Bubble-guided drift redefines deposition and stabilises metal anodes

Bubble-guided drift redefines deposition and stabilises metal anodes | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Physical Sciences - Article Bubble-guided drift redefines deposition and stabilises metal anodes Haobo Dong, Yuhang Dai, Yahui Jia, Hongzhen He, Siyu Zhao, Jianuo Chen, and 9 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8219831/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Unstable metal plating remains a critical barrier to metal-anode batteries, but the role of interfacial gas remains undefined，which will dramatically influence the practical battery performances. This work identifies interfacial bubble dynamics as a governing mechanism of electrodeposition, redefining how metal deposits form. Operando X-ray computed tomography reveals that bubble nucleation, growth, migration, and rupture dynamically reconfigure local fields, inducing dendrite drift plating. An Euler-based topological analysis quantifies the regulation of gas connectivity and ion redistribution. A quantitative model derived via interpretable symbolic regression reproduces this drift plating with high fidelity. Guided by insights, a hybrid separator strategy is developed synergistically to control bubble formation in metal-anode batteries, enabling uniform deposition of metal anodes >3000 h of cycling, and a high mass loading of 15 Ah in prismatic cells over 600 cycles. Bubble-guided drift is established as a design principle for stable metal anodes. Physical sciences/Energy science and technology/Energy storage/Batteries Physical sciences/Materials science/Materials for energy and catalysis Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction Gas generation is intrinsic to electrochemical metal deposition and poses a universal challenge to battery interfacial stability 1–4 . Although often treated as secondary by-products, recent analysis of catastrophic failures (Figure S1) indicates that gas bubbles are not merely harmless byproducts but important contributors to battery degradation, accounting for over 25% of reported accidents 5–8 . The problem is particularly pronounced in rechargeable metal-anode batteries with aqueous electrolytes 9–12 , where the polar aqueous solvent is inherently more reactive than its organic counterpart, leading to water decomposition and aggressive metal corrosion that inevitably accompany metal plating 11,13 . Despite major advances in electrolyte additives and surface engineering 14–18 , strategies that directly regulate bubble-electrode interactions remain conspicuously unexplored. Recent evidence indicates that bubbles are not passive by-products but active perturbations that distort current distribution, alter concentration gradients, and influence dendrite nucleation. Originating from water reduction and hydroxide precipitation, bubbles evolve through nucleation, growth, and detachment (Scheme 1a) 19,20 . Hydrogen evolution and hydroxide precipitation initiate gas pockets, which then expand and coalesce to obstruct ion transport and distort current distributions, thereby accelerating dendrite growth 21–25 . Upon detachment, flow instabilities arise that can delaminate electrodes, rupture cells, and trigger thermal events. To quantify their impact, bubble–performance correlations calibrated with industrial datasets were analysed 26–28 (Scheme 1b). The analysis shows that even moderate bubble accumulation reduces ion-transport efficiency and usable cycle life by 10–20%, while uncontrolled bubble coalescence or rupture can lead to deviations that translate to an effective 380% increase in operational cost relative to the baseline (Figure S2). Together, these results establish that bubble dynamics exert first-order control over ion distribution and metal deposition, elevating interfacial gas from a secondary consequence to a governing mechanism in aqueous metal-anode systems. To address this gap, we establish a paradigm for bubble-guided drift electrodeposition, in which bubble nucleation, growth, and detachment are harnessed to control ion flux and metal plating. Operando Computed Tomography (CT), conducted using ptychographic imaging (8-30keV) 29–33 , directly visualizes bubble motion and its coupling to dendrite evolution. These dynamics displace dendrites, redistribute nucleation sites, and convert uniform 2D plating into uncontrolled 3D growth (Scheme 1c). A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model captures the transient nature of metal nucleation under bubble transport, revealing an interplay between bubble-induced flux and interfacial heterogeneity. In contrast to classical theory 34–38 , the deposition current must be reformulated to incorporate bubble-driven mass transport, thereby establishing a general framework for predicting stability in metal-anode batteries. Guided by this understanding, a hybrid separator design delivers dendrite-free Zn and Na anodes exceeding 3500 h in symmetric cells and stable 15 Ah prismatic cell for 600 cycles at 99.7% Coulombic efficiency. By reframing bubbles as active regulators, this study elevates gas bubble dynamics from a failure mode to a design principle for next-generation metal-anode batteries. Results and Discussions Bubble – dendrite interactions governed by separator interfacial microstructure To unravel the role of gas bubble dynamics in electrodeposition, it was discovered that bubble-dendrite interactions are fundamentally governed by the electrode-separator interfacial microstructure. The spatiotemporal coupling between gas bubbles and dendrites defines the stability of metal electrodeposition. In-situ characterizations ( optical microscopy and operando CT ) were performed on three representative separator systems: glass fiber (GF), polypropylene (PP), and cellulose paper (CP), as shown in Figures 2 and 3. For all cases, bubbles underwent a common evolutionary sequence of nucleation, growth & compression, detachment, and rupture. The nature of their interaction with dendrites varied profoundly with the interfacial microstructure of the separator, revealing a previously unrecognized phenomenon: bubble–dendrite coupling is not universal but is dictated by the separator's interfacial architecture. To probe the influence of gas bubbles on electrodeposition, their dynamic evolution was first captured by in-situ optical microscopy, as shown in Figure 1 and Figure S3. In GF separators (Figure 1a), the bubble-dendrite mechanism is controlled by capillarity-driven upward migration. The combination of small pore sizes, heterogeneous fibre assembly, and strong hydrophilicity produces highly non-uniform interfacial fields compared with other separator systems. This structural asymmetry accelerates side reactions, making GF the medium in which gas generation occurs most rapidly. Figure S4 further demonstrates these dynamics in detail. Once nucleated, bubbles are immediately drawn upward by capillary forces along the fibre channels. However, as they elongate, their interfacial tension is repeatedly disrupted and pierced by the rigid fibres, preventing the formation of stable bubble domains. Dendritic protrusions initially tend to extend along bubble surfaces, guided by the steep field gradients around gas–liquid interfaces. While the upward mobility of bubbles, combined with intermittent rupture against fibres, displaces dendrites from their natural trajectories. Detached or migrating bubbles leave dendrites anchored to the fibre surfaces, forcing their growth to conform to the irregular separator skeleton, a phenomenon similar to shock electrodeposition 39 . This results in fibre-guided dendritic propagation and the emergence of localized internal micro-short circuits. Importantly, because fibre intersections continually rupture bubbles, GF exhibit less gas accumulation. Instead, the repeated formation-rupture cycles prevent large-scale bubble accumulation, thereby mitigating the adverse influence of bubbles on dendrite growth and ion transport. As shown in Figure S5a, electric field mapping in the presence of bubbles reveals a pronounced field enhancement at the triple-phase boundary of the bubble-electrolyte-electrode interface. With bubble growth, this peak-field zone gradually migrates from the initial triple-phase contact line toward the mid-edge of the bubble, forming a moving high-field corridor. This shifting field maximum directs local ion flux, causing dendrites to elongate along the bubble perimeter rather than depositing uniformly on the electrode surface. In situ and post-mortem evidence (Fig. S5b) confirm dendrite growth around bubbles, consistent with previous observations 40 , showing that bubble dynamics direct dendrite nucleation and growth. In contrast, in the PP membrane (Figure 1b), the bubble-dendrite mechanism is controlled by hydrophobic slip-driven dynamics. PP membranes suppressed vertical expansion due to narrower pores and hydrophobicity. 