Efficacy of biochar on the phytoremediation potential of Tithonia diversifolia on spent oil-contaminated soil

Efficacy of biochar on the phytoremediation potential of Tithonia diversifolia on spent oil-contaminated soil | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Efficacy of biochar on the phytoremediation potential of Tithonia diversifolia on spent oil-contaminated soil Olamide Omolafe Ogunremi, Omolara Faith Amubieya, Clement Oluseye Ogunkunle, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4629528/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The application of biochar has gained attention as a simple, affordable and sustainable strategy for the remediation of contaminated soils. However, the phytoremediating potential of certain plants and interactions with biochar are necessary to achieve effective environmental clean-up. This study evaluated the influence of biochar on the remediation potential of Tithonia diversifolia grown in spent oil-contaminated soil. T. diversifolia was grown in spent oil - contaminated soil amended with rice biochar and sorghum biochar at four different application rates (1, 2 and 3% w/w) for 6 weeks. The heavy metals studied included copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and chromium (Cr). The results of this study showed that compared with the other treatments, rice biochar strongly enhanced the growth of T. diversifolia . RB3% influenced the phytostabilization potential of T. diversifolia for Cu. However, StB3% and SB3% enhanced T. diversifolia ’s potential capacity for the phytoextraction of Cr and Pb, respectively. Generally, the response of T. diversifolia to phytoextraction and phytostabilization is dependent on the biochar and application rate used. Hence, there is a need for further research on the use of T. diversifolia for remediation purposes under the influence of specific biochar types and application rates. Biochar heavy metals phytoextraction phytostabilization Tithonia diversifolia Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 INTRODUCTION Tithonia diversifolia is a shrub in the Asteraceae family that is widely spread throughout the world but is presently distributed in 64 countries [ 1 ], and it has been reported to be a native plant of Mexico. This plant was introduced as ornamental/green manure in the humid and sub-humid tropics of Africa [ 2 , 3 ] and is regarded as a dicot weed found on farms, waste areas and roads in Nigeria [ 4 ]. T. diversifolia (TD) is widely valued in several cultures for its medicinal properties [ 5 ] due to the presence of valuable sources of bioactive compounds with significant therapeutic implications and favorable safety indices [ 2 ]. Comprehensive research on the phytochemical composition, therapeutic efficiency, soil fertility capacity, antioxidant capability, toxicity and allergenic potential of these plants has been reported [ 2 , 6 – 11 ]. However, there are few studies on the phytoremediation potential of T. diversifolia in heavy metal-polluted soils [ 12 – 13 ]. Reports on the responses of T. diversifolia at polluted sites can serve as indicators for soil recovery, which is a cheap, sustainable strategy for cleaning the environment [ 14 ]. Ayesa et al. [ 15 ] and Al.-Jobori and Kadhim [ 16 ] identified T. diversifolia as a promising species for the phytoextraction of heavy metals from contaminated sites without being affected. The invasive nature of T. diversifolia and its capacity to produce massive biomass and a well - developed expanded root system [ 2 ], particularly in soils with low nutrient levels, suggest the need to investigate this plant for its metal accumulation potential. In addition, plants found growing naturally in polluted environments are suggestive of their potential for remediation purposes in such areas [ 17 ]. Additionally, the focus can shift to noncrops such as T. diversifolia , which are not consumed to avoid threats to human wellbeing. Studies have shown that plants that produce specific secondary metabolites (medicinal plants) can create an adaptive mechanism of tolerance by forming complexes with heavy metals against divalent metals [ 18 – 19 ]. This mechanism is interrelated with the chelation of metal ions by specific secondary metabolites in medicinal plants [ 20 – 21 ]. T. diversifolia , as a medicinal plant, possesses specific secondary metabolites known as targitinins [ 2 ] that could be responsible for its capacity to tolerate heavy metals. Few studies have been conducted on the synergistic effects of biochar and plants on the remediation of heavy metal-polluted soils [ 22 – 23 ]. However, no studies on the potential of T. diversifolia grown on spent oil-contaminated soil amended with biochar for soil remediation have investigated the responses of T. diversifolia to environmental pollution in terms of its growth and potential accumulation of pollutants. The objective of this research was to evaluate the influence of biochar on the potential of T. diversifolia for phytoremediation of spent oil-contaminated soil. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area The study was carried out at the Green House of Botanical Garden at the University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. The University of Ilorin Botanical Garden lies between latitude 08° 28´N and longitude 04° 40 E and latitude 8.500 °N and longitude 4.550 °E, with an annual rainfall of approximately 1200 mm and a temperature varying between 33°C and 34°C. Collection of substrates Seeds of T. diversifolia were collected from the Botanical Garden, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State. The soil samples were collected from the surroundings of the Botanical Garden, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State. The spent engine oil was collected from the Toyota Automobile Company, Ilorin, Kwara State. Commercial grade biochar (wheat straw, 700°C) was obtained from the UK Biochar Research Centre (UKBRC). Rice and sorghum straw were collected from Rice Farm, Patigi, Kwara State, and Sorghum Farm, Ilorin, Kwara State, respectively. Preparation of substrate Sandy loam soil was bulked and homogenized to give one representative sample of approximately 300 kg. The soil was sieved through a 2 mm mesh to ensure that the soil was free of unwanted materials, which could disturb the proper functioning of the soil microorganisms, proper stretching of the roots and proper organization of the soil. The soil was spiked with 50 ml/kg (5% v/w) spent engine oil, thoroughly mixed manually with hand-protected gloves and left for two weeks in a moist, cool garden environment [ 24 ] to ensure the uniformity of the oil, moisture content, air content, temperature, and effective activities of the soil microorganisms. Biochar was introduced to the spiked soil at different rates of 1%, 2% and 3% w/w with thorough mixing under 60% moisture, after which it was allowed to incubate for one month. The soil was sampled for laboratory analysis. Pot experiment The experiment was conducted in 30 pots. Polythene pots (19 cm surface diameter and 23 cm depth) were filled with 3 kg of topsoil, and ten T. diversifolia seeds were planted in each polythene pot. The germinated plants were thinned to two plants per pot. Watering was performed daily with 180 ml of tap water, and regular weeding was performed by hand picking. The treatments