Present and future: the effects and possible solutions of microplastics in the marine/aquatic environment

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The use of MPs is increasing at extraordinary haste while the recycling and reuse are very low. They are dumped in water bodies that sequentially enter the marine ecosystem. Recently scientists have observed the presence of MPs in various tissues such as the gastrointestinal tract and some immune organs. The major problem arises when it affects the human population severely. The consumption of MPs-affected fish cause accumulation in the food chain resulting in biomagnification. It affects human health by interfering with the gut microbiome, immune response, etc. We can decrease the impact of MPs by reducing their production and detecting them in aqua-consuming organisms. There are different techniques to diagnose the concentration of MPs inside marine organisms before processing. Removal of the gut of marine food organisms before consumption is also an excellent way to reduce the impact of MPs on health, but it is not possible for small fish. So, some limits should be applied to impose the production of MPs and enhance the use of biodegradable products for human health considerations. Some protocols should be set on the boundary of MPs’ concentration for fish marketing and processing. Microplastic marine ecosystem mussel crab fish Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction Since 1950, plastics have exponentially increased and reached 322 million tonnes in 2015, and also noticed additional production of 61 million tonnes of synthetic fibres was also spotted in the same year (Lusher et al. 2017 ). This is due to the excessive production of plastics, due to the characteristics of this material such as its buoyancy and various chemical and physical specifications (Strungaru et al. 2019 ). Approximately 4.8 to 12.7 million tonnes of discarded plastics entered the ocean from various sources (Lusher et al. 2017 ). Due to the exposure to various natural phenomena, such as wave action and photodegradation, plastics degrade into minute particles less than 5mm in size, known as microplastics (MPs) (Karami et al. 2016 ). In a recent study, it has been noticed that a significant fraction of MPs is consumed mistakenly by the marine organisms, from the smallest plankton organisms to the top predators such as fish, whales, sea turtles, etc. in the food chain and accumulation of these plastic components brings alternation in the biochemical and hematological parameters of the marine organism (Burkhardt et al. 2019). In the food chain, all organisms consume the MPs. Still, the lower trophic microorganisms such as zooplankton, echinoderms, and invertebrates are the most vulnerable. It influences the biogeochemical cycles that lead to the contamination of marine products, resulting in a risk to human health (do Sul et al. 2014). It has been noticed that MPs absorbed in the intestine by epithelial cells are transferred to the circulatory system to influence the immune system by producing neutrophils, granulocytes, and cytokine cells in the aquatic species. Some plasticizers also induce the immune system by stimulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) in haemocytes and by disturbing the mitochondria functions that result in oxidative stress (Fig. 1) (Burgos-Aceves et al. 2021 ). Several studies have shown that marine species (particularly filter feeders), tend to consume microplastics that are often found along with plankton and get segregated from the liver, muscles, and gastrointestinal (GI) tract of ocean/wild aquatic specimens (Abbasi et al. 2018 ). Based on experimental work, it is suggested that the most common route of consuming MPs in the fish is GI tract and gills and accumulated there in high to cause tissue damage, but obstruction of the gastro-intestinal tract and food appendages have also been demonstrated (Ding et al. 2018 ; Schirinzi et al. 2020 ). Experimental exposure to polystyrene MPs disclosed that MPs accumulate in zebrafish liver, and a robust inflammatory response or the immune response is induced against MPs (Burgos-Aceveset al. 2020 ). Bioaccumulation of micro and nano plastics induces cell toxicity by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in oxidative stress (AshaRani et al. 2009 ). ROS accumulation elicits several biological responses in the body, viz. apoptosis, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and oxidative stress-induced signaling pathways (AshaRani et al. 2009 ). In response, the immune system gets activated. It produces many mechanisms such as heat shock proteins (HSPs), catalases (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), peroxiredoxins hyperglycemia, and antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD) (Faggioet et al. 2016). Bioaccumulation intervenes with the food pathway leading to biomagnification. Thus, MPs enter the food chain, while exposed effects in humans become worse because MPs stimulate DNA damage and inflammation and play a crucial role in carcinogenesis in the human body (Alimba et al. 2021 ). Humans' daily consumption of marine organisms such as fish, sea cucumber, mussels, and oysters makes it inevitable to get rid of MPs' noxious outcomes. The higher exposure of MPs in the human system results in chromosomal alteration causing diseases like cancer, infertility, and obesity (Sharma et al. 2017). Several MPs and chemicals are associated with mimicking similar estrogen hormones in the case of women leading to breast cancer. Lack of technology and the unavailability of MP's data are the two leading causes of MPs biomagnification in the food chain. The scarcity of MPs detecting technology for reducing the MPs is a significant drawback of developing countries. The current review focuses on the interference of microplastics in the immune system and organs associated with it in aquatic organisms and its presence in the use of various MPs detecting technology in diverse conditions. This review will focus on the impression of MPs in the numerous marine organism together discuss the alternative of MPs that are eco-friendly and will reduce the MPs in natural conditions. Knowledge of the various MPs detecting techniques and their biodegradable alternates will help minimize the impact of MPs on our healthy lives. Remember, prevention is better than cure. 2. Microplastics In Aquatic Ecosystems 2.1 MPs source in marine water Microplastics are found extensively in all marine habitats on a global scale. Microplastics from cosmetics and cleaning chemicals (e.g., microbeads) will be conveyed with wastewater via sewers, resulting in their accumulation in the marine environment. Although data is unavailable, runoff from large plastic manufacturing plants could be another source (Wagner et al. 2014 ). Rivers are considered the primary transport route of plastic litter, as indicated by the results of a global model that calculates the riverine flux of microplastics per year on a global scale. About 1.5 million tonnes of microplastics are dumped into the ocean annually (Wang et al. 2021 ). The primary sources are not the only source of contamination; along with it, large fragments of plastics also enter the marine ecosystem, and a maximum portion continues to flow on the water surface, which starts to fragments into the minute particle. The various chemical and physical factors help to disintegrate the larger fragments of plastics into the microplastics in which the UV light, heat, wind, and waves action is most important. Therefore, large fragments of plastic are likely to represent a significant microplastic source. Sources of large plastic debris can also be traced to maritime activities like shipping, fishing, recreation, and offshore industries (Browne 2015 ). The fishing industry is responsible for about 18% of the total plastic debris present in the ocean. Plastic fishing gears that are sometimes lost or mindlessly discarded at sea contribute heavily to marine plastic pollution (Andrady et al. 2011). 2.2 MPs source in freshwater Microplastics are ubiquitously found in freshwater systems. Primary sources of microplastics are those in which plastics with sizes less than 5mm are produced intentionally through extrusion or grinding. Secondary sources are derived from large plastic debris after its degradation and fragmentation into smaller particles (Brown 2015). Microplastics enter freshwater habitats through several pathways. Water released from wastewater treatment plants often carries large amounts of microplastics. The average proportion of microplastics removed without tertiary treatment in a Wastewater treatment plant was found to be about 88 percent, which increased to more than 97 percent with tertiary treatment (Wang et al. 2021 ) Regardless of the considerable removal of micro particulates from the wastewater treated by various effluent treatment plants, still microplastics persist in the treated water and represent a large number (Horton et al. 2017). Sources of microplastics in such water can be cosmetic or cleaning products, textiles, etc. (Lambert et al. 2018). Sewage sludge often contains more microplastics than the effluent released. The sludge formed in sewage treatment plants is sometimes poured to agricultural lands, contaminating nearby water sources. The incidental release of microplastics due to worn-out automotive tires is another source of microplastic pollution (Wagner et al., 2014 ). 3. Identification Of Microplastics In Aquatic Ecosystem Samples collected from natural sources must carefully examine the target microplastics from the remaining matrix. Commonly used technique for identifying MPs is a visual inspection or optical techniques. For microscopic examination, many techniques are used for MPs identification discussed below (Wang et al. 2018). 3.1 Optical techniques The most straightforward and generally used technique for MPs identification can be proceeded by eye-visual observation or with the help of a stereomicroscope (Wang et al. 2018). Shapes and colours are the primary basis for identifying suspected MP items (Crawford et al. 2017). The selection criteria to be followed strictly during the visual examination of MPs: no cellular or visible organic structure in suspected particles, uniformly and coloured particles, and for white and transparent particles, further confirmation has to be done by using a high-magnification microscope, and these techniques majorly detect less than 250 µ size microplastic particles. In case of the unavailability of expensive analytical instruments, this method is effective for high-volume samples. Disadvantages include weathering MPs, changing the morphology, and making visual identification more challenging. The risk of misidentification increases as examined particle size decreases (Crawford et al. 2017). Hence, the requirement for spectroscopic instruments increases to minimize the error and confirm the identification of smaller particles of MPs (Wang et al. 2018). 3.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) High-resolve pictures of the sample’s surface can be taken using an electron beam with high intensity and speed and scanning with a raster scan pattern (Wang et al. 2018). The electrons produce a very high magnification image of MPs' sample's surface. The high-resolution image of MP's surface can be differentiated from other matter impurities (Crawford et al. 2017). It can be used to examine the weathered MPs items recovered from natural sources by analysing the various surface texture. SEM successfully examines the surface morphology of MPs briefly. Still, it is not suitable for many samples because of high time consumption and efforts for the pre-preparation of the sample (Wang et al. 2018). 3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy FTIR differentiates the various sample-based on bond composition by comparing the spectrum of an unknown material with the spectrum of known standard material. It provides an infrared spectrum unique for specific chemical bonds (Wang et al. 2018). High-reliability characteristics of FTIR make it the commonly used technique for analysing chemical descriptions of MPs samples collected from natural resources. It works in two ways: to validate the visual identification result, it examines a set of subsamples or scanning of all suspected particles. Increasing the number of suspected particles improves the accuracy of data analysed by FTIR, but the limiting factor should be time and cost for sample analysis (Wang et al. 2018). It is the only technique capable of recognizing the polymeric composition of MPs (size > 10–20 µm). Still, its efficiency may reduce if the particle size is smaller than its aperture size (Huppertsberg et al. 2018). 