41 Bubbles instead slipped laterally, pushing dendrites toward electrode edges. Subsequent detachment generated directional flows that reinforced edge-localised accumulation, and rupture induced anisotropic perturbations that exacerbated boundary-driven growth. This mechanism yielded edge-focused dendrite clustering, distinct from the upward displacement observed in GF. In the CP separator (Figure 1c), the bubble-dendrite mechanism is controlled by hydrophilic confinement and smooth displacement. CP separators confined bubbles within tortuous pores, preventing abrupt expansion or detachment. Bubbles compressed gently, slipping along dendrites and gradually displacing them laterally. Rupture occurred in a controlled manner without disruptive flows, enabling continuous redistribution of nucleation sites. As a result, dendrites were displaced but stabilised, giving rise to uniform surface plating without vertical penetration, as shown in Figure S6. Separator microstructure governs bubble–dendrite coupling, enabling bubbles to act as regulators rather than by-products. Operando CT reveals a direct mechanistic connection between bubble morphology, dendrite motion, and ion flux pathways. In GF separators, bubbles repeatedly deformed as their interfacial tension was pierced and reshaped by the surrounding fibres. CT imaging captured dendrites being lifted and displaced by rising bubbles, pulling protrusions away from their vertical growth axis. This interaction caused dendrites to adhere to fibres and grow along irregular paths that consistent with prior study 42 . Ion transport in this regime became highly non-uniform: capillarity-driven bubble motion created vertical flux channels that funneled ions into elongated dendrites, accounting for the frequent appearance of abnormally tall structures in GF (shown in Figure S9). In PP separators (Figure 2b), bubbles were compressed laterally within the narrower and hydrophobic pores. Instead of moving freely, they became trapped and exerted horizontal pressure on nearby dendrites. As the bubbles deformed under compression, dendrites tilted sideways, producing inclined plating fronts. CT further revealed that ions in these zones drifted obliquely rather than perpendicularly to the electrode, redirecting transport pathways toward electrode edges. This tilted ion flux produced anisotropic accumulation, reinforcing lateral dendrite growth and accelerating edge-localized failure (Figure S10). In CP separators (Figure 2c), bubbles were confined within the fibrous network and slid smoothly along the interface. Rather than rupturing abruptly, they induced gradual dendrite displacement and gentle migration of nucleation sites across the surface. Time-resolved images revealed that this bubble slippage redistributed local concentration gradients, flattening vertical flux heterogeneities and converting unstable 2D protrusions into laterally spread 3D deposits (Figure S11). Gas-transport-mediated current consumption and ion dynamics: a mechanistic framework The Zn||Cu chronoamperometry (CA) tests provide direct evidence that electrodeposition cannot be fully described by classical Scharifker–Hills nucleation models 34,37 , which assume uniform ionic transport in a single-phase medium. Instead, the data reveal a clear signature of dynamic interfacial perturbations induced by gas bubble transport. As shown in Figure 3a, the current–time profile 35,37 for the glass fiber (GF) separator aligns with the 3D instantaneous model 43 up to ~117 s, in a 2D/3D mixed mode 44 , before gradually shifting toward full 3D growth. In contrast, the cellulose paper (CP) separator exhibits an earlier 2D/3D transition (~7 s) and a slower progression toward 3D growth over the next 60-80 s, consistent with confined bubble motion that partially homogenizes ion flux. For the polypropylene (PP) separator, however, the CA curve deviates sharply: it initially matches the 3D instantaneous model (~12 s) but then diverges by more than 65% from theoretical predictions. This pronounced deviation arises from trapped gas domains that obstruct vertical transport and drive lateral current drift. Quantitatively, the hierarchy of deviation, PP (~65%) > CP (~42%) > GF (~28%), parallels their electrochemical stability, demonstrating that the degree of departure from classical nucleation theory directly reflects the intensity of gas-ion coupling at the interface. To elucidate the physical origin of these deviations, static 3D separator structures (Figure S7) reconstructed from CT were imported into CFD simulations (Figure 3a and Figure S12-S14). Gas domains and pore walls were segmented, and directional flow simulations were performed to probe gas-induced transport heterogeneity. As shown in Figure 3b, the simulations reveal that in GF, rapid bubble rupture and release prevent long-lived gas retention, resulting in the lowest velocity variance (~0.07) and pressure disturbance (<0.05 MPa). This minimizes persistent obstruction despite capillarity-driven instabilities. In PP, compressed and interconnected gas domains form extended transport barriers, producing the highest velocity variance (>0.25) and pressure fluctuations (~0.18 MPa), with ion flux deflected obliquely toward electrode edges. In CP, confined gas migration through fibrous pores induces smoother slippage, yielding moderate velocity variance (~0.15) and pressure perturbations (~21 MPa), partially homogenizing ionic fields. Together, these results establish that GF supports the smoothest transport, PP suffers from compression-induced perturbations, and CP experiences anisotropic drift. To rationalize these behaviors, gas topology was quantified using the Euler number, which directly correlates with transport uniformity. 45–47 GF exhibited the most negative Euler number (-145) at the initial state, reflecting extensive gas connectivity and overlapping venting pathways. By contrast, PP (-67) and CP (-63) displayed less negative values, indicating only partially connected pathways. This resolves the apparent paradox: while GF generates more connected gas networks, this connectivity promotes rapid removal and stabilises transport fields. PP and CP, despite similar intermediate Euler values, differ in mechanism; CP is dominated by oblique flux drift, and PP by compression-driven perturbations, both leading to less favorable electrochemical stability. An increasing Euler number indicates bubble isolation, coalescence, and eventual stagnation, as confirmed by the simulated topologies in Figure 3a, where each subpanel depicts the corresponding bubble evolution at the same time steps. By integrating operando CT, CFD, and topological analysis, this framework elevates gas transport from a neglected side process to a central element of electrodeposition theory. These results highlight the necessity to revise electrodeposition theory as: where J SH represents the Scharifker and Hills (SH) which applied to the electrodeposition process in the absence of side reactions, and J gas-transport accounts for the dynamic current fraction consumed by interfacial gas transport. a 2 is the maximum value for the D e , a 4 , a 5 and a 6 is the mean, maximum and minimum value of Tortuosity, respectively. To refine this formulation, an explainable symbolic regression algorithm 48–51 was employed to derive the explicit mathematical form of J gas-transport directly from experimental observables. Instead of relying on numerical fitting and transport-based model 52–54 , the model searched over 60 physically constrained functional forms incorporating parameters such as the tortuosity factor, directional effective ion diffusivity ( ), and time ( ), combined with dimensionless constants as detailed in the Supporting Information. The optimized model converged to a compact, interpretable equation that decouples gas transport from ionic diffusion. The resulting coefficient quantifies the dynamic coupling between interfacial gas flux and ion migration, accurately reproducing the experimental