were replicated three times with a complete randomized design (CRD). Plant growth measurement Plant height was measured using a meter ruler from the soil level to the collar of the uppermost leaf [ 25 ]. Stem girth was measured with thread, which was later extrapolated on a ruler. Leaf area was measured using the method of Watts [ 26 ]. The leaves were counted and harvested after 6 weeks. After harvesting, the shoot biomass was collected from the base of the plant stalks. The root biomass was manually separated from the potted soil, and the soil and biochar particles were removed. The root lengths were measured, and the fresh biomass was weighed immediately, while the dry biomass was weighed after oven drying to a constant weight. Heavy metal determination : The method of Thompson and Wood [ 27 ] was adopted. One gram of each plant sample was digested in a 4:1 ratio of concentrated 69% HNO 3 (analyzer grade) and concentrated 60% HClO 4 (Merck, Germany). The mixture was heated to dryness. The residue was then leached with 5 M 36% HCl (analyzer grade) and filtered through Whatman No. 41 filter paper. The filtrate was finally diluted with distilled water to 1 M HCl. The samples were analyzed for multiple elements, including Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn, with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS model 210VGP, Buck Scientific Incorporated USA) with an air-acetylene flame. Procedural blanks were carried out, and samples were tested in triplicate to validate the accuracy of the procedure. Soil and Plant Analyses Heavy metal determination was performed using the method of Thompson and Wood [ 27 ]. One gram of each sample was digested in a 4:1 ratio of concentrated 69% HNO 3 (Analar grade) and concentrated 60% HClO 4 (Merck, Germany). The mixture was heated to dryness. The residue was then leached with 5 M 36% HCl (analyzer grade) and filtered through Whatman No. 41 filter paper. The filtrate was finally diluted with distilled water to 1 M HCl. The samples were analyzed for multiple elements, including Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn, with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS model 210VGP, Buck Scientific Incorporated USA) with an air-acetylene flame. Procedural blanks were carried out, and samples were tested in triplicate to validate the accuracy of the procedure. Plant‒soil relationship The movement of heavy metals from polluted soil into the roots of plants and their ability to translocate metals from roots to aerial parts were assessed by means of bioconcentration factor (BCF) and translocation factor (TF) models [ 28 ]. Eq. 1 represent the bioconcentration factor (BCF) calculated as the ratio of the concentration of heavy metals in plant roots to that in soil: \(\text{B}\text{C}\text{F}=\frac{\text{C}\text{m}\text{r}}{\text{C}\text{m}\text{s}}\) (1) where C mr is the concentration of heavy metals in roots, C ms is the concentration of heavy metals in soil. BCF values > 2 are regarded as high values, which implies better phytoaccumulation capabilities of the plant [ 29 ]. The higher the BCF is, the more suitable the plant is for phytoextraction. Equation 2 represent the translocation factor (TF) calculated as the ratio of the heavy metal concentration in the plant shoot to that in the plant root: \(TF=\frac{\text{C}\text{m}\text{s}\text{h}}{\text{C}\text{m}\text{r}}\) (2) where C msh is the metal concentration in the shoot, and C mr is the concentration of heavy metals in the root. A TF 1 indicates that the plant is an accumulator. TF = 1 indicates that the plant is an indicator [ 30 ]. Statistical analyses One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the significant differences among the biochar treatments, and Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) was used to determine the significance of the differences among the biochar treatments based on the soil properties, growth parameters and heavy metal contents (p < 0.05). RESULTS Table 1 shows the growth parameters of T. diversifolia . The height of T. diversifolia decreased with increasing standard biochar (StB) and increased with increasing sorghum and rice biochar. Rice biochar (RB 3%) had the greatest percentage (13.36 cm) of T. diversifolia. The number of leaves of T. diversifolia in the 1% (8.00) and 3% (7.00) RB treatment groups was significantly greater than that in the untreated group. Only the leaf area of T. diversifolia plants treated with rice biochar was significantly greater than that of the control plants. In addition, the 1% RB treatment had the greatest number of leaves and greatest leaf area. Rice biochar (3%)-treated T. diversifolia had the greatest percentage of stem girth. Stem girth decreased with increasing standard biochar concentration, while rice biochar tended to increase. However, the sorghum biochar (1%) value was not determined as a result of plant death before measurement. In general, compared with the other treatments, the rice biochar treatment improved the growth of T. diversifolia . Table 1 Effect of different concentrations of standard, sorghum and rice biochars on the growth of T. diversifolia Biochar rate (%) Height (cm) No of leaves Leaf area (cm 2 ) Stem girth (cm) Control 0 9.60 ± 0.95 c 6.00 ± 0.00 b 2.45 ± 1.75 bc 1.46 ± 0.09 d StB 1 9.40 ± 1.61 c 4.00 ± 0.00 c 1.70 ± 0.32 c 1.66 ± 0.08 c 2 8.27 ± 0.72 d 6.00 ± 0.00 b 1.58 ± 0.29 c 1.62 ± 0.08 c 3 5.50 ± 0.20 e 4.00 ± 0.00 c 0.40 ± 0.26 d 1.25 ± 0.00 e SB 1 N N N N 2 8.93 ± 0.85 d 4.00 ± 0.00 c 1.06 ± 0.26 c 1.52 ± 0.09 cd 3 10.33 ± 0.25 b 5.00 ± 0.00 c 1.74 ± 0.48 c 1.33 ± 0.09 d RB 1 10.70 ± 0.46 b 8.00 ± 0.00 a 5.08 ± 3.95 a 1.57 ± 0.00 cd 2 12.90 ± 0.72 a 6.00 ± 0.00 b 3.42 ± 2.59 bc 1.98 ± 0.18 b 3 13.37 ± 1.08 a 7.00 ± 0.00 a 4.40 ± 4.25 a 2.30 ± 0.48 a Values are presented as means ± S.D of triplicate values. Values with different superscripts in the same column differ significantly at p ≤ 0.05. StB – Standard Biochar; SB – Sorghum Biochar; RB - Rice Biochar, N- Necrosis Table 2 shows the biomass of T. diversifolia under the different biochar treatments. At 2%, sorghum biochar had the greatest effect on the length (9.73 ± 2.46 cm) of the roots of T. diverisfolia . T. diversifolia plants treated with rice biochar had significantly greater shoot and root fresh weights (p < 0.05) than did the control plants. The sorghum and rice biochar treatments significantly (p < 0.05) increased the shoot dry weight of T. diversifolia , while the root dry weight of untreated T. diversifolia was significantly greater than that of the treated plants, except for SB2%. Table 2 Effect of different concentrations of standard, sorghum and rice biochars on biomass of T. diversifolia Biochar rate (%) RL (cm) SFW (g/kg) RFW (g/kg) SDW (g/kg) RDW (g/kg) Control 0 8.20 ± 1.90 a 0.32 ± 0.05 abc 0.06 ± 0.02 ab 0.02 ± 0.01 bc 0.02 ± 0.03 a StB 1 6.97 ± 1.21 a 0.20 ± 0.07 bc 0.10 ± 0.02 a 0.02 ± 0.01 bc 0.001 ± 0.00 a 2 5.50 ± 0.40 a 0.20 ± 0.01 bc 0.06 ± 0.04 ab 0.01 ± 0.001 c 0.002 ± 0.001 a 3 8.17 ± 0.55 a 0.09 ± 0.01 bc 0.05 ± 0.02 ab 0.002 ± 0.001 c 0.001 ± 0.001 a SB 1 N N N N N 2 9.73 ± 2.46 a 0.17 ± 0.04 bc 0.07 ± 0.05 a 0.05 ± 0.01 bc 0.02 ± 0.03 a 3 6.23 ± 0.45 a 0.25 ± 0.07 bc 0.05 ± 0.03 ab 0.12 ± 0.08 a 0.001 ± 0.001 a RB 1 8.40 ± 6.02 a 0.47 ± 0.31 ab 0.08 ± 0.04 a 0.08 ± 0.07 ab 0.01 ± 0.01 a 2 8.83 ± 1.17 a 0.47 ± 0.15 ab 0.08 ± 0.01 a 