3.4 Raman spectroscopy It is a highly reliable and widely used technique for identifying MPs polymer from various environmental sources (Araujo et al. 2018 ). The basic principle of this technique is using irradiating monochromatic laser to analyse the sample. Due to absorption, it produces a different frequency of backscattered light, molecular structure, and atomic composition of various samples scatter or reflect the light specifically (Crawford et al. 2017). Advantages commonly sheared by FTIR and Raman spectroscopy are high reliability, less sample requirement, and high throughput screening (Araujo et al. 2018 ). Identification of MP sizes less than 1µm is possible by combining the use of Raman spectroscopy and microscopy (micro-Raman) (Crawford et al. 2017). It is used to analyse or locate the fragments of MPs within organs or tissues. The main disadvantage of this technique is that identification accuracy is negatively affected by the presence of various additives, chemicals, and pigments associated with MPs (Wang et al. 2018). 3.5 Pyrolysis–gas chromatography-mass (Pyr-GC-MS) spectrometry It is a destructive technique that analyses MPs' thermal degradation products for the chemical identification of samples collected from natural sources (Fries et al. 2013 ). In this technique, programs of the unknown sample are compared with programs of the known pure sample for getting the polymer types of MPs (Löder et al. 2015). The main advantage is that it provides detailed chemical composition data about MPs polymer and organic additives contained in the sample (Wang et al. 2018). It has a good lead on the other technique because it is not responsive to the size, shape, and other contaminants associated with the analysed particles (Wang et al. 2018). However, the main disadvantage is that it is a destructive type of technique only capable of analysing chemical characterization. Still, it fails to examine the MPs sample's morphological properties, such as particle size and distribution (Wang et al. 2018). 4. Concentration And Impacts Of Microplastics In Aquatic System 4.1 Water (concentration in various aquatic systems) The world in the present generation widely depends on plastics for their everyday activities. A large percentage of these plastics are single-time-use plastics. Many of these single-time-use plastics and reusable types end up in the water bodies as sewage and garbage. These particles are broken down into various sizes, including microplastics and nano plastics. Because of its small size, the detection and analysis are difficult usually it is carried out by visual inspection and is followed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, pyrolysis gas chromatography, mass spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy etc. (sen du et al. 2021 ) Recently, the research found the presence, deposition, environmental Impacts, and ways to know the presence of plastic contaminants in different aquatic systems. The result showed more microplastic accumulation in the freshwater system. The presence of microplastics in different freshwater systems worldwide has been detected, such as Three Gorges reservoir, North shore channel, Winnipeg Lake (Canada), Taihu Lake (China), and Danube River (Europe). The particles were of various sizes, shapes, and colours, along with which they may have a different chemical compositions and may also deposit various pollutants (Zhang et al.c2021). Microplastic is dispersed in the water column, surface, organisms, and sediments. Microplastics are also discovered in distant places like polar regions. These particles are more concentrated on the surface. The amount of microplastics on the water surface is higher in the coastal cities with numerous industries nearby. Around the world, the concentration of these particles on the marine surface is given by?. South Pacific Ocean, Arabian Bay, Western North Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean, Northwestern Pacific, North-Western Mediterranean Sea, Northeast Pacific Ocean, and Mid-West Pacific Ocean (Zhang et al. 2021). 4.2 Organisms 4.2.1 Plankton Zooplankton feeds mostly on surface waters in which high concentrations of microplastics have been detected, with high microplastic concentrations, which increases the chances of interaction and ingestion (Rodrigues et al. 2021 ). Due to similar sizes, zooplankton can confuse microplastics with their natural prey, phytoplankton or marine snow, and consume microplastics. Microplastic ingestion by copepods and euphausiids can cause microplastic to enter marine food webs and transfer to higher trophic levels (Lin 2016 ). Information on the impact of microplastics on plankton has primarily come from laboratory-based studies. Offsprings of copepods exposed to microplastics are shown to have higher mortality rates than the controls. However, the data on Transgenerational toxicity owing to microplastics in holoplankton, especially copepods, is still limited (Yu et al. 2020 ). In pelagic copepod, Calanus helgolandicus microplastics ingestion led to decreased reproductive success, impaired feeding, smaller egg size, and low hatching rates. Toxic leachates from microplastics can affect the survival and settlement rate of planktonic barnacle larvae on microplastics (Lin et al. 2016). Survival and hatching rates of fish embryos seemed to be affected by microplastic exposure Similarly, microplastics had little to no adverse effects on the survival rates of different larval stages of fish (Yu et al. 2020 ). Daphnia magna exposed to microplastics at varying concentrations (400,2000,10000 mL/L) exhibited high mortality rates, reduced growth and reproductive success(Rodrigues et al. 2021 ). Laboratory-based feeding studies by (Dawson et al.,2018) showed evidence of digestive fragmentation of microplastics by Antarctic krills. Nanoplastics formed after biological fragmentation can potentially translocate to the haemolymph and may induce genotoxicity and immunological effects in hemocytes. Microplastics can influence chlorophyll content and lower the photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton which can potentially impair the marine biological pump. In response to microplastic exposure, laboratory investigations revealed decreased enzyme activity, low lipid content, and structural alterations in phytoplankton (Rodrigues et al. 2021 ). 4.2.2 Plants and seagrass Biogenic habitats like seagrass meadows have the highest potential to trap large quantities of microplastics in the sediments and make them inaccessible to pelagic food webs. Microplastics can be trapped on seagrass canopy depending on the structural complexity and cuticle characteristics ( de Smit et al. 2021 ). Seagrass leaves have a coarse surface because of the presence of epiphytes, which can also ooze exopolymers known to promote particle adhesion. However, a recent study found no link between microplastic accumulation and epibiont present in seagrasses and macroalgae (Cozzolino et al. 2020 ). Microplastics adhered to seagrass leaves or epiphytes can lead to the uptake of microplastics by herbivores like dugongs and sea turtles (Huang et al. 2020 ). The marine vegetation colonized in the intertidal and subtidal habitats, such as seagrasses, has received little attention due to the uncertain effects of macro and microplastics stranded. The existence of microplastics on the seagrass’s leaf blades and macroalgae highlights these canopy-forming habitats as sinks of microplastics and probable vectors of microplastics into food webs (Cozzolino et al. 2020 ). microplastics can negatively impact seagrass by changing sediment structure and properties. Chemicals adsorbed on microplastic can reduce growth and normal root development. Leachates from microplastics buried in sediments can negatively impact infaunal organisms(Huang et al. 2020 ). 4.2.3 Crustaceans Field observation of microplastic ingestion by crustaceans is less common. However, microplastics have been identified in the intestines of important Norway lobster and brown shrimp ( Crangon crangon ) (Table 1 ) (Lusher et al. 2015). Micro plastics were found in 83% of 120 wild Nephrops collected from Clyde sea(Murray and Cowie et al. 2011). (Devriese et al. 2015 ) reported microplastic monofilaments in 104 (63% ) individuals out of 165 wild brown shrimps assessed. High levels of microplastics in the sediments increase the likelihood of microplastic uptake by epibenthic crustaceans during feeding or borrowing activities (Devriese et al. 2015 ). Microplastics found in the stomach lining of some langoustines, particularly in those that have recently completed their molt, Norway lobsters imply that ecdysis is the primary route of microplastic loss by N. norvegicus . Post-molt individuals showed no remains of microplastics in the foregut, whereas individuals at the intermoult stage were observed to have aggregates of microplastic (Welden and cowie 2016 ). Plastic-free Nephrops had a longer median carapace length than plastic-containing Nephrops. This could imply that larger animals are better at either sorting plastics from their food before ingestion or excreting plastics after ingestion(Murray and Cowie 2011 ). In Nephrops, microplastic ingestion resulted in false satiation and reduced feeding. Hence, prolonged retention of microplastics is likely to reduce growth and development. The long residence time of microplastics can potentially expose the individual to toxic persistent organic pollutants(Welden and Cowie 2016 ). Phthalate-based plasticizers and bisphenol-A are common chemical additives found in plastics that can leach out and cause developmental and reproductive disturbances in many organisms, including crustaceans(Oehlmann et al.,2006). 4.2.4 Polychaetes Polychaetes constitute about 35 to 70% of marine macroinvertebrate populations. Due to their multifarious diet and feeding ecology, they may ingest MPs in various trophic pathways. Polychaetes are therefore crucial for monitoring environmental changes because of their responsiveness to cumulative influences of natural or artificial origin. A field study based on two polychaetes with different ecological features, viz, Sabella spallanzanii and Hermodice carunculata showed microplastic ingestion in both species. The isolation procedure involved whole body digestion and maximum digestion efficiency was recorded from the Foekema protocol (10% KOH solution at room temperature for 2–3 weeks). Additionally, HNO3 at 5% e di H2O2 at 15% mixture was used to dissolve calcareous H.carunculata . The most common plastic shape was found to be fragmented (99% (n = 184) in H.carunculata and 81% (n = 52) in S.spallanzanii ) and the polymer-type polyethylene (PE). Biofouling processes are likely to make low-density polymers like polyethylene accessible to benthic macroinvertebrates (Vecchi et al.2021). In the marine polychaete Ophryotrocha labronica exposed to PA beads (10–40 µm) reduced fecundity and egg sizes were observed. However, the juvenile survival rate was unaffected as the eggs produced by microplastic infected polychaetes had the same energetic content as those who were unexposed. Ingestion of microfibres by Hediste diversicolor reduced superoxide dismutase activity with a subsequent increase in oxidative damage to lipids (Hodgson 2018). Arenicola marina exposed to unplasticized polyvinylchloride had low energy reserves as a result of the cumulative effects of reduced feeding, long ingesta gut retention time, and increased phagocytic activity (Wright et al. 2013 ). Marine polychaetes can also be producers of secondary microplastics in the marine environment. The faces of Marphysa sanguinea inhabiting EPS (expanded polystyrene) debris had microplastics ranging from 0.2-3.8mm. Laboratory research with adult and juvenile polychaetes verified its significance in microplastic production since the size distribution of microplastics produced by laboratory studies was comparable to field observations (Jang et al.2018). 4.2.5 Molluscs When microplastics are ingested by shellfishes from the ecosystem, they possess a great risk while human consumption. (Ding et al 2020 ) In the littoral zone bivalve usually are found on rocky shores and in addition they are also used as human food. They are having filter feeding, the presence of deep understanding of the biology, and also an important part in the ecosystem, and as they are found everywhere and also their attached lifestyle, mussels are largely used as protector organisms of pollution monitoring in the marine ecosystem also having a filter-feeding ecosystem, mussels are more vulnerable to the uptake of microplastics (Reguera et al 2019 ) In an experiment, it was found that in M. Edulis microplastic ingestion reduced the byssal thread formation and helps them to hold tightly. When they were subjected to microplastics changed hemolymph proteome. Most of the proteins that were influenced were engaged in important processes, like regulation of the immune system, development of physical structure metabolism, and detoxification. (Green et al 2019 ). The intestinal tracts of these organisms can with the help of epithelial cells ingest the microplastics. 