current–time profiles (Figure S15). The emergence of a characteristic diffusion-like timescale further confirms that gas transport acts as an active, time-dependent component of electrode kinetics rather than a passive side effect. The corrosion potential analysis (Figure 4a) provides direct validation of the transport-based hypothesis. Corrosion potential of Zn anodes with different separators (vs. Ag/AgCl) show distinct behaviors: Zn|PP|Zn and Zn|CP|Zn exhibit pronounced negative shifts, whereas Zn|GF|Zn maintains a higher potential, indicating more stable ion flux. The fitting equation for Zn|PP|Zn is labeled: (-0.957 V; -0.566 log(i)). Separators with higher gas generation (Figure 4c), such as PP and CP, exhibit pronounced negative shifts, consistent with unstable ion flux and persistent interfacial obstruction. In contrast, GF produces the least gas sustains a higher corrosion potential than PP and CP, reflecting its efficient venting despite moderate plating uniformity, as shown in Figure S6. This confirms that electrochemical stability is not dictated by gas suppression alone but by how gas is transported and released. The central mechanistic insight is a mechanical equilibrium between surface tension and buoyancy controls that metal drift plating. During growth, bubbles deform and migrate, generating wake flows that entrain metal protrusions. Dendrites continue to drift until of the bubble 20,21,55,56 , at which point lateral deposition pathways dominate over vertical penetration. This balance explains the distinct morphologies observed: GF promotes upward displacement, PP induces edge-directed drift, and CP drives lateral sliding under compression. These behaviors are directly visualized in the pressure distribution maps (Figure 4d). GF exhibits a nearly uniform field with short relaxation distances, PP shows heterogeneous gradients consistent with lateral slip, and CP displays localized high-pressure zones characteristic of bubble compression. Collectively, the CT-derived CFD simulations confirm that drift plating arises not from ionic limitation alone, but from a multiphase mechanical equilibrium in which interfacial gas bubble transport reshapes ion flux and deposition pathways. Separator-enabled bubble tailoring for stable plating Guided by these insights, we propose a hybrid separator architecture that couples multi-scale pore design with tailored wettability to regulate interfacial gas dynamics. The guiding principle is to reconcile the opposing transport characteristics of the single-component separators: hydrophobic CP suppresses vertical gas release but induces lateral drift, hydrophilic GF ensures rapid venting yet perturbs ionic homogeneity. Specifically, coarse pores are introduced to provide low-resistance channels for bubble escape 57 , thereby shortening the effective pressure-relaxation distance. In contrast, fine pores maintain a homogeneous ionic distribution and prevent gas-domain coalescence. This hierarchical configuration, realized through a simple strategy, layered or composite stacking of CP and GF microstructures (schematized in Figure 5a), forms vertically aligned capillary networks embedded within a laterally constrained matrix. The self-regulating pathway lets bubbles nucleate and escape through large pores while preventing long-lived percolation, thus sustaining ion transport and minimizing field distortion. Electrochemical validation confirmed the benefits of bubble-tailored strategies across both model and practical systems (Figure 5b). In Zn||Zn symmetric cells, hybrid separators that regulate interfacial gas transport enabled ultrastable cycling for over 3000 hours with negligible overpotential rise, far surpassing the premature shorting observed with PP and the gradual polarization increase of GF. Crucially, the bubble-modulated drift effect translated seamlessly into industrially relevant devices, where a high-mass-loading, full-tab prismatic Zn-ion cells (15 Ah) maintained 99.7% coulombic efficiency for over 600 cycles, exhibiting stable voltage profiles and highly reproducible charge-discharge performance (Figure 5d). To examine this universality, we implemented the hybrid separator architecture in Na-ion batteries. Symmetric Na||Na cells (Figure 5e) incorporating the hybrid interfacial design exhibited prolonged cycling stability with minimal voltage polarization and produced smooth, dense Na deposits rather than filamentary dendrites, contrasting sharply with PP and GF controls. The behavior closely mirrors that observed in Zn systems, confirming that interfacial gas transport and the balance between surface tension and buoyancy represent general determinants of metal-deposition pathways. Conclusion This work establishes bubble-driven drift electrodeposition as a fundamental mechanism dictating metal-anode stability, reframing interfacial gas from a parasitic by-product into an active regulator of metal growth. Operando ptychographic CT and CFD reveal how bubble nucleation, growth, and migration reorganize local ion flux and drive the transition from uniform 2D plating to 3D drift deposition, behaviour that cannot be captured by classical single-phase nucleation models. Integrating these insights, we reformulate the deposition current to explicitly include gas-transport contributions, providing a unified framework for predicting and controlling metal plating stability. Leveraging this mechanistic understanding, we design a hybrid separator architecture that regulates bubble escape pathways and unlocks performance-optimal metal deposition. This strategy enables dendrite-free Zn and Na anodes with lifetimes exceeding 3500 h in symmetric cells and supports high-mass-loading prismatic Zn-ion batteries (15 Ah) cycling stably for 600 cycles at 99.7% Coulombic efficiency. The same principles apply across aqueous metal-anode chemistries, demonstrating the generality of bubble-guided drift as a design axis. By reframing bubbles as active regulators that define the upper performance bound of metal-anode systems, this study elevates interfacial gas dynamics from an overlooked instability to a core design principle for next-generation high-performance metal batteries. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (x2wjD2240360), Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (2025A1515011717), and Guangzhou Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (2025A04J3662). The innovative R&D team introduced in Guangdong (2023ZT10L145) and Faraday Institution and the Transforming Energy Access Programme (FIRG050) were supported by H. D. Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC, EP/V027433/3) and UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) under the UK government‘s Horizon Europe funding (101077226; EP/Y008707/1) by G. H. Vastech battery company is thanked for pouch and prismatic cells fabrication. 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Nucleation, aggregative growth and detachment of metal nanoparticles during electrodeposition at electrode surfaces. Chem. Sci. 6 , 1126–1138 (2015). Qiu, H. et al. Quantitative Description of Bubble Formation in Response to Electrolyte Engineering. Langmuir 39 , 4993–5001 (2023). Zhan, S. et al. Dynamics of growth and detachment of single hydrogen bubble on horizontal and vertical microelectrode surfaces considering liquid microlayer structure in water electrolysis. Phys. Fluids 35 , (2023). He, Y. et al. Strategies for bubble removal in electrochemical systems. Energy Rev. 2 , (2023). Scheme 1 Scheme 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations There is NO Competing Interest. Supplementary Files nrcompetinginterests.pdf Competing Interest SupportingInformation.pdf Supporting Information SupportingVideo.mp4 Supporting Video TOC.png Table of Contents Scheme1.png Scheme 1. Bubble evolution, cost impact, and metal deposition mechanism. (a) Schematic of interfacial and free bubble dynamics. (b) Comparison of cost and loss ratio with and without intervention. The y-axis represents cost ($/kWh) and loss ratio (%), while the x-axis denotes bubble evolution stages. (c) Transition of metal deposition mechanism. Bubble-induced ion flux redistribution converts uncontrolled 2D dendrite growth into 3D plating, with annotations for bubble wake flow and metal-ion desolvation. (The orange structure represents the ion’s solvation shell). Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Dong","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA10lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCGzxsDIwNB2QY2BugIgeI1MLDwANSmkCSFokEIrXw3e499ph3xx0efsnnDz/z/mCQ47uRwPi5AI8WyTvn0o15zzzjkZydYyzNk8BgLHkjgVl6Bh4tBjdyzKR52w7zGNzOYWMGaknccCMByCBGi/3N489AWuqJ12IgwWAG0pJgQEiL5I28NMm5QL9InMkxlpyTJmE488zDZml8Wvhu5B6TeLvjjhx/+/GHH97Y2MjzHU8++BmfFnQgAcSMDSRoGAWjYBSMglGADQAANjZMlP5rkSIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"South China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Haobo","middleName":"","lastName":"Dong","suffix":""},{"id":559359324,"identity":"75cb556c-c92e-45c4-9ca7-cd8ad99dd8f6","order_by":1,"name":"Yuhang Dai","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8445-6758","institution":"University of Oxford","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yuhang","middleName":"","lastName":"Dai","suffix":""},{"id":559359325,"identity":"af5bf340-b6b4-4f10-a313-cc26acc8aae8","order_by":2,"name":"Yahui Jia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"South China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yahui","middleName":"","lastName":"Jia","suffix":""},{"id":559359326,"identity":"20fe46b4-fb65-4cc2-918c-302010d14869","order_by":3,"name":"Hongzhen He","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Univeristy college london","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hongzhen","middleName":"","lastName":"He","suffix":""},{"id":559359327,"identity":"131a5b37-75f2-4486-ab36-2d2bcf030a33","order_by":4,"name":"Siyu Zhao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Univeristy college london","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Siyu","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhao","suffix":""},{"id":559359328,"identity":"cf7413a7-e96c-4609-8b93-5c613422b10d","order_by":5,"name":"Jianuo Chen","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4019-0737","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jianuo","middleName":"","lastName":"Chen","suffix":""},{"id":559359329,"identity":"fbb6ecf2-0f34-4b03-8f86-1672f3034f3a","order_by":6,"name":"Mengzheng Ouyang","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4896-416X","institution":"Imperial College London","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mengzheng","middleName":"","lastName":"Ouyang","suffix":""},{"id":559359330,"identity":"a8724b15-6647-4bb4-9324-1d64dffe1ee9","order_by":7,"name":"Jie Lin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Queen's University Belfast","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jie","middleName":"","lastName":"Lin","suffix":""},{"id":559359331,"identity":"59795b42-8d62-4dbb-9ee1-ec011bd404f0","order_by":8,"name":"Xuan Gao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Univeristy college london","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xuan","middleName":"","lastName":"Gao","suffix":""},{"id":559359332,"identity":"294db0ea-ef65-4e8b-9b3c-30db6d5f2cfa","order_by":9,"name":"Yuxi Cao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"South China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yuxi","middleName":"","lastName":"Cao","suffix":""},{"id":559359333,"identity":"94a22141-356b-40fd-8428-c6209baec1a8","order_by":10,"name":"Chikun Huang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"South China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chikun","middleName":"","lastName":"Huang","suffix":""},{"id":559359334,"identity":"95f082d9-2e25-4928-a3c6-fb824eee7991","order_by":11,"name":"Rui Qi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"South China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rui","middleName":"","lastName":"Qi","suffix":""},{"id":559359335,"identity":"63aca32e-2c3a-46d9-95d4-6897d8e6e630","order_by":12,"name":"Ivan Parkin","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4072-6610","institution":"University College London","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ivan","middleName":"","lastName":"Parkin","suffix":""},{"id":559359336,"identity":"c766e106-2b06-48e7-9689-910c774b8281","order_by":13,"name":"Guanjie He","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7365-9645","institution":"University College London","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Guanjie","middleName":"","lastName":"He","suffix":""},{"id":559359337,"identity":"01c2496c-4787-458f-b70e-9f4a3ba70de2","order_by":14,"name":"Zhenhong Lin","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4664-8297","institution":"South China University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhenhong","middleName":"","lastName":"Lin","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-27 08:45:45","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8219831/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8219831/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":105340158,"identity":"6771e556-304b-4a4f-8f1b-6a4fa4d4f273","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-25 02:32:57","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":400731,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIn-situ optical microscopy: bubble-dendrite interaction mechanisms for different separators. (a) Glass Fiber (GF) separator: Bubble-dendrite interaction is governed by capillarity-driven upward migration; (b) Polypropylene (PP) separator: Interaction is controlled by hydrophobic slip-driven dynamics; (c) Cellulose Paper (CP) separator: Interaction is regulated by hydrophilic confinement and smooth displacement.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8219831/v1/6ab52cc94666079eb6acf6f3.png"},{"id":105565805,"identity":"64898f5e-cb21-462a-bbbe-91ac1c798b23","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 12:54:27","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":881051,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTime-resolved operando CT images of bubble and dendrite dynamics for different separators. (a) GF separator: Time points (0 s, 780 s, 1440 s, 1920 s, 2040 s); (b) CP separator: Time points (0 s, 980 s, 1040 s, 2090 s, 2690 s); (c) PP separator: Time points (0 s, 2520 s, 2700 s, 2940 s, 3120 s).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8219831/v1/20cffa21e6950a8486ca48a2.png"},{"id":105565788,"identity":"dc78a25f-fa4a-4471-9eeb-2bc39a1e6260","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 12:54:23","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":454776,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eChronoamperometry (CA) and CFD topological analysis. (a) Normalized CA curves for Zn|GF|Cu, Zn|PP|Cu, and Zn|CP|Cu systems: Curves are fitted to 2D/3D instantaneous/progressive nucleation models; (b) Velocity variance and pressure disturbance analysis: GF shows the lowest velocity variance (~0.07) and pressure disturbance (\u0026lt;0.05 MPa); PP has the highest (\u0026gt;0.25, ~0.18 MPa); CP exhibits moderate values (~0.15, ~0.21 MPa); (c) Euler number evolution with normalized time steps: Increasing Euler number indicates bubble separation, coalescence, and stabilization.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8219831/v1/566d687ba7017c4452c14885.png"},{"id":105564576,"identity":"dd910f1f-4530-4dba-877d-2b3f2b5c06ac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 12:50:05","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":441084,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGas dynamic governing equation analysis. (a) Corrosion potential of Zn anodes with different separators (vs. Ag/AgCl); (b) Normalized CA curves for hybrid strategy; (c) Gas generation amount for GF, PP, and CP separators: PP and CP exhibit higher gas generation, consistent with their unstable potential behavior; (d) Simulated vs. experimental total current and pressure distribution: The reformulated current equation matches experimental data. Pressure distribution maps show uniform fields for GF, heterogeneous gradients for PP, and localized high-pressure zones for CP, with labels for bubble choking, pressure relaxation distance, and force balance (surface tension vs. buoyancy) governing drift plating.