0.08 ± 0.03 ab 0.001 ± 0.001 a 3 8.00 ± 2.54 a 0.65 ± 0.55 a 0.07 ± 0.06 a 0.09 ± 0.08 ab 0.01 ± 0.01 a Values are presented as means ± S.D of triplicate values. Values with different superscripts on the same column differ significantly at p ≤ 0.05. StB – Standard Biochar; SB – Sorghum Biochar; RB - Rice Biochar; RL – root length, SFW – shoot fresh weight; RFW – Root fresh weight; SDW – shoot dry weight; RDW – root dry weight, N- Necrosis. Table 3 shows that the control T. diversifolia and StB3%-treated T. diversifolia phytoextracted Cr, while SB3%-treated T. diversifolia phytoextracted Pb. However, in the RB3%-treated group, T. diversifolia phytostabilized Cu. Table 3 Bioconcentration factors and translocation factors of heavy metals in T. diversifolia Cu Zn Pb Cd Cr Biochar rate (%) BCF TF BCF TF BCF TF BCF TF BCF TF Control 0 1.00 Null 0.00 Null 1.00 7.60 Null 2.17 1.33 ** 1.50 ** StB 1 0.66 1.09 1.23 * 0.00 * 0.60 1.67 0.62 1.30 0.00 Null 2 Null 0.06 1.30 * 0.00 * 2.30 * 0.00 * 1.76 * 0.00 * 1.57 * 0.64 * 3 0.00 Null 0.00 Null 0.46 2.67 0.00 Null 1.25 ** 1.60 ** SB 1 0.24 1.25 0.00 Null 0.38 2.17 0.00 Null 1.10 * 0.36 * 2 Null 1.38 0.00 Null 0.00 Null 0.00 Null 0.57 0.75 3 1.00 5.51 0.46 1.00 1.66 ** 1.30 ** Null 2.00 1.00 1.25 RB 1 0.00 Null 1.00 0.63 1.00 0.50 1.00 1.54 0.64 0.86 2 0.63 2.03 1.00 1.00 0.77 1.30 1.00 2.00 0.86 0.67 3 2.00 * 0.78 * 0.50 0.00 1.00 0.77 Null 0.00 0.71 1.00 StB – Standard Biochar, SB – Sorghum Biochar, RB –Rice Biochar, BCF - Bioconcentration factor, TF - Translocation factor, Phytoextractor** (BCF &TF > 1), Phytostabilizer * ( BCF > 1 and TF < 1 ), Indicator, TF = 1. Figure 1-5 revealed higher concentrations of all heavy metals in the roots of T. diversifolia treated with StB2% than in the shoots. In addition, the roots of T. diversifolia treated with RB3% contained higher concentrations of Cd and Cu than the shoots. DISCUSSION Research carried out by Ayesa et al. [ 15 ] revealed a decrease in the growth biomass of T. diversifolia in simulated polluted soil. They noted that water uptake and heavy metal toxicity could be the causes of reduced growth. In relation to this study, the presence of biochar, especially rice biochar, has been able to address the problems highlighted by Ayesa et al. [ 15 ]. This implies that the addition of biochar in this study improved T. diversifolia growth and biomass in polluted soil. This could result from the porous structure of biochar, which is responsible for its high adsorption and water retention capacity [ 31 – 32 ]. According to Genesio et al. [ 33 ], physical conditions change with biochar; its dark color alters thermal dynamics and alleviates rapid plant germination, allowing more time for growth compared with controls. Additionally, the ability of rice biochar to restrict the movement of heavy metals to T. diversifolia could be responsible for its improved growth and biomass. Phytoextraction is a phytoremediation technique in which heavy metals are removed from polluted soils and then translocated to aboveground tissues [ 34 ]. Plants that are recognized as hyperaccumulators must be able to accumulate high levels of heavy metals and still retain their health status, such as high biomass, tolerance to metal toxicity, and resistance to pathogens and pests [ 35 ]. For plants to be efficient tools for the phytoextraction of heavy metals in polluted soils, both the bioconcentration factor and translocation factor must be greater than one [ 36 – 37 ]. With respect to the current research, T. diversifoli a was able to phytoextract Pb in the presence of sorghum biochar (3%), with a BCF of 1.66 and a TF of -1.30, while untreated T. diversifolia had BCF and TF values of 1.33 and 1.50, respectively. In addition, standard biochar (3%) was used to treat T. diversifolia with BCF and TF values of 1.25 and 1.60, respectively, of potentially phytoextracted Cr. A report by Ayesa et al. [ 15 ] revealed that T. diversifolia phytoextracted Cd, Zn and Cu but not Pb, which was dissimilar to the results of this study. This could be a result of the incorporation of biochar into the soil, which supported T. diversifolia in the phytoextraction of Pb and phytostabilization of Cu, Zn, and Cd, as confirmed in this study. Phytostabilization is another phytoremediation technique that involves immobilization of heavy metals and accumulation of these metals in underground biomass [ 38 – 39 ] and primarily focuses on heavy metal sequestration in roots. Plants with BCF values greater than 1 and TF values less than one are appropriate for phytostabilization [ 40 – 41 ]. The current study showed that rice biochar application at 3% restricted the movement of Cu from T. diversifolia to the roots. The mechanisms that could result in the restriction of heavy metal mobility include water erosion and leaching prevented by plant roots, precipitation [ 42 – 43 ], root adsorption or absorption and a reduction in metal valency [ 44 ]. Moreover, plants with BCF values that lack the ability to translocate heavy metals to aerial parts are suitable for phytostabilization [ 45 – 46 ]. Therefore, the current study confirmed the influence of biochar treatments on the phytostabilization potential of T. diversifolia for all heavy metals except StB3% and SB3%. CONCLUSION This study revealed that rice biochar promoted the growth of T. diversifolia and supported the phytostabilization ability of T. diversifolia for the studied heavy metals. However, StB3% and SB3% were the only treatments that enhanced the phytoextraction potential of T. diversifolia for Cr and Pb, respectively. In this view, the response of T. diversifolia to phytoextraction and phytostabilization is dependent on the biochar and dose used in this study. Hence, further research on the use of T. diversifolia for remediation purposes in relation to specific biochar types and application rates is needed. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable Consent for publication: Not Applicable Availability of data and materials: The authors declare that all data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. Competing interests : The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding : No funding was received for this study. Authors' contributions: OO contributed substantially to the conception, methodology, investigation, formal analysis, writing- original draft, OA contibuted to the methodology and formal analysis; CO contibuted to the supervision, reviewing and editing , PF made a contributuon to the Conception, supervision, writing- reviewing and editing. Acknowledgements: Not applicable References Tagne AM, Marino F, Cosentino M. Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray as a medicinal plant: A comprehensive review of its ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacotoxicology and clinical relevance. J Ethnopharm. 2018;220:94–116. Ajao A, Moteetee A. Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl) A. Gray.(Asteraceae: Heliantheae), an invasive plant of significant ethnopharmacological importance: A review. S Afr J Bot. 2017;113:396–403. Akobund I, Agyakwa. Handbook of West African Weeds. International Institute of Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan. 1987 Jama B, Palm C, Buresh R, Niang A, Gachengo C, Nziguheba G, Amadalo B. 