4.2.6 Fish 4.2.6.1 The fate of microplastic ingestion in fish In a recent study by Rummel et al. 2016 microplastics were found in the digestive system of fish from the North Sea and Baltic sea in almost 5.5% of all fish sample plastic was found, and 75% of it was in the range of microplastics. These microplastics can deposit in an organism, leading to lineal physical damage starting from blocking, internal and external injury, blockage, and can lead to death (Fig. 3). The microplastic can enter an organism by phagocytosis and pinocytosis, and particle intake by an organism is mainly dependent on the size of the particles, and smaller particles are more easily assimilated. For instance, in zebrafish, 5-micrometer particles get accumulated more in the liver, gut, and gills, whereas 20-micrometer microplastics are more in the gills and gut. In organisms like Pinctada margaritifera , crab-like C arcinus maenas , etc., there was a significant lowering in the ingestion rate, feeding ability, assimilation capability, energy budget, etc. (W Huang et al. 2020 ) Microplastic also brings about neurotoxicity, inflammatory response, and oxidative damage in various organisms like crabs, mussels, fish, etc., along with developmental deformities (Table 2 ). Microplastics at the molecular level can change the expression of genes related to multiple functions. For instance, microplastics affect the functioning of genes connected to stress response in gilthead seabream Sparus aurata and young ones of Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis. Concerning microplastic exposure, gene expression variation was seen in zebrafish larvae. When exposed to microplastic particles, changes in immune response, stress response, reconstruction of genetic material, and biotransformation were seen in Mytilus galloprovincialis and Dicentrarchus labrax (Fig. 2) (W huang et al 2020 ). Micro Plastics have been linked to a variety of negative consequences in marine animals at the population level, including alteration of foraging and feeding behaviour and changes in swimming ability, illusory satiation and behaviour, and fecundity (Moslem et al. 2020) 4.2.6.1.1 Digestive system Usually, microplastics get inside the digestive system of organisms through the oral pathway, get deposited in other organs through various metabolism, and then create hazardous consequences. In several studies (Savoca et al., 2019 ), microplastics have been shown to be present in marine mammals and fish of different species, particularly in pelagic fish of the central Mediterranean Sea, in the stomach of some demersal and semi-pelagic fish species. It is important to emphasise the importance of these fish in the food chain and at an ecological level. Therefore microplastics reach the digestive system of organisms first and assault the gastrointestinal tract. Microplastics were observed in the digestive system of Deep-sea fish and commercial fishes (kai yin et al. 2021 ). The physical blockage of the digestive system and interaction with nutrition are two of the most noticeable outcomes of fish microplastic intake. this case becomes especially true for ichthyoplankton in later growth phases, which hunt and eat microplastics and food (Boris jovanoic 2017) The intestine is the primary digestive, absorptive and immunological organ, and it plays a critical role in the growth and maintenance of the body's metabolic rate. As a microbe-containing ecosystem in the intestine and intestinal flora is primarily responsible for controlling several physiological processes of the host like amino acid, protein synthesis, and nutrient absorption. Recent advancements in research have discovered that the intestine's flora is not only engaged in metabolism and absorption of nutrients but is intimately related to inflammation and nutritional absorption. The gut flora mediates the onset and progression of brain disorders. These microbes are also involved in the production of the mucus layer of the gut coating of mucus toxins from outside the body might cause problems to the beneficial, neutral, and harmful bacteria, which are involved in dynamic equilibrium. Their imbalance can cause problems like inflammation, abnormal metabolism, etc. Numerous research has found that this balance of intestinal flora is destroyed by the presence of microparticles, decreasing benefits and increasing harmful bacteria. Along with that, the intestinal villi also get deformed, and a decrease in the mucus layer is also observed (kai yin et al. 2021 ) Proteus is a microbiological hallmark of inflammation of the intestine and primarily involves using amino acids. In case of a contaminated environment containing an enormous quality of microplastics. When the ecosystem has a very high amount of microplastic pollution, there will be a high concentration of proteobacteria which produces bacterial outputs like lipopolysaccharides, which results in inflammation, enhanced permeability of the intestine, and thinning of the intestinal wall. As invasive pathogen bacteria, actinomycetes are involved in the creation of secondary metabolites. The high concentration of actinomycetes is reduced due to microplastics, which can damage the intestinal barrier, boost their sensitivity to immune stimulation and improve their action. When microplastic is found in high quantity, it causes physical abrasion causing crypt cell loss and increased villi cell loss, leukocyte inflammation, and infiltration (kai yin et al. 2021 ) 4.2.6.1.2 Reproductive system In Danio rerio, Picatada margaritifera , and Daphnia magna- like organisms, microplastics tend to affect toxicity during the reproduction and development of embryos, gametes, and off springs. The process of hatching, the antioxidant ability of the embryo, and metabolism get affected due to the covering of the chorionic membrane of the embryo with micro plastic or nanoplastic. Defects in the formation of gametes which result from an imbalance in the metabolism of energy, damage to gonads, oxidative stress, hormonal disorder, and inflammation, are caused due to micro plastics as well as nano plastics. Deficiency or abnormality in development results from reproductive toxicity due to microplastics, and these particles have a higher probability of being transferred genetically. The various studies also found that nano plastic has more adhesion to mussel embryos, oyster gametes, and sea urchins. It was found that the chorionic layer contains numerous pores with diameters up to 500 nm, which can hinder the entry of 100 nm. However, it is fascinating that 50 and 200 nm particles can enter the chorionic layer, adversely influence the embryo, and get deposited in the yolk sac. In the case of microplastics, they cannot get inside the chorion, cover it and decrease the availability of oxygen. The internal area of this chorionic membrane will create a deficient oxygen environment retarding embryo hatchability and altering its heart rate and hatching rate. When vitellogenesis occurs, a protein ellin synthesized in the liver is transferred to an advancing oocyte. This micro plastic particle can cause harm to the liver, which may result in abnormality to the synthesis of vitellogenesis release and formation, which can result in embryonic toxicity. Micro plastic can also affect the embryo indirectly by affecting the release of hormones. It can cause various problems like a decrease in the level of luteinizing hormones, lutein stimulating hormone, testosterone, inflammation, damage to the testicular blood barrier, malformation in sperms, and testicular degeneration (kai yin et al. 2021 ) Introduction reproductive disease, which is passed from one generation to another via microplastic particles and its plasticizer, can cause serious risk to the next generations of organisms, starting from copepods to higher trophic levels (Shengyan et al. 2020). Oysters are also significantly affected by microplastics. Gamete formation, gamete quality, and the success of fertilization are also remarkably obstructed, which may result in fewer oocytes, reduced sperm development and deformation in the mantle or shell. 4.2.6.1.3 Immune system It has been proved that various hazardous organic pollutants get absorbed by MPs from the surrounding environment; if consumed, will remain in the body. Microplastic's biological effects have been studied at several levels, ranging from molecular levels such as gene regulation and protein modifications through tissue-organ to an individual. The inflammation due to micro plastics subjection can lead to intrusion in the components of the immune system. It can lead to a reaction in the lysosomal membrane damage, granulocyte formation, and neutrophil trap release. Innate immunity, which is present in organisms since birth, is one of the first lines of protection for organisms against numerous agents, making them a viable target for nano plastic interaction for the defence system of the host to get activated; it is really necessary for the excitation of neutrophils, as well as their role, is necessary for determining the state of health of organisms. If the regular neutrophils’ functioning is affected and their capability to phagocytose and destroy microorganisms is disturbed, then the steady development and longevity of the organism are affected. In a study using gilthead seabream as a model marine fish, PVC microparticles were found to have little to no impact on the innate immune response characteristics. The researchers discovered that micro-particles (PVC) do not influence various immunological activities such as peroxidase concentration, restriction-phagocytosis, and respiratory burst activity. A study on the Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis showed reduced levels of lysozyme(LZM) and acid phosphatase (AcP) after being exposed to different PS-Micro Plastic concentrations at various levels. In low-dose or short-exposure-time experiments, there was an initial increase ( Moslem et al. 2020) 4.2.6.1.4 Organs misfunctioning When microplastics are exposed to the organs and tissues, it disrupts metabolic activity and gives sublethal responses. These responses can be observed in alteration of gene expression, oxidative stress, endocrine disorders, and immune responses. Ingestion of microplastics can also simultaneously and critically affect the organism's development and alter the organism's metabolism. The presence of polystyrene microplastics increases the amount of mucus and triggers inflammation in the gut of zebrafish. The microplastics will cross the biological barriers, cell membrane, to the digestive system; this significantly influences numerous biological processes, which may cause irreversible and long-lasting damage to the organ and organism (Shengyan p et al. 2020). In the case of organisms like the Asian green mussel Perna viridis , microplastic ingestion leads to decreased byssus thread production, respiration, and food clearance. In contrast, for Pomatoschistus, it leads to uncommon swimming. For both these creatures, it can lead to death following starvation ( Wei Huang et al. 2020 ). Several researchers have found that the transfer of particles into the stomach of fish is affected by their size. In fact small microplastics equal to 5 mm were detected, larger ones such as 20 mm were not found. The triglyceride to cholesterol ratio in the blood serum cholesterol distribution between the liver and muscle is also altered by the accumulation of ingested plastic particles (Boris Jovanovic 2017) The hard microplastics do not have a regular shape and rough surface. They usually have sharp edges and can interfere, pierce the gut lining of fish, and cause mechanical damage and ulceration. Fish that have been fed with microplastics shows various organ misfunctioning such as an increase of goblet cells and hyperplasia of goblet cells, shortening and swelling of villi, loss of regular structure of serosa, and vacuolation of enterocytes were all histopathological structural alternation in the distal part of intestine in the laboratory experiment conducted (Boris Jovanovic 2017) 4.2.7 Marine reptiles Sea turtles are long-living sentinel species for microplastic pollution. They are likely to consume similar microplastics as that humans as they have the same exposure routes and share similar marine trophic chains (Meaza et al. 2021 ). Sea turtles during their seasonal movements such as foraging, nesting and migration are exposed to microplastic pollution (Pagano et al. 2019 ). Sea turtles must hold their breath during lengthy dives and take quick breaths between dives, making them highly susceptible to inhaling microplastics. Additionally, all Sea turtles except Dermochelys lack nasal turbinate structures that enable them to sneeze out trapped particles from the air, which aggravates microplastic exposure(Meaza et al. 2021 ). Unlike macroplastics, uptake of microplastics by marine turtles does not lead to gastrointestinal obstruction as they can easily cross the gut lumen. However, the impact of microplastics at the cellular and subcellular levels and the potential chemical toxicity of contaminants associated with microplastics are still unknown (Duncan et al. 2019 ). 