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8219831/v1/023ede73c49726d117a45526.png"},{"id":105565843,"identity":"0948df69-0248-4aca-9c57-4feead04c8e2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 12:54:33","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":419406,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eElectrochemical performance of metal-anode batteries for a hybrid strategy. (a) Schematic of hybrid separator mechanism; (b) Galvanostatic cycling curves of Zn||Zn symmetric cells (1 mA cm⁻², 1 mAh cm⁻²); (c) Cycling performance of prismatic Zn|Hybrid|VO₂ cells (N/P = 5.03, area = 15×13 cm², high mass loading, full-tab electrode): Capacity retention is 80.7% after 500 cycles at 0.6A/g (2.4 C), with clear charging/discharging profiles; (d) Comparison of recent practical Zn-ion battery performance regarding capacity, cycle number, and specific current. (Corresponding references used in this comparison are listed in Supporting Information); (e) Galvanostatic cycling curves of Na||Na symmetric cells.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8219831/v1/ef16d0aaaaace58ba0d60bf5.png"},{"id":105570076,"identity":"645680a3-257b-4f9c-98ca-e7239928d835","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 13:14:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3194839,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8219831/v1/cbf7beba-7d0a-4e67-b4b5-016f83893c7e.pdf"},{"id":105340164,"identity":"fa8f7d59-ed13-4038-8bf7-e7a3985fb1c8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-25 02:32:57","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":408616,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Competing Interest","description":"","filename":"nrcompetinginterests.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8219831/v1/a5c7369382faec4e9a80443f.pdf"},{"id":105565254,"identity":"370763f4-8176-4759-8ac4-b95961b3bc39","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 12:52:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":2134226,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supporting Information","description":"","filename":"SupportingInformation.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8219831/v1/19524e13976e87fcbe659cf5.pdf"},{"id":105340167,"identity":"951aa437-d9ea-4e9d-b26d-4e4a6fc4d3d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-25 02:32:58","extension":"mp4","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":7224018,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supporting Video","description":"","filename":"SupportingVideo.mp4","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8219831/v1/1df8acf2684ee1d1fe919821.mp4"},{"id":105565812,"identity":"0d3477d1-ebc1-4eb7-9a59-98ba79af3609","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 12:54:29","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":200032,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTable of Contents\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"TOC.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8219831/v1/0b18c5bcd8387fd61790dc5c.png"},{"id":105340162,"identity":"332be65d-2f16-497f-8147-ec65e5e35c57","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-25 02:32:57","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":407235,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eScheme 1.\u003c/strong\u003e Bubble evolution, cost impact, and metal deposition mechanism. (a) Schematic of interfacial and free bubble dynamics. (b) Comparison of cost and loss ratio with and without intervention. The y-axis represents cost ($/kWh) and loss ratio (%), while the x-axis denotes bubble evolution stages. (c) Transition of metal deposition mechanism. Bubble-induced ion flux redistribution converts uncontrolled 2D dendrite growth into 3D plating, with annotations for bubble wake flow and metal-ion desolvation. (The orange structure represents the ion’s solvation shell).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Scheme1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8219831/v1/150b12cc978351eced3adea5.png"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e Competing Interest.","formattedTitle":"Bubble-guided drift redefines deposition and stabilises metal anodes","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGas generation is intrinsic to electrochemical metal deposition and poses a universal challenge to battery interfacial stability\u003csup\u003e1–4\u003c/sup\u003e. Although often treated as secondary by-products, recent analysis of catastrophic failures (Figure S1) indicates that gas bubbles are not merely harmless byproducts but important contributors to battery degradation, accounting for over 25% of reported accidents\u003csup\u003e5–8\u003c/sup\u003e. The problem is particularly pronounced in rechargeable metal-anode batteries with aqueous electrolytes\u003csup\u003e9–12\u003c/sup\u003e, where the polar aqueous solvent is inherently more reactive than its organic counterpart, leading to water decomposition and aggressive metal corrosion that inevitably accompany metal plating\u003csup\u003e11,13\u003c/sup\u003e. Despite major advances in electrolyte additives and surface engineering\u003csup\u003e14–18\u003c/sup\u003e, strategies that directly regulate bubble-electrode interactions remain conspicuously unexplored.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecent evidence indicates that bubbles are not passive by-products but active perturbations that distort current distribution, alter concentration gradients, and influence dendrite nucleation. Originating from water reduction and hydroxide precipitation, bubbles evolve through nucleation, growth, and detachment (Scheme 1a)\u003csup\u003e19,20\u003c/sup\u003e. Hydrogen evolution and hydroxide precipitation initiate gas pockets, which then expand and coalesce to obstruct ion transport and distort current distributions, thereby accelerating dendrite growth\u003csup\u003e21–25\u003c/sup\u003e. Upon detachment, flow instabilities arise that can delaminate electrodes, rupture cells, and trigger thermal events. To quantify their impact, bubble–performance correlations calibrated with industrial datasets were analysed\u003csup\u003e26–28\u003c/sup\u003e (Scheme 1b). The analysis shows that even moderate bubble accumulation reduces ion-transport efficiency and usable cycle life by 10–20%, while uncontrolled bubble coalescence or rupture can lead to deviations that translate to an effective 380% increase in operational cost relative to the baseline (Figure S2). Together, these results establish that bubble dynamics exert first-order control over ion distribution and metal deposition, elevating interfacial gas from a secondary consequence to a governing mechanism in aqueous metal-anode systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address this gap, we establish a paradigm for bubble-guided drift electrodeposition, in which bubble nucleation, growth, and detachment are harnessed to control ion flux and metal plating. \u003cem\u003eOperando\u003c/em\u003e Computed Tomography (CT), conducted using ptychographic imaging (8-30keV) \u003csup\u003e29–33\u003c/sup\u003e, directly visualizes bubble motion and its coupling to dendrite evolution. These dynamics displace dendrites, redistribute nucleation sites, and convert uniform 2D plating into uncontrolled 3D growth (Scheme 1c). A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model captures the transient nature of metal nucleation under bubble transport, revealing an interplay between bubble-induced flux and interfacial heterogeneity. In contrast to classical theory\u003csup\u003e34–38\u003c/sup\u003e, the deposition current must be reformulated to incorporate bubble-driven mass transport, thereby establishing a general framework for predicting stability in metal-anode batteries. Guided by this understanding, a hybrid separator design delivers dendrite-free Zn and Na anodes exceeding 3500 h in symmetric cells and stable 15 Ah prismatic cell for 600 cycles at 99.7% Coulombic efficiency. By reframing bubbles as active regulators, this study elevates gas bubble dynamics from a failure mode to a design principle for next-generation metal-anode batteries.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBubble\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edendrite interactions governed by separator interfacial microstructure\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo unravel the role of gas bubble dynamics in electrodeposition, it was discovered that bubble-dendrite interactions are fundamentally governed by the electrode-separator interfacial microstructure. The spatiotemporal coupling between gas bubbles and dendrites defines the stability of metal electrodeposition. In-situ characterizations\u0026nbsp;(\u003cem\u003eoptical microscopy\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eoperando CT\u003c/em\u003e) were performed on three representative separator systems: glass fiber (GF), polypropylene (PP), and cellulose paper (CP), as shown in Figures 2 and 3. For all cases, bubbles underwent a common evolutionary sequence of nucleation, growth \u0026amp; compression, detachment, and rupture. The nature of their interaction with dendrites varied profoundly with the interfacial microstructure of the separator, revealing a previously unrecognized phenomenon: bubble\u0026ndash;dendrite coupling is not universal but is dictated by the separator\u0026apos;s interfacial architecture.