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Garba S, Nkafaminya I, Barminas J. Phytoremediation: Influence of differentlevel of EDTA on the phytoextraction ability of Pennisetum pedicellatum for the metals; cadmium and zinc. Intl J Eng Mgt Sci, 2013;4(2):92–97. Mendez MO, Maier RM. Phytostabilization of mine tailings in arid and semiarid environments—an emerging remediation technology. Environ Health Perspectives, 2008;116(3):278–283. Egene CE, Sigurnjak I, Regelink IC, Schoumans OF, Adani F, Michels E, Sleutel S, Tack FM, Meers E. Solid fraction of separated digestate as soil improver: Implications for soil fertility and carbon sequestration. J Soils Sediments. 2021;21:678–88. Schimdt TF, Garcia LD, da Silveira Teixeira C, Alcalde MP, Duarte MA, Bortoluzzi EA. How Does Intentional Apical Foraminal Enlargement Affect the Foramen and Root Canal Morphology?. J Endodontics. 2024 Feb 20. Shackira A, Puthur JT. Phytostabilization of heavy metals: Understanding of principles and practices. Plant-metal interactions, 2019; 263–282. Mahajan P, Kaushal J. Role of phytoremediation in reducing cadmium toxicity in soil and water. J Toxicol., 2018. Nirola R, Megharaj M, Aryal R, Naidu R. Screening of metal uptake by plant colonizers growing on abandoned copper mine in Kapunda, South Australia. Intl J Phytorem. 2016;18(4): 399–405. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editor invited by journal 02 Jul, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 24 Jun, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 24 Jun, 2024 First submitted to journal 24 Jun, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Ogunremi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA40lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC9gbmBgYGAwYGNoYExgdAAR4+Qlp4DjDCtTAbgATYiNMCBglsEiCKsBb2xsbPFQV3ovnYk49Vfs2xk2FjYH746AY+LTwHmyXPGDzLbeN5lnZbdlsy0GFsxsY5eLTYSyQ2SDYYHM5tk8gxuy25jRmohYdNGp8WHonE5p8QLfnfiiW31ROlpQ1mCxvjx22HidDCc7DNEqyF55mxNOO24zxszAT8wsPefPhmw5/DufPbkx9+/Lmt2p6fvfnhY3xaUAAzD5gkVjkIMP4gRfUoGAWjYBSMGAAA/ZVF0ftVp/4AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"First Technical University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Olamide","middleName":"Omolafe","lastName":"Ogunremi","suffix":""},{"id":322922448,"identity":"023df301-f2d0-4381-bb6c-d553eeadf9a3","order_by":1,"name":"Omolara Faith Amubieya","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ilorin","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Omolara","middleName":"Faith","lastName":"Amubieya","suffix":""},{"id":322922449,"identity":"4b72ceb7-4d6b-4c8a-b6e9-54efea8c6dba","order_by":2,"name":"Clement Oluseye Ogunkunle","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ilorin","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Clement","middleName":"Oluseye","lastName":"Ogunkunle","suffix":""},{"id":322922450,"identity":"f0f22a6b-699c-47ec-a503-0daa25f4df03","order_by":3,"name":"Paul Ojo Fatoba","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ilorin","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Paul","middleName":"Ojo","lastName":"Fatoba","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-24 10:38:05","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4629528/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4629528/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":60390711,"identity":"cf658f0f-60d8-4747-88d4-61020cf4c7e4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-16 08:56:14","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5883,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe effect of different concentrations of standard, sorghum and rice biochars on Cu content in soil, root and shoot of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinedrawingimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4629528/v1/24607e000497b37501c18bd1.png"},{"id":60390712,"identity":"2f8e349c-9218-476a-a357-6e22bb88f436","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-16 08:56:15","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":6635,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe effect of different concentrations of standard, sorghum and rice biochars on Zn content in soil, root and shoot of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinedrawingimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4629528/v1/9246ea4737659902a521dafd.png"},{"id":60390716,"identity":"6036b31c-2e29-4cb0-93ee-ebb3658fb337","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-16 08:56:16","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5883,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe effect of different concentrations of standard, sorghum and rice biochars on Cu content in soil, root and shoot of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinedrawingimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4629528/v1/12f148eed12a92ac450e2104.png"},{"id":60390715,"identity":"cde722c3-4bb4-47ef-b78a-a459bbf61163","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-16 08:56:16","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":6309,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe effect of different concentrations of standard, sorghum and rice biochars on Pb content in soil, root and shoot of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinedrawingimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4629528/v1/7e54d8d95e14d0b0dd8f9589.png"},{"id":60390714,"identity":"6e4afcb6-141b-4e51-8fa6-e8a4f5cabb02","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-16 08:56:16","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":6215,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe effect of different concentrations of standard, sorghum and rice biochars on Cr content in soil, root and shoot of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinedrawingimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4629528/v1/46a0053d13ef713340c086b0.png"},{"id":60391331,"identity":"9f03bd4e-bb0b-4421-b258-eff82186b8ab","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-16 09:04:15","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":733584,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4629528/v1/076bf1ed-5bec-4e3c-8fcb-a5b32df1e85f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Efficacy of biochar on the phytoremediation potential of Tithonia diversifolia on spent oil-contaminated soil","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eTithonia diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e is a shrub in the Asteraceae family that is widely spread throughout the world but is presently distributed in 64 countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], and it has been reported to be a native plant of Mexico. This plant was introduced as ornamental/green manure in the humid and sub-humid tropics of Africa [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e] and is regarded as a dicot weed found on farms, waste areas and roads in Nigeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e (TD) is widely valued in several cultures for its medicinal properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] due to the presence of valuable sources of bioactive compounds with significant therapeutic implications and favorable safety indices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Comprehensive research on the phytochemical composition, therapeutic efficiency, soil fertility capacity, antioxidant capability, toxicity and allergenic potential of these plants has been reported [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7 CR8 CR9 CR10\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. However, there are few studies on the phytoremediation potential of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e in heavy metal-polluted soils [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReports on the responses of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e at polluted sites can serve as indicators for soil recovery, which is a cheap, sustainable strategy for cleaning the environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Ayesa et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] and Al.