4.2.8 Aquatic mammals The direct consumption of microplastic by marine mammals is not reported widely. However, numerous reports of cetaceans ingesting large plastic debris are known (Lusher et al. 2015). The data on microplastic uptake by marine mammals is still scarce as beachings are incidental, and their large sizes and high decomposition rates make it difficult to assess their stomachs for microplastics (Ribeiro et al. 2019 ). Although the frequency of microplastic ingestion among cetaceans is undetermined, the possible exposure routes are identified. Cetaceans can take up microplastics through filter-feeding, inhalation, or indirectly from prey animals via trophic transfer. Baleen whales can trap microplastics between their baleen plates while filtering the water for prey organisms. Thus, they are more susceptible to ingesting microplastics than toothed or beaked whales that do not show filter-feeding. Indirect uptake of microplastics via trophic transfer is also seen among cetaceans. Microplastics ranging from 2 to 5 mm were isolated from faeces of fur seals and are thought to be obtained through trophic transfer from its prey, lantern fish (Lusher et al. 2015). The toxicity of ingested microplastics is determined by the time they take to transit through the intestines and then be excreted. Information on the gut passage time of microplastics in marine mammals is largely unknown (Meaza et al. 2021 ). Cetaceans can be considered biomonitors for microplastic pollution. The concentration of phthalates in the blubber of stranded fin whales ( Balaenoptera physalus ) could be used as an indicator of microplastic ingestion. However, there is ambiguity in determining the source of phthalates accumulated as they could be derived from micro or macro plastics or by direct uptake from seawater into the blubber(lusher et al., 2015). Microplastics can function as a medium for transporting chemicals spatially as well as through and up food webs. Organochlorine chemicals can hinder reproductive success by being detrimental to the endocrine and immune system (Nelms et al. 2018 ; Zantis et al. 2021 ). 4.2.9 Aquatic birds Seabirds are considered an indicator species for marine plastic pollution. However, plastic levels in sea birds with wide migratory or foraging ranges may not be consistent with plastic pollution levels in their collected locations (Baak et al. 2020 ). microplastic ingestion by sea birds is widespread and reported even from remote polar regions. Microplastics isolated from penguin scats confirm significant levels of microplastics in Antarctic and sub Antarctic regions and potential prevalence in Antarctic marine food webs (Bessa et al., 2019 ). Plastic ingestion by arctic seabirds is widely reported. The highest frequency of plastic ingestion is found in surface-feeding Procellariiformes species. Procellariiformes seabirds showing DMS (dimethyl sulfide) response are likely to ingest more biofouled (micro)plastics (Savoca et al.,2016). However, scant data is presently available on the temporal and spatial variations, physical (size, shape, colour), and chemical(polymer type) nature of the plastic ingested. The use of standardized methods for the extraction and analysis of plastics can help to solve the above problems (Baak et al. 2020 ). Among seabirds, Northern fulmars and herring gulls can make the best candidates as sentinels for microplastic pollution due to their abundance over vast areas, high plastic ingestion rates, site fidelity, etc. (Biamis et al. 2021 ). Seabirds' plastic uptake can cause internal lacerations, gastrointestinal tract obstruction, and reduced feeding. The chemical toxicity of plastics can manifest as physiological effects like increased satiation and reduced growth (Baak et al. 2020 ). 4.3 Coral reef ecosystem Coral reefs form a fundamental part of the ecosystem in the saltwater system consisting of polyp, which has a calcium carbonate skeleton and is a source of great fisheries potential. It plays numerous roles in our ecosystem. It forms a barrier reef which helps reduce tidal action, produces a high amount of oxygen, absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide, and is eaten by organisms of lower trophic level that reside there and form spawning, nursery, and breeding ground. As it has unique and complex structural diversity, it is the dwelling place for almost twenty-five percent of the underwater biodiversity. Nevertheless, this highly delicate ecosystem is affected very quickly by different environmental constraints like changes in ocean temperature, ocean acidification, mining, oil spill, pollution, etc. As they form the base of the food chain, their tremendous death rate can cause significant impacts on organisms at higher trophic levels. Tremendous increment in marine plastic pollution has affected the lives of corals, because of which considerable destruction has occurred (Juliana john et al. 2021 ). Corals have a nonselective feeding nature and feed upon minute particles like zooplankton. However, during this process, they also consume microplastics due to their similar size and variable colour. When they get concentrated, their surface accumulation causes problems in their immune system, severe damage of tissue necrosis, decrease in growth, photosynthetic performance, energy spending, calcification of skeleton, reduced food intake, coral reef bleaching, and release of zooxanthellae. The time up to which microplastic is consumed and retained in the body depends upon the size and amount of microplastic in the marine ecosystem and the size of the feeding organism. Disease-causing microorganisms, as well as chemicals that are present within the microplastic, also cause deleterious effects on the coral ecosystem and other related diseases. The other organism that depends on the corals for food, like fishes and worms, is also affected by microplastics and shows bioaccumulative effects (Juliana john et al. 2021 ) Plastic items can also cause severe problems like physical injury and wearing to corals and contribute to the intrusion of the disease-causing organism and ciliated organism, and coral disorders like the skeletal eroding band. Plastic can cause alien microbes and can interrupt the usual host-symbiont association. For example, the plastic refuge floating can act as a bearing agent for Rhodobacterales and halofolliculina, which are linked with coral-related diseases. Various researchers have found microplastic concentration in the surface waters of coral reefs to range from zero to tens of thousands of items/m3 and that corals and ground deposits are hard to evaluate because of an inadequate comparable standard unit or available data. Many studies show that most of the consumed microplastic may be dismissed through the cleaning mechanism in 2 days, but the probable influence of possessed microplastics on coral is not negligible ( Wei Huang et al. 2020 ) 4.4 Mangrove ecosystem In the marine ecosystem, the three significant landscape includes mangrove, coral reef, and seagrass meadows. The unique interdependent union of the two different ecosystems helps in innate resistance against natural destruction. Despite various ecological roles and tremendous value, these ecosystems are affected by different pollutants. Plastic puts up almost 70 percent of marine refuge affecting the mangroves, which are transported by different tidal actions and currents. It obstructs gas interchange as well as produces adverse chemicals. As plankton are essential in regulating the food chain of the mangrove ecosystem, their build-up can pass to a higher trophic level. The expanding human activities done in mangrove and coastal areas can establish different contaminants into this environment by influencing their ecological well-being. Various creatures like bivalves, crustaceans, and mussels inhabit the areas of these mangroves; these organisms are deposit feeders, so their chance of microparticle intake in the sediment is much higher. Both land-based sources of micro particles like discharge from water treatment plants, effluents, and ocean-based sources of micro particles like tourism, fishing supplies, etc. Many groups of the population depend on the fishes and other aquatic organisms from mangroves for food, and recent research has indicated that microplastic bioaccumulation is very prominent. In an analysis conducted in a mangrove forest in Southern Iran by Maghsodian et al., microplastic particles were found in fish samples like Periophthalamus waltoni . It indicated that polystyrene, 26 percent was the most, and polythene, 3 percent, was the least. The abundance of these components like polythene and polystyrene was mostly due to the segmentation of different plastic products like gears and nets or wrappers, etc., for various maritime tasks (Juliana john et al. 2021 ) 5. Threats To Humans 5.1 Human intake of microplastics consuming fish In 2017, 17% of animal protein consumed globally was contributed by fish, contributing 7% of all protein consumed globally. Approximately 20% of the average per capita intake of animal proteins is provided by fish, and it is consumed by more than 3.3 billion people globally (FAO 2020). But it becomes hazardous for human health, and according to a study based on EFSA, adults consuming 300g of analysed fish species will intake 16 MP items/week and 842 MP items/year, 0.054 MP items/g/week, 2.8 MP items/g/year (EFSA 2014). Several studies have shown that various sizes and types of MPs translocate across the mammalian gut (Lusher et al. 2017 ). According to several authors, it has been observed that MPs ranging up to 150 µm are detected in the lymph of mammals. Generally, MPs smaller than 150 µm penetrate the biological system, and absorption is only limited up to ≤ 0.3%, particles ranging > 150 µm are not absorbed, and only a smaller fraction, size ≤ 20 µm, may penetrate organs (Lusher et al. 2017 ). According to Smith et al. 2018 , more than 90% of MPs are expelled through the excretory system consumed by human beings. 5.2 The harmful effect of MPs on human health The most common route of microplastic exposure in the human population is toothpaste, scrubs, hand washes, and marine food sources. The chemicals associated with microplastic, such as phthalates and polychlorinated biphenyls, and several pollutants present on the surface of MPs contribute to the human dietary exposure of MPs (Sharma et al. 2017). In a study by Van Cauwernberghe and Janseen 2014, it has been proved that marine-based food sources enhance the exposure of MPs for humans through their diet and the high amount or ratio of MPs pollutant in marine organism create a significant risk to food safety. MPs consumed by food diet nearly more than 90% excreted by human's excretory system via feces. The retention of MPs particle depends on the size, shape, polymer unit, and various harmful chemicals associated with it that mimic the natural component of the human system (EFSA 2019). The research on the effects of MPs on mammalian model system concludes that with some specific features it penetrate through the living cells such as dendritic cells and M cells and into the circulatory or lymphatic system and it starts accumulating in the various organ and finally affects the physiological function of cells, tissues and organs. According to a study by Wright & Kelly 2017 , microplastic ingestion causes cellular proliferation, necrosis, and inflammation in tissue and affects the immune system. Oral exposure to nano plastics shows that it can be carried out by M cells from the gut into the blood, and finally, it enters into the lymphatic system, liver, and gall bladder. Due to their minute size, these particles can penetrate through various organs and cause harm to humans (Seltenrichal. 2017). Unfortunately, actual or permissible data are unavailable for the food's particle size, concentration, shape, and chemical composition (Sharma et al. 2017). So, advanced research and detailed analysis are required to get accurate information and data on the potential health risk of MPs occurring in a various range of food, and we can estimate the causative threat of contaminated seafood on human health. 