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo probe the influence of gas bubbles on electrodeposition, their dynamic evolution was first captured by \u003cem\u003ein-situ\u003c/em\u003e optical microscopy, as shown in Figure 1 and Figure S3. In GF separators (Figure 1a), the bubble-dendrite mechanism is controlled by capillarity-driven upward migration. The combination of small pore sizes, heterogeneous fibre assembly, and strong hydrophilicity produces highly non-uniform interfacial fields compared with other separator systems. This structural asymmetry accelerates side reactions, making GF the medium in which gas generation occurs most rapidly. Figure S4 further demonstrates these dynamics in detail. Once nucleated, bubbles are immediately drawn upward by capillary forces along the fibre channels. However, as they elongate, their interfacial tension is repeatedly disrupted and pierced by the rigid fibres, preventing the formation of stable bubble domains. Dendritic protrusions initially tend to extend along bubble surfaces, guided by the steep field gradients around gas\u0026ndash;liquid interfaces. While the upward mobility of bubbles, combined with intermittent rupture against fibres, displaces dendrites from their natural trajectories. Detached or migrating bubbles leave dendrites anchored to the fibre surfaces, forcing their growth to conform to the irregular separator skeleton, a phenomenon similar to shock electrodeposition\u003csup\u003e39\u003c/sup\u003e. This results in fibre-guided dendritic propagation and the emergence of localized internal micro-short circuits. Importantly, because fibre intersections continually rupture bubbles, GF exhibit less gas accumulation. Instead, the repeated formation-rupture cycles prevent large-scale bubble accumulation, thereby mitigating the adverse influence of bubbles on dendrite growth and ion transport. As shown in Figure S5a, electric field mapping in the presence of bubbles reveals a pronounced field enhancement at the triple-phase boundary of the bubble-electrolyte-electrode interface. With bubble growth, this peak-field zone gradually migrates from the initial triple-phase contact line toward the mid-edge of the bubble, forming a moving high-field corridor. This shifting field maximum directs local ion flux, causing dendrites to elongate along the bubble perimeter rather than depositing uniformly on the electrode surface. \u003cem\u003eIn situ\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand post-mortem evidence (Fig. S5b) confirm dendrite growth around bubbles, consistent with previous observations\u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003e, showing that bubble dynamics direct dendrite nucleation and growth.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, in the PP membrane (Figure 1b), the bubble-dendrite mechanism is controlled by hydrophobic slip-driven dynamics. PP membranes suppressed vertical expansion due to narrower pores and hydrophobicity.\u003csup\u003e41\u003c/sup\u003e Bubbles instead slipped laterally, pushing dendrites toward electrode edges. Subsequent detachment generated directional flows that reinforced edge-localised accumulation, and rupture induced anisotropic perturbations that exacerbated boundary-driven growth. This mechanism yielded edge-focused dendrite clustering, distinct from the upward displacement observed in GF. In the CP separator (Figure 1c), the bubble-dendrite mechanism is controlled by hydrophilic confinement and smooth displacement. CP separators confined bubbles within tortuous pores, preventing abrupt expansion or detachment. Bubbles compressed gently, slipping along dendrites and gradually displacing them laterally. Rupture occurred in a controlled manner without disruptive flows, enabling continuous redistribution of nucleation sites. As a result, dendrites were displaced but stabilised, giving rise to uniform surface plating without vertical penetration, as shown in Figure S6. Separator microstructure governs bubble\u0026ndash;dendrite coupling, enabling bubbles to act as regulators rather than by-products.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOperando\u003c/em\u003e CT reveals a direct mechanistic connection between bubble morphology, dendrite motion, and ion flux pathways. In GF separators, bubbles repeatedly deformed as their interfacial tension was pierced and reshaped by the surrounding fibres. CT imaging captured dendrites being lifted and displaced by rising bubbles, pulling protrusions away from their vertical growth axis. This interaction caused dendrites to adhere to fibres and grow along irregular paths that consistent with prior study\u003csup\u003e42\u003c/sup\u003e. Ion transport in this regime became highly non-uniform: capillarity-driven bubble motion created vertical flux channels that funneled ions into elongated dendrites, accounting for the frequent appearance of abnormally tall structures in GF (shown in Figure S9). In PP separators (Figure 2b), bubbles were compressed laterally within the narrower and hydrophobic pores. Instead of moving freely, they became trapped and exerted horizontal pressure on nearby dendrites. As the bubbles deformed under compression, dendrites tilted sideways, producing inclined plating fronts. CT further revealed that ions in these zones drifted obliquely rather than perpendicularly to the electrode, redirecting transport pathways toward electrode edges. This tilted ion flux produced anisotropic accumulation, reinforcing lateral dendrite growth and accelerating edge-localized failure (Figure S10). In CP separators (Figure 2c), bubbles were confined within the fibrous network and slid smoothly along the interface. Rather than rupturing abruptly, they induced gradual dendrite displacement and gentle migration of nucleation sites across the surface. Time-resolved images revealed that this bubble slippage redistributed local concentration gradients, flattening vertical flux heterogeneities and converting unstable 2D protrusions into laterally spread 3D deposits (Figure S11).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGas-transport-mediated current consumption and ion dynamics: a mechanistic framework\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Zn||Cu chronoamperometry (CA) tests provide direct evidence that electrodeposition cannot be fully described by classical Scharifker\u0026ndash;Hills nucleation models\u003csup\u003e34,37\u003c/sup\u003e, which assume uniform ionic transport in a single-phase medium. Instead, the data reveal a clear signature of dynamic interfacial perturbations induced by gas bubble transport. As shown in Figure 3a, the current\u0026ndash;time profile\u003csup\u003e35,37\u003c/sup\u003e for the glass fiber (GF) separator aligns with the 3D instantaneous model\u003csup\u003e43\u003c/sup\u003e up to ~117 s, in a 2D/3D mixed mode\u003csup\u003e44\u003c/sup\u003e, before gradually shifting toward full 3D growth. In contrast, the cellulose paper (CP) separator exhibits an earlier 2D/3D transition (~7 s) and a slower progression toward 3D growth over the next 60-80 s, consistent with confined bubble motion that partially homogenizes ion flux. For the polypropylene (PP) separator, however, the CA curve deviates sharply: it initially matches the 3D instantaneous model (~12 s) but then diverges by more than 65% from theoretical predictions. This pronounced deviation arises from trapped gas domains that obstruct vertical transport and drive lateral current drift. Quantitatively, the hierarchy of deviation, PP (~65%) \u0026gt; CP (~42%) \u0026gt; GF (~28%), parallels their electrochemical stability, demonstrating that the degree of departure from classical nucleation theory directly reflects the intensity of gas-ion coupling at the interface.