-Jobori and Kadhim [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e] identified \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e as a promising species for \u003cem\u003ethe\u003c/em\u003e phytoextraction of heavy metals from contaminated sites without being affected. The invasive nature of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e and its capacity to produce massive biomass and a well\u003cem\u003e-\u003c/em\u003edeveloped expanded root system [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], particularly in soils with low nutrient levels, \u003cem\u003esuggest\u003c/em\u003e the need to investigate this plant for its metal accumulation \u003cem\u003epotential.\u003c/em\u003e In addition, plants found growing naturally in polluted environments are suggestive of their potential for remediation purposes in such areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, the focus can shift to noncrops such as \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e, which are not consumed to avoid threats to human wellbeing. Studies have shown that plants that produce specific secondary metabolites (medicinal plants) can create an adaptive mechanism of tolerance by forming complexes with heavy metals against divalent metals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. This mechanism is interrelated with the chelation of metal ions by specific secondary metabolites in medicinal plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e, as a medicinal plant, possesses specific secondary metabolites known as targitinins [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e] that could be responsible for its capacity to tolerate heavy metals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFew studies have been conducted on the synergistic effects of biochar and plants on the remediation of heavy metal-polluted soils [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. However, no studies on the potential of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e grown on spent oil-contaminated soil amended with biochar for soil remediation have investigated the responses of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e to environmental pollution in terms of its growth and potential accumulation of pollutants. The objective of this research was to evaluate the influence of biochar on the potential of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e for phytoremediation of spent oil-contaminated soil.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was carried out at the Green House of Botanical Garden at the University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. The University of Ilorin Botanical Garden lies between latitude 08\u0026deg; 28\u0026acute;N and longitude 04\u0026deg; 40 E and latitude 8.500 \u0026deg;N and longitude 4.550 \u0026deg;E, with an annual rainfall of approximately 1200 mm and a temperature varying between 33\u0026deg;C and 34\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCollection of substrates\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e were collected from the Botanical Garden, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State. The soil samples were collected from the surroundings of the Botanical Garden, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State. The spent engine oil was collected from the Toyota Automobile Company, Ilorin, Kwara State. Commercial grade biochar (wheat straw, 700\u0026deg;C) was obtained from the UK Biochar Research Centre (UKBRC). Rice and sorghum straw were collected from Rice Farm, Patigi, Kwara State, and Sorghum Farm, Ilorin, Kwara State, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreparation of substrate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSandy loam soil was bulked and homogenized to give one representative sample of approximately 300 kg. The soil was sieved through a 2 mm mesh to ensure that the soil was free of unwanted materials, which could disturb the proper functioning of the soil microorganisms, proper stretching of the roots and proper organization of the soil. The soil was spiked with 50 ml/kg (5% v/w) spent engine oil, thoroughly mixed manually with hand-protected gloves and left for two weeks in a moist, cool garden environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] to ensure the uniformity of the oil, moisture content, air content, temperature, and effective activities of the soil microorganisms. Biochar was introduced to the spiked soil at different rates of 1%, 2% and 3% w/w with thorough mixing under 60% moisture, after which it was allowed to incubate for one month. The soil was sampled for laboratory analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePot experiment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experiment was conducted in 30 pots. Polythene pots (19 cm surface diameter and 23 cm depth) were filled with 3 kg of topsoil, and ten \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e seeds were planted in each polythene pot. The germinated plants were thinned to two plants per pot. Watering was performed daily with 180 ml of tap water, and regular weeding was performed by hand picking. The treatments were replicated three times with a complete randomized design (CRD).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePlant growth measurement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant height was measured using a meter ruler from the soil level to the collar of the uppermost leaf [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Stem girth was measured with thread, which was later extrapolated on a ruler. Leaf area was measured using the method of Watts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. The leaves were counted and harvested after 6 weeks. After harvesting, the shoot biomass was collected from the base of the plant stalks. The root biomass was manually separated from the potted soil, and the soil and biochar particles were removed. The root lengths were measured, and the fresh biomass was weighed immediately, while the dry biomass was weighed after oven drying to a constant weight.