5.3 Impact or threat of microplastics on food safety on a global level Microplastics are ingested by many aquatic organisms present in the ocean and inland water bodies (Fonseca et al. 2017 ). This microplastic is made up of several types of polymers and additives that are absorbed or adsorb by the aquatic animal and pose a risk to the food safety of aquaculture and fishery products (Fonseca et al. 2017 ). Generally, MPs accumulate in the gastrointestinal tract of animals that degut during fish processing and consumption to minimize direct exposure of MPs (Fig. 4). But many small fishes, such as pelagic fish, anchovies, sardines, crustaceans (shrimps), and molluscs consumed without degut and eaten whole, become hazardous to human health (Fonseca et al. 2017 ). In African countries, some indigenous freshwater species such as Kapenta ( Limnothrissa miodon ) and Mukene ( Rastrineobola argentea ) are eaten whole, and the same is likewise in Bangladesh also small fish like Darkina ( Esomus danricus ) and mola ( Amblypharyngodon mola ) are also consumed fully (Lusher et al. 2017 ). The presence of MPs has been confirmed in various freshwater species and also in marine pelagic species such as silversides ( Stolephorus commersonnii ), and Pacific anchovy ( Engraulis japonicas) and European anchovy ( Engraulis encrasicolus) in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans (Lusher et al. 2017 ). Based on the research, it has been noticed that particles of MPs traced the various species of crustaceans and shrimp in the coastal water of the North Sea and the Irish Sea. MPs' consumption can be reduced by peeling the head and the gills, and most of the digestive tract removed, which mainly contain MPs particles (Lusher et al. 2017 ). In the Irish Sea, MPs are traced in the stomach of the Norway Sea, and nearly 83 percent of the animals were contaminated. As per research, MPs concentration in the sample of the Irish Sea area varies from 0.40 mg to 0.80 mg per individual. Before consumption, the gastrointestinal tract is generally removed to reduce the chances of MPs consumption while eating marine animals. It has been noticed that sea cucumbers consume high concentrations of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and nylon under laboratory conditions. Echinoderms are preferably consumed along with their gastrointestinal tract, becoming an increased risk for human health (Lusher et al. 2017 ). Translocation of MPs particles in the human body via finfish low because these species degut and peeled respectively before consumption. Nevertheless, the primary threat to human health is the consumption of bivalves because it consumed whole, and it is the most significant source of MPs from seafood to humans (Lusher et al. 2017 ). The highest number of MPs particle is contained by Chines bivalve: 4 particles/g of tissue. So, the consumption of mussel weight 225g would lead to assimilation of nearby 900 MPs particles. Overall microplastic consumption and its hazards to human health are very low based on the present scenario. Focusing on the MP's sources is imperative because their concentration is increasing faster due to degradation by natural phenomena and bioaccumulation in the food chain. 6. Future Perspectives To Control Microplastics Microplastic problems associated with the environment can be solved by focusing on controlling MPs sources attained by law regulation and eradicating MPs particles present in water (Picó et al. 2019). Some countries have already issued legislative measures to regulate the production of MPs. Cosmetic products have become a substantial source of microplastics in the environment. In 2017, the US banned microplastic beads in the production of cosmetic products. Several countries, such as the European Union, Australia, and Canada, are also considering applying adequate measures to lower the use of MPs particles in products (Picó et al. 2019). The restriction on the use and production of MPs will help clean-up up plastic particles in the ocean on a large scale, and the application of remediation technologies will help reduce water pollution in the water ecosystem (Zumstein et al. 2017 ). The former procedure intercepts and captures plastics with the help of a floating system (Picó et al. 2019). Remediation technology is divided into various sub-tools that are discussed below. These technologies involved wastewater and drinking water treatment and various bacterial applications to biodegrade the plastic already in the aquatic environment. 6.1 Engineering Tools The primary source of MPs and microliter to the environment is wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Implementing novel technologies in these plants is the best way to manage MP pollution (Picó et al. 2019). The MPs present in the influents (90–98%) are eliminated by conventional WWTP treatments (Lares et al. 2018 ). Electrodeposition, coagulation, and membrane are the most frequent and advanced wastewater technologies. The most promising method is membrane bioreactors (MBR). It combines several membrane processes like ultrafiltration and microfiltration with biological wastewater treatment. It has been noticed that the active biological filter (BAF) is highly efficient in removing MPs from natural sources. It is a filter that permits the contaminants to degrade microorganisms in its culture and environment (Talvitie et al. 2017 ). The various treatment steps, such as chemical, mechanical, and biological treatment, BAF in advanced WWTP used to remove MPs showed retention capacity nearby 99% (Picó et al. 2019). Electrocoagulation (EC) is a conventional process for removing MPs from wastewater sources. Its efficacy for removing microbeads is more than 90% in various conditions, proved by research in which PE microbeads are inoculated at different concentrations in artificial wastewater. This study suggests that EC effectively removes MPs from wastewater sources, and at pH 7.5, its optimal removal efficiency reaches 99.24%. In the metropolitan city, washing machine effluents are the primary sources of microplastic waste fibre. The influence of effluents can be reduced by electro-oxidation (EO) before discharge into the sewer system. In this technique, an electrochemical flow reactor is used, in which active (Ti/Pt) anodes and Ti cathode are associated with it (Picó et al. 2019). 6.2 Use of Biodegradable or Biobased Polymers Using biodegradable material is another best way to reduce the presence of plastics in natural habitats. Biodegradable material is made up of renewable starting materials such as cellulose, starch, bioethanol, and lignin. About 0.5% of 335 million tonnes of plastics are currently contributed by bioplastics, which is expected to escalate in the future (Picó et al. 2019). The various conditions and process, viz. degradation by anaerobic or aerobic biologically, is required for biodegradable plastic. But the major problem with this plastic is that it requires suitable conditions and microorganisms for degradation, which is not always provided in environmental conditions (Picó et al. 2019). It has been noticed that several biodegradable bioplastics are compostable in nature and can be degraded by a microorganism into nutrient-rich biomass within three months and no toxins or residue remain after degradation (Picó et al. 2019). 6.3 Bioengineering-Based Solutions Another method used for solving MP's problems associated with the environment is the bioengineering-based solution—different types of bacteria, fungi, or isolated enzymes used for the biodegradation of plastic by the enzymatic hydrolysis method. Extracellular carboxylesterases can be used for hydrolyzing biodegradable polyesters (Zumstein et al. 2017 ). Specialized bacteria can degrade different types of plastics. Polyethylene terephthalate can be degraded by Ideonella sakaiensis , and polyethylene can be broken down by the marine fungus Zalerion maritimum (Picó et al. 2019). 7. Conclusion Microplastics are damaging our ecosystem daily, and developing countries continue to increase microplastic production even though it affects humans adversely. Bioaccumulation in the food chain carries MPs from the molecular level to the population level, and it triggers a hazardous reaction in the individual population, communities, and human beings. Moreover, aquatic organisms suffer immensely from microplastics with manifestations of damaging gills, skin, gastrointestinal tract, organs, and mostly, even minute particles reach the brain after crossing the blood-brain barrier. It chokes the gill epithelium, reduces oxygen uptake, and leads to death. Filter-feeding organisms such as mussels and clams filter the water and accumulate microplastics inside their body. Later on, these organisms are consumed by higher trophic organisms that bioaccumulate harmful forms of plastic in the food chain and affect animal physiological and immunological responses. Even though MPs can be detected using various techniques, bioaccumulation in the food chain and its impact on human health cannot be avoided. A few of the loops or research work that are necessarily required are discussed below: The government should uphold restrictions on the use of one-time plastics as the lack of recycling and reuse of such types of plastic creates a significant problem. Developing countries are facing significant issues with MPs production. International organizations should develop strict regulations to reduce contamination in the natural body and marine ecosystem. Researchers should examine the composition and concentration of MPs in various food sources to avoid priory before consumption. MPs are associated with various chemicals, which dysfunctional the cell physiology; thus, the detailed study on these helps diagnose and treat the MPs-related disease. The processing company should consider the concentration of MPs in the raw product before processing it. This should be strictly imposed on them by rules and regulations. The product should be discarded if the concentration is high as per regulation. Various international/ national level NGOs should take essential steps to create awareness about the effect of MPs on the human population. People should be aware of the MP's threat to our ecosystem and human health. The government should encourage the use of biodegradable products such as bagasse formed from the pulp of some plants rather than promoting plastic usage. Private organizations must provide subsidies for promoting and processing biodegradable substitutes for MPs. By researching these points, we can reduce the production of MPs, but still, lots of work is required to fill up such loops for achieving our goals. Reducing MPs contamination in the marine ecosystem would ensure our healthy lives. It will enhance the quality of marine products and will increase consumption all over the world. Statements And Declarations Ethical Approval: Not applicable Consent to Participate: Not applicable Consent to Publish: All authors agreed to publish this article in Environmental Science and Pollution Research. Author Contributions: Anuj Sharma, Sanchu Prakash, Malavika B.R, and Meril Mary Mathew prepared the manuscript. Federica Arrigo, Sreeja Lakshmi assisted in the preparation and improvisation of the manuscript. Rosa Freitas, Caterina Faggio and Preetham Elumalai reviewed, improvised and finalized the manuscript. Funding: The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Availability of data and materials : Not applicable Disclosure : This manuscript has not been published or presented elsewhere in part or in entirety. References Abo-Al-Ela HG, Faggio C (2021) MicroRNA-mediated stress response in bivalve species. 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TRAC Trends Anal Chem 110:116–128 Sul D, Costa MF (2014) The present and future of microplastic pollution in the marine environment. Environ Pollut 185:352–364 Talvitie J, Mikola A, Koistinen A, Setälä O (2017) Solutions to microplastic pollution–Removal of microplastics from wastewater effluent with advanced wastewater treatment technologies. Water Res 123:401–407 Thompson RC (2015) Microplastics in the marine environment: sources, consequences and solutions. Marine anthropogenic litter. Springer, Cham, pp 185–200 Aliko V, Hajdaraj G, Caci A, Faggio C (2015) Copper induced lysosomal membrane destabilisation in haemolymph cells of Mediterranean green crab (Carcinus aestuarii, Nardo, 1847) from the Narta Lagoon (Albania). Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. vol. 58 pp. 750–756 Vecchi S, Bianchi J, Scalici M, Fabroni F, Tomassetti P (2021) Field evidence for microplastic interactions in marine benthic invertebrates. Sci Rep 11(1):1–2 Shi W, Han Y, Sun S, Tang Y, Zhou W, Du X, Liu G (2020) Immunotoxicities of microplastics and sertraline, alone and in combination, to a bivalve species: size-dependent interaction and potential toxication mechanism. J Hazard Mater 396:122603 Wang W, Wang J (2018) Investigation of microplastics in aquatic environments: An overview of the methods used, from field sampling to laboratory analysis. 