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo elucidate the physical origin of these deviations, static 3D separator structures (Figure S7) reconstructed from CT were imported into CFD simulations (Figure 3a and Figure S12-S14). Gas domains and pore walls were segmented, and directional flow simulations were performed to probe gas-induced transport heterogeneity. As shown in Figure 3b, the simulations reveal that in GF, rapid bubble rupture and release prevent long-lived gas retention, resulting in the lowest velocity variance (~0.07) and pressure disturbance (\u0026lt;0.05 MPa). This minimizes persistent obstruction despite capillarity-driven instabilities. In PP, compressed and interconnected gas domains form extended transport barriers, producing the highest velocity variance (\u0026gt;0.25) and pressure fluctuations (~0.18 MPa), with ion flux deflected obliquely toward electrode edges. In CP, confined gas migration through fibrous pores induces smoother slippage, yielding moderate velocity variance (~0.15) and pressure perturbations (~21 MPa), partially homogenizing ionic fields. Together, these results establish that GF supports the smoothest transport, PP suffers from compression-induced perturbations, and CP experiences anisotropic drift. To rationalize these behaviors, gas topology was quantified using the Euler number, which directly correlates with transport uniformity.\u003csup\u003e45\u0026ndash;47\u003c/sup\u003e GF exhibited the most negative Euler number (-145) at the initial state, reflecting extensive gas connectivity and overlapping venting pathways. By contrast, PP (-67) and CP (-63) displayed less negative values, indicating only partially connected pathways. This resolves the apparent paradox: while GF generates more connected gas networks, this connectivity promotes rapid removal and stabilises transport fields. PP and CP, despite similar intermediate Euler values, differ in mechanism; CP is dominated by oblique flux drift, and PP by compression-driven perturbations, both leading to less favorable electrochemical stability. An increasing Euler number indicates bubble isolation, coalescence, and eventual stagnation, as confirmed by the simulated topologies in Figure 3a, where each subpanel depicts the corresponding bubble evolution at the same time steps.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy integrating \u003cem\u003eoperando\u003c/em\u003e CT, CFD, and topological analysis, this framework elevates gas transport from a neglected side process to a central element of electrodeposition theory. These results highlight the necessity to revise electrodeposition theory as:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg 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\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eJ\u003csub\u003eSH\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e represents the Scharifker and Hills (SH) which applied to the electrodeposition process in the absence of side reactions, and\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;J\u003csub\u003egas-transport\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e accounts for the dynamic current fraction consumed by interfacial gas transport. \u003cem\u003ea\u003csub\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003eis the maximum value for the \u003cem\u003eD\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ea\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;a\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ea\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e is the mean, maximum and minimum value of Tortuosity, respectively. To refine this formulation, an explainable symbolic regression algorithm\u003csup\u003e48\u0026ndash;51\u003c/sup\u003e was employed to derive the explicit mathematical form of \u003cem\u003eJ\u003csub\u003egas-transport\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e directly from experimental observables. Instead of relying on numerical fitting and transport-based model\u003csup\u003e52\u0026ndash;54\u003c/sup\u003e, the model searched over 60 physically constrained functional forms incorporating parameters such as the tortuosity factor, directional effective ion diffusivity (\u003cv:shape id=\"_x0000_i1025\" type=\"#_x0000_t75\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:imagedata src=\"file:///C%3A/Users/khan07/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.png\" o:title=\"\" chromakey=\"white\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:imagedata\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:shape\u003e), and time (\u003cv:shape id=\"_x0000_i1025\" type=\"#_x0000_t75\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:imagedata src=\"file:///C%3A/Users/khan07/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.png\" o:title=\"\" chromakey=\"white\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:imagedata\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:shape\u003e), combined with dimensionless constants as detailed in the Supporting Information. The optimized model converged to a compact, interpretable equation that decouples gas transport from ionic diffusion. The resulting coefficient \u003cv:shape id=\"_x0000_i1025\" type=\"#_x0000_t75\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:imagedata src=\"file:///C%3A/Users/khan07/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.png\" o:title=\"\" chromakey=\"white\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:imagedata\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:shape\u003equantifies the dynamic coupling between interfacial gas flux and ion migration, accurately reproducing the experimental current\u0026ndash;time profiles (Figure S15). The emergence of a characteristic diffusion-like timescale further confirms that gas transport acts as an active, time-dependent component of electrode kinetics rather than a passive side effect.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe corrosion potential analysis (Figure 4a) provides direct validation of the transport-based hypothesis. Corrosion potential of Zn anodes with different separators (vs. Ag/AgCl) show distinct behaviors: Zn|PP|Zn and Zn|CP|Zn exhibit pronounced negative shifts, whereas Zn|GF|Zn maintains a higher potential, indicating more stable ion flux. The fitting equation for Zn|PP|Zn is labeled: (-0.957 V; -0.566 log(i)). Separators with higher gas generation (Figure 4c), such as PP and CP, exhibit pronounced negative shifts, consistent with unstable ion flux and persistent interfacial obstruction. In contrast, GF produces the least gas sustains a higher corrosion potential than PP and CP, reflecting its efficient venting despite moderate plating uniformity, as shown in Figure S6. This confirms that electrochemical stability is not dictated by gas suppression alone but by how gas is transported and released. The central mechanistic insight is a mechanical equilibrium between surface tension and buoyancy controls that metal drift plating. During growth, bubbles deform and migrate, generating wake flows that entrain metal protrusions. Dendrites continue to drift until \u003cv:shape id=\"_x0000_i1025\" type=\"#_x0000_t75\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cv:imagedata src=\"file:///C%3A/Users/khan07/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.png\" o:title=\"\" chromakey=\"white\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:imagedata\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/v:shape\u003e of the bubble\u003csup\u003e20,21,55,56\u003c/sup\u003e, at which point lateral deposition pathways dominate over vertical penetration. This balance explains the distinct morphologies observed: GF promotes upward displacement, PP induces edge-directed drift, and CP drives lateral sliding under compression. These behaviors are directly visualized in the pressure distribution maps (Figure 4d). GF exhibits a nearly uniform field with short relaxation distances, PP shows heterogeneous gradients consistent with lateral slip, and CP displays localized high-pressure zones characteristic of bubble compression. Collectively, the CT-derived CFD simulations confirm that drift plating arises not from ionic limitation alone, but from a multiphase mechanical equilibrium in which interfacial gas bubble transport reshapes ion flux and deposition pathways.