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eHeavy metal determination\u003c/b\u003e: The method of Thompson and Wood [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] was adopted. One gram of each plant sample was digested in a 4:1 ratio of concentrated 69% HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (analyzer grade) and concentrated 60% HClO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Merck, Germany). The mixture was heated to dryness. The residue was then leached with 5 M 36% HCl (analyzer grade) and filtered through Whatman No. 41 filter paper. The filtrate was finally diluted with distilled water to 1 M HCl. The samples were analyzed for multiple elements, including Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn, with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS model 210VGP, Buck Scientific Incorporated USA) with an air-acetylene flame. Procedural blanks were carried out, and samples were tested in triplicate to validate the accuracy of the procedure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil and Plant Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavy metal determination was performed using the method of Thompson and Wood [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. One gram of each sample was digested in a 4:1 ratio of concentrated 69% HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (Analar grade) and concentrated 60% HClO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (Merck, Germany). The mixture was heated to dryness. The residue was then leached with 5 M 36% HCl (analyzer grade) and filtered through Whatman No. 41 filter paper. The filtrate was finally diluted with distilled water to 1 M HCl. The samples were analyzed for multiple elements, including Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn, with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS model 210VGP, Buck Scientific Incorporated USA) with an air-acetylene flame. Procedural blanks were carried out, and samples were tested in triplicate to validate the accuracy of the procedure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePlant‒soil relationship\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe movement of heavy metals from polluted soil into the roots of plants and their ability to translocate metals from roots to aerial parts were assessed by means of bioconcentration factor (BCF) and translocation factor (TF) models [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Eq.\u0026nbsp;1 represent the bioconcentration factor (BCF) calculated as the ratio of the concentration of heavy metals in plant roots to that in soil: \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\text{B}\\text{C}\\text{F}=\\frac{\\text{C}\\text{m}\\text{r}}{\\text{C}\\text{m}\\text{s}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere C\u003csub\u003emr\u003c/sub\u003e is the concentration of heavy metals in roots, C\u003csub\u003ems\u003c/sub\u003e is the concentration of heavy metals in soil. BCF values\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2 are regarded as high values, which implies better phytoaccumulation capabilities of the plant [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. The higher the BCF is, the more suitable the plant is for phytoextraction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquation 2 represent the translocation factor (TF) calculated as the ratio of the heavy metal concentration in the plant shoot to that in the plant root: \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(TF=\\frac{\\text{C}\\text{m}\\text{s}\\text{h}}{\\text{C}\\text{m}\\text{r}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere C\u003csub\u003emsh\u003c/sub\u003e is the metal concentration in the shoot, and C\u003csub\u003emr\u003c/sub\u003e is the concentration of heavy metals in the root.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA TF\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 indicates that the plant is an excluder, while a TF\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 indicates that the plant is an accumulator. TF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1 indicates that the plant is an indicator [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the significant differences among the biochar treatments, and Duncan\u0026rsquo;s multiple range test (DMRT) was used to determine the significance of the differences among the biochar treatments based on the soil properties, growth parameters and heavy metal contents (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the growth parameters of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e. The height of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e decreased with increasing standard biochar (StB) and increased with increasing sorghum and rice biochar. Rice biochar (RB 3%) had the greatest percentage (13.36 cm) of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia.\u003c/em\u003e The number of leaves of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e in the 1% (8.00) and 3% (7.00) RB treatment groups was significantly greater than that in the untreated group. Only the leaf area of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e plants treated with rice biochar was significantly greater than that of the control plants. In addition, the 1% RB treatment had the greatest number of leaves and greatest leaf area. Rice biochar (3%)-treated \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e had the greatest percentage of stem girth. Stem girth decreased with increasing standard biochar concentration, while rice biochar tended to increase. However, the sorghum biochar (1%) value was not determined as a result of plant death before measurement. In general, compared with the other treatments, the rice biochar treatment improved the growth of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect of different concentrations of standard, sorghum and rice biochars on the growth of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiochar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003erate (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo of leaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaf area (cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStem girth (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.95\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.75\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.61\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.32\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.72\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.85\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.48\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.95\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.72\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.59\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.08\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.48\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eValues are presented as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;S.D of triplicate values. Values with different superscripts in the same column differ significantly at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05. \u003cb\u003eStB\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash; Standard Biochar; \u003cb\u003eSB\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash; Sorghum Biochar; \u003cb\u003eRB\u003c/b\u003e - Rice Biochar, N- Necrosis\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the biomass of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e under the different biochar treatments. At 2%, sorghum biochar had the greatest effect on the length (9.