108:195–202TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry Wagner M, Scherer C, Alvarez-Muñoz D, Brennholt N, Bourrain X, Buchinger S, Reifferscheid G (2014) Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know. Environ Sci Europe 26(1):1–9 Wang C, Zhao J, Xing B (2021) Environmental source, fate, and toxicity of microplastics. J Hazard Mater 407:124357 Welden NA, Cowie PR (2016) Environment and gut morphology influence microplastic retention in langoustine, Nephrops norvegicus. Environ Pollution 214:859–865 Wootton EC, Dyrynda EA, Pipe PK, Ratcliffe NA (2003) Comparisons of PAH-induced immunomodulation in three bivalve molluscs. Aquat Toxicol 65(1):13–25 Wright SL, Rowe D, Thompson RC, Galloway TS (2013) Microplastic ingestion decreases energy reserves in marine worms.Current Biology(23):1031–3 Picó Y, D Barceló (2019) Analysis and prevention of microplastics pollution in water: current perspectives and future directions. ACS omega 4(4):6709–6719 Tang Y, Rong J, Guan X, Zha S, Shi W, Han Y, Liu G (2020) Immunotoxicity of microplastics and two persistent organic pollutants alone or in combination to a bivalve species.Environmental Pollution. vol.258p. 113845 Yin K, Wang Y, Zhao H, Wang D, Guo M, Mu M, Xing M (2021) A comparative review of microplastics and nanoplastics: toxicity hazards on digestive, reproductive and nervous system. Sci Total Environ 774:145758 Yu S, P Y, Cole MC, Chan BK (2020) Effects of microplastic on zooplankton survival and sublethal responses. Oceanography and Marine Biology Liu Z, Yu P, Cai M, Wu D, Zhang M, Chen M, Zhao Y (2019) Effects of microplastics on the innate immunity and intestinal microflora of juvenile Eriocheir sinensis. Sci Total Environ 685:836–846 Zantis LJ, Carroll EL, Nelms SE, Bosker T (2021) Marine mammals and microplastics: A systematic review and call for standardisation. Environ Pollution 269:116142 Tables Table 1: MP’s impact on shellfish Organism MPs type and its size Main findings Reference Chinese mitten crab ( Eriocheir sinensis ) PS (25mg/mL) • Increased in the concentration of haemocyanin in the haemolymph, but significantly decreased with increased in the exposure time duration of MPs • Decreased in the activity of alkaline phosphatase. • Significant reduction in the activity of lysozyme • With increase in this MPs time exposure, phenoloxidase activity decrease • Acid phosphatase activity significantly increase in hepatopancreas (Liu et al. 2019) Mediterranean mussels ( Mytilus galloprovincialis ) LDPE (20–25μm) and benzo(a)pyrene • Stability of lysosomal membrane destabilized • Phagocytosis activity first increase and then significantly decrease after long MPs exposure • Granulocytes- hyalinocytes ratio get affected. • Concentration of Acetylcholinesterase slightly decrease in hemolymph and its increase in gills (Pittura et al. 2018) Mytilus galloprovincialis HDPE (1–50μm) • Reduced weight gain and growth rate • Trigger in the reactive oxygen species • Immune receptors and antimicrobial peptides highly modulated • Production of stress- related protein (hsp 70 and superoxide dismutase) (Détrée et al. 2018) Tegillarca granosa PS (30 μm) and sertraline • In haemocytes, reduction of THC and phagocytosis detected • Haemocyte viability not considerably suppressed • In the haemocytes, caspase-3 activities increased • Increased apoptosis rates • In haemocytes, intracellular ROS content (Shi et al. 2020) M. edulis Phenanthrene (2 mg ml -1 ) • No significant changes in the concentration of differential haemocyte count • No change in the haemocytes percentage • Influenced acid phosphatase activity (Wootton at al. 2003) *( PE: Polyethylene; HD-PE: High Density-Polyethylene; LDPE: Low Density Polyethylene; Polystyrene; PC: Polycarbonate; PVC: Polyvinyl chloride) Table 2: MPs impact on various species of fish Organism MPs type and its size Main findings Reference Zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) HD-PE and PS MP (100 μg/L and 1000 μg/L) • Intestinal mucosa alteration • Changes in the neutrophils and goblet cells • Gill epithelium alteration • Daily active rhythm affected (Limonta et al., 2019) Guppy ( Poecilia reticulata ) PS (32–40 μm diameters) • Excessive secretion of goblet cells • Affect mucus concentration and its secretion in the gut • Decrease the function of trypsin in the body tissue. • Block digestive tract, leads in decline growth performance and survival rate. (Huang et al., 2020) Rainbow trout PS (100-400 μm) • Inflammation in the systematic circulation • Goblet cells plentifully produced in proximal and distal segment of intestine • Goblet cells morphology change i.e. hypertrophy • No changes observed in paracellular permeability • In the digestive gland inducing, development of granulocytomas observed • Activity of cellular leukocytes altered (Huang et al., 2020) Fathead Minnow ( Pimephalespromelas ) PS: 41.0 nm, PC: 158.7 nm • Oxidative burst • Respiratory burst increase • No influence on phagocytosis rate due to physical size of MPs (Greven et al., 2016) Gilthead seabream PVC-MPs (100 or 500 mg kg -1 ) • In the serum, Aspartate aminotransferase significantly increased • Significantly increased of albumin, globulin and creatine kinase in the fish serum • Peroxidase activity become intensive in skin mucus (Espinosa et al., 2017) Gilthead seabream and European sea bass PVC, PE (40-150 μm) • Decreased phagocytosis activity • Respiratory burst increased • Peroxidase activity remain unaltered (Espinosa et al., 2018) Atlantic horse mackerel and Atlantic chub mackerel Various MPs forms in natural condition • Decreased food consumption, intestinal obstruction • Decreased respiratory efficiency by choking the gill leads hypoxia • Hypoxia, infection, gill damage leads into death • Lipid peroxidation in gills, brain and muscles • Disruption of presynaptic membrane leads increase in neurotransmitter (Barboza et al., 2020) *( PE: Polyethylene; HD-PE: High Density-Polyethylene; LDPE: Low Density Polyethylene; Polystyrene; PC: Polycarbonate; PVC: Polyvinyl chloride) Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-1812636","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":125356268,"identity":"c8877723-acb1-4f20-be0a-87cdb0e2ea67","order_by":0,"name":"Anuj Sharma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Anuj","middleName":"","lastName":"Sharma","suffix":""},{"id":125356269,"identity":"5eab245c-37f0-4f49-9522-cf2fbf09aa4f","order_by":1,"name":"Sanchu Prakash","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kerala University of 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17:38:54","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":244553,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDiagrammatic representation of some of the Effects of microplastics (MPs) on fish recorded from molecular level to the population level (Data adapted from Limonta et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1812636/v1/eb49721c64efbcacd82b27b1.png"},{"id":24738134,"identity":"c5681355-987c-4064-902b-4698bd3ea958","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-03 17:43:54","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":338130,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe immunological impacts of different types of MPs on \u003cem\u003eMytilus galloprovincialis \u003c/em\u003e(Data adapted from Sharifinia et al. 2020 )\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1812636/v1/6afabd9edec568b72fcefa52.png"},{"id":24737502,"identity":"6fd206be-f558-4eeb-b111-4b35fd73c10b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-03 17:38:54","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":263186,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDiagrammatic representation of MP's Impact on various fish species (Data adapted from Naqash et al. 2020; Sharifinia et al. 2020)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1812636/v1/cb5deb150eb752bf95f1045f.png"},{"id":24737503,"identity":"aabd0294-fc24-4a4e-86ea-35f61bfb064f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-03 17:38:54","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":520828,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDiagrammatic Representation of MPs Flows in Food Chain (Template adopted from biorender.com).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1812636/v1/32924281f7e0093985a44acc.png"},{"id":26880069,"identity":"4e42efbe-b1c0-4cdb-8e01-6a5a01e2c133","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-09-23 14:19:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1713087,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1812636/v1/931fc940-d5fb-4ac2-add9-d19c9c2ca6d6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Present and future: the effects and possible solutions of microplastics in the marine/aquatic environment","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSince 1950, plastics have exponentially increased and reached 322\u0026nbsp;million tonnes in 2015, and also noticed additional production of 61\u0026nbsp;million tonnes of synthetic fibres was also spotted in the same year (Lusher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This is due to the excessive production of plastics, due to the characteristics of this material such as its buoyancy and various chemical and physical specifications (Strungaru et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Approximately 4.8 to 12.7\u0026nbsp;million tonnes of discarded plastics entered the ocean from various sources (Lusher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Due to the exposure to various natural phenomena, such as wave action and photodegradation, plastics degrade into minute particles less than 5mm in size, known as microplastics (MPs) (Karami et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a recent study, it has been noticed that a significant fraction of MPs is consumed mistakenly by the marine organisms, from the smallest plankton organisms to the top predators such as fish, whales, sea turtles, etc. in the food chain and accumulation of these plastic components brings alternation in the biochemical and hematological parameters of the marine organism (Burkhardt et al. 2019). In the food chain, all organisms consume the MPs. Still, the lower trophic microorganisms such as zooplankton, echinoderms, and invertebrates are the most vulnerable. It influences the biogeochemical cycles that lead to the contamination of marine products, resulting in a risk to human health (do Sul et al. 2014). It has been noticed that MPs absorbed in the intestine by epithelial cells are transferred to the circulatory system to influence the immune system by producing neutrophils, granulocytes, and cytokine cells in the aquatic species. Some plasticizers also induce the immune system by stimulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) in haemocytes and by disturbing the mitochondria functions that result in oxidative stress (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1) (Burgos-Aceves et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have shown that marine species (particularly filter feeders), tend to consume microplastics that are often found along with plankton and get segregated from the liver, muscles, and gastrointestinal (GI) tract of ocean/wild aquatic specimens (Abbasi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Based on experimental work, it is suggested that the most common route of consuming MPs in the fish is GI tract and gills and accumulated there in high to cause tissue damage, but obstruction of the gastro-intestinal tract and food appendages have also been demonstrated (Ding et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Schirinzi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Experimental exposure to polystyrene MPs disclosed that MPs accumulate in zebrafish liver, and a robust inflammatory response or the immune response is induced against MPs (Burgos-Aceveset al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBioaccumulation of micro and nano plastics induces cell toxicity by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in oxidative stress (AshaRani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). ROS accumulation elicits several biological responses in the body, viz. apoptosis, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and oxidative stress-induced signaling pathways (AshaRani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). In response, the immune system gets activated. It produces many mechanisms such as heat shock proteins (HSPs), catalases (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), peroxiredoxins hyperglycemia, and antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD) (Faggioet et al. 2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBioaccumulation intervenes with the food pathway leading to biomagnification. Thus, MPs enter the food chain, while exposed effects in humans become worse because MPs stimulate DNA damage and inflammation and play a crucial role in carcinogenesis in the human body (Alimba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Humans' daily consumption of marine organisms such as fish, sea cucumber, mussels, and oysters makes it inevitable to get rid of MPs' noxious outcomes. The higher exposure of MPs in the human system results in chromosomal alteration causing diseases like cancer, infertility, and obesity (Sharma et al. 2017). Several MPs and chemicals are associated with mimicking similar estrogen hormones in the case of women leading to breast cancer. Lack of technology and the unavailability of MP's data are the two leading causes of MPs biomagnification in the food chain. The scarcity of MPs detecting technology for reducing the MPs is a significant drawback of developing countries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current review focuses on the interference of microplastics in the immune system and organs associated with it in aquatic organisms and its presence in the use of various MPs detecting technology in diverse conditions. This review will focus on the impression of MPs in the numerous marine organism together discuss the alternative of MPs that are eco-friendly and will reduce the MPs in natural conditions. Knowledge of the various MPs detecting techniques and their biodegradable alternates will help minimize the impact of MPs on our healthy lives. Remember, prevention is better than cure.