of kala-azar in northwestern Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003ePLoS One\u003c/em\u003e. 2017;12(4):1-15. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0175308\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAklilu E, Gebresilassie A, Yared S, et al. 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Habitat Preference and Seasonal Variations of Phlebotomine Sandflies (Diptera, Psychodidae) in Marigat Area, Baringo District, Kenya. \u003cem\u003eInt J Trop Insect Sci\u003c/em\u003e. 1992;13(3):307-314. doi:10.1017/s1742758400013552\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Ethiopia, Phlebotomus rodhaini, Refugee camps, Sergentomyia spp., Vector surveillance, Visceral leishmaniasis","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7808449/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7808449/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eVisceral leishmaniasis (VL) is transmitted by infected female sandflies. Entomological data in refugee settings remain limited. This study aimed to describe sandfly fauna and assess natural \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e infection in refugee camps in Ethiopia. The study was conducted in four refugee camps. Sandflies were collected using standard techniques. Sand flies identified morphologically. Female sandflies dissected, mounted for species confirmation, and preserved for PCR analysis. A total of 2,196 sandflies representing eight species (one \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e, seven \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia\u003c/em\u003e) were collected. \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e, the only \u003cem\u003ePhlebotomus\u003c/em\u003e species detected, accounted for 1.7% of captures. \u003cem\u003eSergentomyia antennatus\u003c/em\u003e was the most abundant (50.8%), followed by \u003cem\u003eS. africanus\u003c/em\u003e (15.7%), \u003cem\u003eS. schwetzi\u003c/em\u003e (14.3%), and \u003cem\u003eS. bedfordi\u003c/em\u003e (10.9%). Species richness was greatest in Terkidi camp, while diversity was highest in Sherkole. Indoor captures were scarce (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2.3% of specimens), confirming exophilic resting behavior. Termite hills and peridomestic habitats harbored the highest sandfly densities. PCR screening showed no evidence of \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e infection. This first entomological survey in refugee camps in Ethiopia documents a sandfly fauna dominated by outdoor collection very low abundance of \u003cem\u003ePh. rodhaini\u003c/em\u003e and no detectable \u003cem\u003eLeishmania\u003c/em\u003e infection. These findings suggest a low vector risk during the survey period but underscore the need for longitudinal monitoring to capture seasonal variation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Entomological Survey of Sandfly Vectors and Molecular Screening for Leishmania Parasite in Refugee Camps in Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-18 20:25:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7808449/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-11-28T12:51:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-20T09:47:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-17T09:21:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"30156343616484480541172060505025792938","date":"2025-11-09T18:20:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"63535054926162369913199342111117168257","date":"2025-11-07T10:18:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"322676389888966580062518457689867994633","date":"2025-11-06T14:07:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-06T06:46:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-14T17:56:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-11T16:11:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-10-11T16:06:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"852fa98e-fb5f-4e5c-8744-1d42338990a1","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":58057401,"name":"Health sciences/Diseases"},{"id":58057402,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology"},{"id":58057403,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology"},{"id":58057404,"name":"Biological sciences/Microbiology"},{"id":58057405,"name":"Biological sciences/Zoology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-02T16:13:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7808449","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-37733-2","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2026-01-27 15:59:31","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 27th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-18 20:25:53","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-026-37733-2","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-37733-2","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7808449","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7808449","identity":"rs-7808449","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}