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.46 cm) of the roots of \u003cem\u003eT. diverisfolia\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e plants treated with rice biochar had significantly greater shoot and root fresh weights (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) than did the control plants. The sorghum and rice biochar treatments significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) increased the shoot dry weight of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e, while the root dry weight of untreated \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e was significantly greater than that of the treated plants, except for SB2%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect of different concentrations of standard, sorghum and rice biochars on biomass of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiochar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003erate (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRL\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSFW\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRFW\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.90\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.21\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.46\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.17\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.54\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eValues are presented as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;S.D of triplicate values. Values with different superscripts on the same column differ significantly at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05. \u003cb\u003eStB\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash; Standard Biochar; \u003cb\u003eSB\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash; Sorghum Biochar; \u003cb\u003eRB\u003c/b\u003e - Rice Biochar; \u003cb\u003eRL\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash; root length, \u003cb\u003eSFW\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash; shoot fresh weight; \u003cb\u003eRFW\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash; Root fresh weight; \u003cb\u003eSDW\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash; shoot dry weight; \u003cb\u003eRDW\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash; root dry weight, N- Necrosis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows that the control \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e and StB3%-treated \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e phytoextracted Cr, while SB3%-treated \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e phytoextracted Pb. However, in the RB3%-treated group, \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e phytostabilized Cu.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBioconcentration factors and translocation factors of heavy metals in \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiochar rate (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eControl\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.23\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.30\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.76\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.57\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.60\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.66\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNull\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eStB\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash; Standard Biochar, \u003cb\u003eSB\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash; Sorghum Biochar, \u003cb\u003eRB\u003c/b\u003e \u0026ndash;Rice Biochar, \u003cb\u003eBCF\u003c/b\u003e- Bioconcentration factor, \u003cb\u003eTF\u003c/b\u003e- Translocation factor, Phytoextractor** (BCF \u0026amp;TF\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003e\u0026gt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;1), Phytostabilizer * (\u003cem\u003eBCF\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 and TF\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/em\u003e), \u003cem\u003eIndicator, TF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure 1-5 revealed higher concentrations of all heavy metals in the roots of T. diversifolia treated with StB2% than in the shoots. In addition, the roots of T. diversifolia treated with RB3% contained higher concentrations of Cd and Cu than the shoots. \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eResearch carried out by Ayesa et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] revealed a decrease in the growth biomass of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e in simulated polluted soil. They noted that water uptake and heavy metal toxicity could be the causes of reduced growth. In relation to this study, the presence of biochar, especially rice biochar, has been able to address the problems highlighted by Ayesa et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. This implies that the addition of biochar in this study improved \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e growth and biomass in polluted soil. This could result from the porous structure of biochar, which is responsible for its high adsorption and water retention capacity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Genesio et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e], physical conditions change with biochar; its dark color alters thermal dynamics and alleviates rapid plant germination, allowing more time for growth compared with controls. Additionally, the ability of rice biochar to restrict the movement of heavy metals to \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e could be responsible for its improved growth and biomass.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhytoextraction is \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e phytoremediation technique in which heavy metals are removed from polluted soils and then translocated to aboveground tissues [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlants that are recognized as hyperaccumulators must be able to accumulate high levels of heavy metals and still retain their health status, such as high biomass, tolerance to metal toxicity, and resistance to pathogens and pests [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. For plants to be efficient tools for the phytoextraction of heavy metals in polluted soils, both the bioconcentration factor and translocation factor must be greater than one [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. With respect to the current research, \u003cem\u003eT. diversifoli\u003c/em\u003ea was able to phytoextract Pb in the presence of sorghum biochar (3%), with \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e BCF of 1.66 and a TF of -1.30, while untreated \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e had BCF and TF values of 1.33 and 1.50, respectively. In addition, standard biochar (3%) was used to treat \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e with BCF and TF values of 1.25 and 1.60, respectively, of potentially phytoextracted Cr. A report by Ayesa et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] revealed that \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e phytoextracted Cd, Zn and Cu but not Pb, which was dissimilar to the results of this study. This could be a result of the incorporation of biochar into the soil, which