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Microplastics In Aquatic Ecosystems","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 MPs source in marine water\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicroplastics are found extensively in all marine habitats on a global scale. Microplastics from cosmetics and cleaning chemicals (e.g., microbeads) will be conveyed with wastewater via sewers, resulting in their accumulation in the marine environment. Although data is unavailable, runoff from large plastic manufacturing plants could be another source (Wagner et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Rivers are considered the primary transport route of plastic litter, as indicated by the results of a global model that calculates the riverine flux of microplastics per year on a global scale. About 1.5\u0026nbsp;million tonnes of microplastics are dumped into the ocean annually (Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The primary sources are not the only source of contamination; along with it, large fragments of plastics also enter the marine ecosystem, and a maximum portion continues to flow on the water surface, which starts to fragments into the minute particle. The various chemical and physical factors help to disintegrate the larger fragments of plastics into the microplastics in which the UV light, heat, wind, and waves action is most important. Therefore, large fragments of plastic are likely to represent a significant microplastic source. Sources of large plastic debris can also be traced to maritime activities like shipping, fishing, recreation, and offshore industries (Browne \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The fishing industry is responsible for about 18% of the total plastic debris present in the ocean. Plastic fishing gears that are sometimes lost or mindlessly discarded at sea contribute heavily to marine plastic pollution (Andrady et al. 2011).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 MPs source in freshwater\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicroplastics are ubiquitously found in freshwater systems. Primary sources of microplastics are those in which plastics with sizes less than 5mm are produced intentionally through extrusion or grinding. Secondary sources are derived from large plastic debris after its degradation and fragmentation into smaller particles (Brown 2015). Microplastics enter freshwater habitats through several pathways. Water released from wastewater treatment plants often carries large amounts of microplastics. The average proportion of microplastics removed without tertiary treatment in a Wastewater treatment plant was found to be about 88 percent, which increased to more than 97 percent with tertiary treatment (Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegardless of the considerable removal of micro particulates from the wastewater treated by various effluent treatment plants, still microplastics persist in the treated water and represent a large number (Horton et al. 2017). Sources of microplastics in such water can be cosmetic or cleaning products, textiles, etc. (Lambert et al. 2018). Sewage sludge often contains more microplastics than the effluent released. The sludge formed in sewage treatment plants is sometimes poured to agricultural lands, contaminating nearby water sources. The incidental release of microplastics due to worn-out automotive tires is another source of microplastic pollution (Wagner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Identification Of Microplastics In Aquatic Ecosystem","content":"\u003cp\u003eSamples collected from natural sources must carefully examine the target microplastics from the remaining matrix. Commonly used technique for identifying MPs is a visual inspection or optical techniques. For microscopic examination, many techniques are used for MPs identification discussed below (Wang et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Optical techniques\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most straightforward and generally used technique for MPs identification can be proceeded by eye-visual observation or with the help of a stereomicroscope (Wang et al. 2018). Shapes and colours are the primary basis for identifying suspected MP items (Crawford et al. 2017). The selection criteria to be followed strictly during the visual examination of MPs: no cellular or visible organic structure in suspected particles, uniformly and coloured particles, and for white and transparent particles, further confirmation has to be done by using a high-magnification microscope, and these techniques majorly detect less than 250 \u0026micro; size microplastic particles. In case of the unavailability of expensive analytical instruments, this method is effective for high-volume samples. Disadvantages include weathering MPs, changing the morphology, and making visual identification more challenging. The risk of misidentification increases as examined particle size decreases (Crawford et al. 2017). Hence, the requirement for spectroscopic instruments increases to minimize the error and confirm the identification of smaller particles of MPs (Wang et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh-resolve pictures of the sample\u0026rsquo;s surface can be taken using an electron beam with high intensity and speed and scanning with a raster scan pattern (Wang et al. 2018). The electrons produce a very high magnification image of MPs' sample's surface. The high-resolution image of MP's surface can be differentiated from other matter impurities (Crawford et al. 2017). It can be used to examine the weathered MPs items recovered from natural sources by analysing the various surface texture. SEM successfully examines the surface morphology of MPs briefly. Still, it is not suitable for many samples because of high time consumption and efforts for the pre-preparation of the sample (Wang et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFTIR differentiates the various sample-based on bond composition by comparing the spectrum of an unknown material with the spectrum of known standard material. It provides an infrared spectrum unique for specific chemical bonds (Wang et al. 2018). High-reliability characteristics of FTIR make it the commonly used technique for analysing chemical descriptions of MPs samples collected from natural resources. It works in two ways: to validate the visual identification result, it examines a set of subsamples or scanning of all suspected particles. Increasing the number of suspected particles improves the accuracy of data analysed by FTIR, but the limiting factor should be time and cost for sample analysis (Wang et al. 2018). It is the only technique capable of recognizing the polymeric composition of MPs (size\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10\u0026ndash;20 \u0026micro;m). Still, its efficiency may reduce if the particle size is smaller than its aperture size (Huppertsberg et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Raman spectroscopy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is a highly reliable and widely used technique for identifying MPs polymer from various environmental sources (Araujo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The basic principle of this technique is using irradiating monochromatic laser to analyse the sample. Due to absorption, it produces a different frequency of backscattered light, molecular structure, and atomic composition of various samples scatter or reflect the light specifically (Crawford et al. 2017). Advantages commonly sheared by FTIR and Raman spectroscopy are high reliability, less sample requirement, and high throughput screening (Araujo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Identification of MP sizes less than 1\u0026micro;m is possible by combining the use of Raman spectroscopy and microscopy (micro-Raman) (Crawford et al. 2017). It is used to analyse or locate the fragments of MPs within organs or tissues. The main disadvantage of this technique is that identification accuracy is negatively affected by the presence of various additives, chemicals, and pigments associated with MPs (Wang et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 \u003cb\u003ePyrolysis\u0026ndash;gas chromatography-mass (Pyr-GC-MS) spectrometry\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is a destructive technique that analyses MPs' thermal degradation products for the chemical identification of samples collected from natural sources (Fries et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). In this technique, programs of the unknown sample are compared with programs of the known pure sample for getting the polymer types of MPs (L\u0026ouml;der et al. 2015). The main advantage is that it provides detailed chemical composition data about MPs polymer and organic additives contained in the sample (Wang et al. 2018). It has a good lead on the other technique because it is not responsive to the size, shape, and other contaminants associated with the analysed particles (Wang et al. 2018). However, the main disadvantage is that it is a destructive type of technique only capable of analysing chemical characterization. Still, it fails to examine the MPs sample's morphological properties, such as particle size and distribution (Wang et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Concentration And Impacts Of Microplastics In Aquatic System","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Water (concentration in various aquatic systems)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe world in the present generation widely depends on plastics for their everyday activities. A large percentage of these plastics are single-time-use plastics. Many of these single-time-use plastics and reusable types end up in the water bodies as sewage and garbage. These particles are broken down into various sizes, including microplastics and nano plastics. Because of its small size, the detection and analysis are difficult usually it is carried out by visual inspection and is followed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, pyrolysis gas chromatography, mass spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy etc. (sen du et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecently, the research found the presence, deposition, environmental Impacts, and ways to know the presence of plastic contaminants in different aquatic systems. The result showed more microplastic accumulation in the freshwater system. The presence of microplastics in different freshwater systems worldwide has been detected, such as Three Gorges reservoir, North shore channel, Winnipeg Lake (Canada), Taihu Lake (China), and Danube River (Europe). The particles were of various sizes, shapes, and colours, along with which they may have a different chemical compositions and may also deposit various pollutants (Zhang et al.c2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicroplastic is dispersed in the water column, surface, organisms, and sediments. Microplastics are also discovered in distant places like polar regions. These particles are more concentrated on the surface. The amount of microplastics on the water surface is higher in the coastal cities with numerous industries nearby. Around the world, the concentration of these particles on the marine surface is given by?. South Pacific Ocean, Arabian Bay, Western North Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean, Northwestern Pacific, North-Western Mediterranean Sea, Northeast Pacific Ocean, and Mid-West Pacific Ocean (Zhang et al. 