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeparator-enabled bubble tailoring for stable plating\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGuided by these insights, we propose a hybrid separator architecture that couples multi-scale pore design with tailored wettability to regulate interfacial gas dynamics. The guiding principle is to reconcile the opposing transport characteristics of the single-component separators: hydrophobic CP suppresses vertical gas release but induces lateral drift, hydrophilic GF ensures rapid venting yet perturbs ionic homogeneity. Specifically, coarse pores are introduced to provide low-resistance channels for bubble escape\u003csup\u003e57\u003c/sup\u003e, thereby shortening the effective pressure-relaxation distance. In contrast, fine pores maintain a homogeneous ionic distribution and prevent gas-domain coalescence. This hierarchical configuration, realized through a simple strategy, layered or composite stacking of CP and GF microstructures (schematized in Figure 5a), forms vertically aligned capillary networks embedded within a laterally constrained matrix. The self-regulating pathway lets bubbles nucleate and escape through large pores while preventing long-lived percolation, thus sustaining ion transport and minimizing field distortion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrochemical validation confirmed the benefits of bubble-tailored strategies across both model and practical systems (Figure 5b). In Zn||Zn symmetric cells, hybrid separators that regulate interfacial gas transport enabled ultrastable cycling for over 3000 hours with negligible overpotential rise, far surpassing the premature shorting observed with PP and the gradual polarization increase of GF. Crucially, the bubble-modulated drift effect translated seamlessly into industrially relevant devices, where a high-mass-loading, full-tab prismatic Zn-ion cells (15 Ah) maintained 99.7% coulombic efficiency for over 600 cycles, exhibiting stable voltage profiles and highly reproducible charge-discharge performance (Figure 5d). To examine this universality, we implemented the hybrid separator architecture in Na-ion batteries. Symmetric Na||Na cells (Figure 5e) incorporating the hybrid interfacial design exhibited prolonged cycling stability with minimal voltage polarization and produced smooth, dense Na deposits rather than filamentary dendrites, contrasting sharply with PP and GF controls. The behavior closely mirrors that observed in Zn systems, confirming that interfacial gas transport and the balance between surface tension and buoyancy represent general determinants of metal-deposition pathways.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis work establishes bubble-driven drift electrodeposition as a fundamental mechanism dictating metal-anode stability, reframing interfacial gas from a parasitic by-product into an active regulator of metal growth. \u003cem\u003eOperando\u003c/em\u003e ptychographic CT and CFD reveal how bubble nucleation, growth, and migration reorganize local ion flux and drive the transition from uniform 2D plating to 3D drift deposition, behaviour that cannot be captured by classical single-phase nucleation models. Integrating these insights, we reformulate the deposition current to explicitly include gas-transport contributions, providing a unified framework for predicting and controlling metal plating stability. Leveraging this mechanistic understanding, we design a hybrid separator architecture that regulates bubble escape pathways and unlocks performance-optimal metal deposition. This strategy enables dendrite-free Zn and Na anodes with lifetimes exceeding 3500 h in symmetric cells and supports high-mass-loading prismatic Zn-ion batteries (15 Ah) cycling stably for 600 cycles at 99.7% Coulombic efficiency. The same principles apply across aqueous metal-anode chemistries, demonstrating the generality of bubble-guided drift as a design axis. By reframing bubbles as active regulators that define the upper performance bound of metal-anode systems, this study elevates interfacial gas dynamics from an overlooked instability to a core design principle for next-generation high-performance metal batteries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (x2wjD2240360), Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (2025A1515011717), and Guangzhou Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (2025A04J3662). The innovative R\u0026amp;D team introduced in Guangdong (2023ZT10L145) and Faraday Institution and the Transforming Energy Access Programme (FIRG050) were supported by H. D. Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC, EP/V027433/3) and UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) under the UK government‘s Horizon Europe funding (101077226; EP/Y008707/1) by G. H. Vastech battery company is thanked for pouch and prismatic cells\u0026nbsp;fabrication. We acknowledge the electron Physical Science Imaging Centre instrument at Diamond Light Source for the allocated experiment session.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests. \u003cstrong\u003eData and materials availability:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData are provided with this paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSong, I. T. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Thermal runaway prevention through scalable fabrication of safety reinforced layer in practical Li-ion batteries. \u003cem\u003eNat. 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Fluids\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e35\u003c/strong\u003e, (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHe, Y. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Strategies for bubble removal in electrochemical systems. \u003cem\u003eEnergy Rev.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e, (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Scheme 1","content":"\u003cp\u003eScheme 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nature-portfolio","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Nature Portfolio","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":false,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8219831/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8219831/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Unstable metal plating remains a critical barrier to metal-anode batteries, but the role of interfacial gas remains undefined，which will dramatically influence the practical battery performances. This work identifies interfacial bubble dynamics as a governing mechanism of electrodeposition, redefining how metal deposits form. Operando X-ray computed tomography reveals that bubble nucleation, growth, migration, and rupture dynamically reconfigure local fields, inducing dendrite drift plating. An Euler-based topological analysis quantifies the regulation of gas connectivity and ion redistribution. A quantitative model derived via interpretable symbolic regression reproduces this drift plating with high fidelity. Guided by insights, a hybrid separator strategy is developed synergistically to control bubble formation in metal-anode batteries, enabling uniform deposition of metal anodes \u003e3000 h of cycling, and a high mass loading of 15 Ah in prismatic cells over 600 cycles. Bubble-guided drift is established as a design principle for stable metal anodes.","manuscriptTitle":"Bubble-guided drift redefines deposition and stabilises metal anodes","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-25 02:32:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8219831/v1","editorialEvents":[],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nature-chemical-engineering","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"natchemeng","sideBox":"Learn more about [Nature Chemical Engineering](https://www.nature.com/natchemeng/)","snPcode":"44286","submissionUrl":"https://mts-natchemeng.nature.com/","title":"Nature Chemical Engineering","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e38aaa49-aca8-405f-8b35-08cfc1c6ad6a","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 25th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":59550175,"name":"Physical sciences/Energy science and technology/Energy storage/Batteries"},{"id":59550176,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science/Materials for energy and catalysis"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-25T02:32:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-25 02:32:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8219831","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8219831","identity":"rs-8219831","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}