supported \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e in the phytoextraction of Pb and phytostabilization of Cu, Zn, and Cd, as confirmed in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhytostabilization is another phytoremediation technique that involves immobilization of heavy metals and accumulation of these metals in underground biomass [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] and primarily focuses on heavy metal sequestration in roots. Plants with BCF values greater than 1 and TF values less than one are appropriate for phytostabilization [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. The current study showed that rice biochar application at 3% restricted the movement of Cu from \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e to the roots. The mechanisms that could result in the restriction of heavy metal mobility include water erosion and leaching prevented by plant roots, precipitation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], root adsorption or absorption and a reduction in metal valency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, plants with BCF values that lack the ability to translocate heavy metals to aerial parts are suitable for phytostabilization [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, the current study confirmed the influence of biochar treatments on the phytostabilization potential of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e for all heavy metals except StB3% and SB3%.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study revealed that rice biochar promoted the growth of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e and supported the phytostabilization ability of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e for the studied heavy metals. However, StB3% and SB3% were the only treatments that enhanced the phytoextraction potential of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e for Cr and Pb, respectively. In this view, the response of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e to phytoextraction and phytostabilization is dependent on the biochar and dose used in this study. Hence, further research on the use of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e for remediation purposes in relation to specific biochar types and application rates is needed.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate:\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u003c/strong\u003e Not Applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare that all data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e: No funding was received for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOO\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003econtributed substantially to the conception, methodology, investigation, formal analysis, writing- original draft,\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eOA\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003econtibuted to the\u0026nbsp;methodology and formal analysis; \u003cstrong\u003eCO\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003econtibuted to the supervision, reviewing and editing\u003cstrong\u003e,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003emade a contributuon to the\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eConception, supervision, writing- reviewing and editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTagne AM, Marino F, Cosentino M. \u003cem\u003eTithonia diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e (Hemsl.) 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Intl J Phytorem. 2016;18(4): 399\u0026ndash;405.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-environmental-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Environmental Science](https://bmcenvsci.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"44329","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44329/3","title":"BMC Environmental Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Biochar, heavy metals, phytoextraction, phytostabilization, Tithonia diversifolia","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4629528/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4629528/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe application of biochar has gained attention as a simple, affordable and sustainable strategy for the remediation of contaminated soils. However, the phytoremediating potential of certain plants and interactions with biochar are necessary to achieve effective environmental clean-up. This study evaluated the influence of biochar on the remediation potential of \u003cem\u003eTithonia diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e grown in spent oil-contaminated soil. \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e was grown in spent oil\u003cem\u003e-\u003c/em\u003econtaminated soil amended with rice biochar and sorghum biochar at four different application rates (1, 2 and 3% w/w) for 6 weeks. The heavy metals studied included copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and chromium (Cr). The results of this study showed that compared with the other treatments, rice biochar strongly enhanced the growth of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e. RB3% influenced the phytostabilization potential of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e for Cu. However, StB3% and SB3% enhanced \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;s potential capacity for the phytoextraction of Cr and Pb, respectively. Generally, the response of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e to phytoextraction and phytostabilization is dependent on the biochar and application rate used. Hence, there is \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e need for further research on the use of \u003cem\u003eT. diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e for remediation purposes under the influence of specific biochar types and application rates.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Efficacy of biochar on the phytoremediation potential of Tithonia diversifolia on spent oil-contaminated soil","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-16 08:56:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4629528/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2024-07-02T11:03:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-06-24T12:29:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-06-24T12:27:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Environmental Science","date":"2024-06-24T10:36:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-environmental-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Environmental Science](https://bmcenvsci.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"44329","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44329/3","title":"BMC Environmental Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"95279117-3a1b-48ec-b359-da336b8689d1","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 16th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-08T13:38:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-16 08:56:06","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4629528","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4629528","identity":"rs-4629528","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}