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Organisms\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.1 Plankton\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eZooplankton feeds mostly on surface waters in which high concentrations of microplastics have been detected, with high microplastic concentrations, which increases the chances of interaction and ingestion (Rodrigues et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Due to similar sizes, zooplankton can confuse microplastics with their natural prey, phytoplankton or marine snow, and consume microplastics. Microplastic ingestion by copepods and euphausiids can cause microplastic to enter marine food webs and transfer to higher trophic levels (Lin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Information on the impact of microplastics on plankton has primarily come from laboratory-based studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOffsprings of copepods exposed to microplastics are shown to have higher mortality rates than the controls. However, the data on Transgenerational toxicity owing to microplastics in holoplankton, especially copepods, is still limited (Yu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In pelagic copepod, \u003cem\u003eCalanus helgolandicus\u003c/em\u003e microplastics ingestion led to decreased reproductive success, impaired feeding, smaller egg size, and low hatching rates. Toxic leachates from microplastics can affect the survival and settlement rate of planktonic barnacle larvae on microplastics (Lin et al. 2016). Survival and hatching rates of fish embryos seemed to be affected by microplastic exposure\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, microplastics had little to no adverse effects on the survival rates of different larval stages of fish (Yu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eDaphnia magna\u003c/em\u003e exposed to microplastics at varying concentrations (400,2000,10000 mL/L) exhibited high mortality rates, reduced growth and reproductive success(Rodrigues et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaboratory-based feeding studies by (Dawson et al.,2018) showed evidence of digestive fragmentation of microplastics by Antarctic krills. Nanoplastics formed after biological fragmentation can potentially translocate to the haemolymph and may induce genotoxicity and immunological effects in hemocytes. Microplastics can influence chlorophyll content and lower the photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton which can potentially impair the marine biological pump. In response to microplastic exposure, laboratory investigations revealed decreased enzyme activity, low lipid content, and structural alterations in phytoplankton (Rodrigues et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.2 Plants and seagrass\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiogenic habitats like seagrass meadows have the highest potential to trap large quantities of microplastics in the sediments and make them inaccessible to pelagic food webs. Microplastics can be trapped on seagrass canopy depending on the structural complexity and cuticle characteristics ( de Smit et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Seagrass leaves have a coarse surface because of the presence of epiphytes, which can also ooze exopolymers known to promote particle adhesion. However, a recent study found no link between microplastic accumulation and epibiont present in seagrasses and macroalgae (Cozzolino et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicroplastics adhered to seagrass leaves or epiphytes can lead to the uptake of microplastics by herbivores like dugongs and sea turtles (Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The marine vegetation colonized in the intertidal and subtidal habitats, such as seagrasses, has received little attention due to the uncertain effects of macro and microplastics stranded. The existence of microplastics on the seagrass\u0026rsquo;s leaf blades and macroalgae highlights these canopy-forming habitats as sinks of microplastics and probable vectors of microplastics into food webs (Cozzolino et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). microplastics can negatively impact seagrass by changing sediment structure and properties. Chemicals adsorbed on microplastic can reduce growth and normal root development. Leachates from microplastics buried in sediments can negatively impact infaunal organisms(Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.3 Crustaceans\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eField observation of microplastic ingestion by crustaceans is less common. However, microplastics have been identified in the intestines of important Norway lobster and brown shrimp (\u003cem\u003eCrangon crangon\u003c/em\u003e) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) (Lusher et al. 2015). Micro plastics were found in 83% of 120 wild Nephrops collected from Clyde sea(Murray and Cowie et al. 2011). (Devriese et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) reported microplastic monofilaments in 104 (63% ) individuals out of 165 wild brown shrimps assessed. High levels of microplastics in the sediments increase the likelihood of microplastic uptake by epibenthic crustaceans during feeding or borrowing activities (Devriese et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicroplastics found in the stomach lining of some langoustines, particularly in those that have recently completed their molt, Norway lobsters imply that ecdysis is the primary route of microplastic loss by N. \u003cem\u003enorvegicus\u003c/em\u003e. Post-molt individuals showed no remains of microplastics in the foregut, whereas individuals at the intermoult stage were observed to have aggregates of microplastic (Welden and cowie \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Plastic-free Nephrops had a longer median carapace length than plastic-containing Nephrops. This could imply that larger animals are better at either sorting plastics from their food before ingestion or excreting plastics after ingestion(Murray and Cowie \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Nephrops, microplastic ingestion resulted in false satiation and reduced feeding. Hence, prolonged retention of microplastics is likely to reduce growth and development. The long residence time of microplastics can potentially expose the individual to toxic persistent organic pollutants(Welden and Cowie \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Phthalate-based plasticizers and bisphenol-A are common chemical additives found in plastics that can leach out and cause developmental and reproductive disturbances in many organisms, including crustaceans(Oehlmann et al.,2006).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.4 Polychaetes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolychaetes constitute about 35 to 70% of marine macroinvertebrate populations. Due to their multifarious diet and feeding ecology, they may ingest MPs in various trophic pathways. Polychaetes are therefore crucial for monitoring environmental changes because of their responsiveness to cumulative influences of natural or artificial origin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA field study based on two polychaetes with different ecological features, viz, \u003cem\u003eSabella spallanzanii and Hermodice carunculata\u003c/em\u003e showed microplastic ingestion in both species. The isolation procedure involved whole body digestion and maximum digestion efficiency was recorded from the Foekema protocol (10% KOH solution at room temperature for 2\u0026ndash;3 weeks). Additionally, HNO3 at 5% e di H2O2 at 15% mixture was used to dissolve calcareous \u003cem\u003eH.carunculata\u003c/em\u003e. The most common plastic shape was found to be fragmented (99% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;184) in \u003cem\u003eH.carunculata\u003c/em\u003e and 81% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;52) in \u003cem\u003eS.spallanzanii\u003c/em\u003e) and the polymer-type polyethylene (PE). Biofouling processes are likely to make low-density polymers like polyethylene accessible to benthic macroinvertebrates (Vecchi et al.2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the marine polychaete \u003cem\u003eOphryotrocha labronica\u003c/em\u003e exposed to PA beads (10\u0026ndash;40 \u0026micro;m) reduced fecundity and egg sizes were observed. However, the juvenile survival rate was unaffected as the eggs produced by microplastic infected polychaetes had the same energetic content as those who were unexposed. Ingestion of microfibres by \u003cem\u003eHediste diversicolor\u003c/em\u003e reduced superoxide dismutase activity with a subsequent increase in oxidative damage to lipids (Hodgson 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eArenicola marina\u003c/em\u003e exposed to unplasticized polyvinylchloride had low energy reserves as a result of the cumulative effects of reduced feeding, long ingesta gut retention time, and increased phagocytic activity (Wright et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Marine polychaetes can also be producers of secondary microplastics in the marine environment. The faces of \u003cem\u003eMarphysa sanguinea\u003c/em\u003e inhabiting EPS (expanded polystyrene) debris had microplastics ranging from 0.2-3.8mm. Laboratory research with adult and juvenile polychaetes verified its significance in microplastic production since the size distribution of microplastics produced by laboratory studies was comparable to field observations (Jang et al.2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.5 Molluscs\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen microplastics are ingested by shellfishes from the ecosystem, they possess a great risk while human consumption. (Ding et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the littoral zone bivalve usually are found on rocky shores and in addition they are also used as human food. They are having filter feeding, the presence of deep understanding of the biology, and also an important part in the ecosystem, and as they are found everywhere and also their attached lifestyle, mussels are largely used as protector organisms of pollution monitoring in the marine ecosystem also having a filter-feeding ecosystem, mussels are more vulnerable to the uptake of microplastics (Reguera et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn an experiment, it was found that in M. Edulis microplastic ingestion reduced the byssal thread formation and helps them to hold tightly. When they were subjected to microplastics changed hemolymph proteome. Most of the proteins that were influenced were engaged in important processes, like regulation of the immune system, development of physical structure metabolism, and detoxification. (Green et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The intestinal tracts of these organisms can with the help of epithelial cells ingest the microplastics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.6 Fish\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.6.1 The fate of microplastic ingestion in fish\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a recent study by Rummel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e microplastics were found in the digestive system of fish from the North Sea and Baltic sea in almost 5.5% of all fish sample plastic was found, and 75% of it was in the range of microplastics. These microplastics can deposit in an organism, leading to lineal physical damage starting from blocking, internal and external injury, blockage, and can lead to death (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). The microplastic can enter an organism by phagocytosis and pinocytosis, and particle intake by an organism is mainly dependent on the size of the particles, and smaller particles are more easily assimilated. For instance, in zebrafish, 5-micrometer particles get accumulated more in the liver, gut, and gills, whereas 20-micrometer microplastics are more in the gills and gut. In organisms like \u003cem\u003ePinctada margaritifera\u003c/em\u003e, crab-like C\u003cem\u003earcinus maenas\u003c/em\u003e, etc., there was a significant lowering in the ingestion rate, feeding ability, assimilation capability, energy budget, etc. (W Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicroplastic also brings about neurotoxicity, inflammatory response, and oxidative damage in various organisms like crabs, mussels, fish, etc., along with developmental deformities (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Microplastics at the molecular level can change the expression of genes related to multiple functions. For instance, microplastics affect the functioning of genes connected to stress response in gilthead seabream \u003cem\u003eSparus aurata\u003c/em\u003e and young ones of Chinese mitten crab \u003cem\u003eEriocheir sinensis.\u003c/em\u003e Concerning microplastic exposure, gene expression variation was seen in zebrafish larvae. When exposed to microplastic particles, changes in immune response, stress response, reconstruction of genetic material, and biotransformation were seen in \u003cem\u003eMytilus galloprovincialis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDicentrarchus labrax\u003c/em\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2) (W huang et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Micro Plastics have been linked to a variety of negative consequences in marine animals at the population level, including alteration of foraging and feeding behaviour and changes in swimming ability, illusory satiation and behaviour, and fecundity (Moslem et al. 2020)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section5\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.6.1.1 Digestive system\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsually, microplastics get inside the digestive system of organisms through the oral pathway, get deposited in other organs through various metabolism, and then create hazardous consequences. In several studies (Savoca et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), microplastics have been shown to be present in marine mammals and fish of different species, particularly in pelagic fish of the central Mediterranean Sea, in the stomach of some demersal and semi-pelagic fish species. It is important to emphasise the importance of these fish in the food chain and at an ecological level. Therefore microplastics reach the digestive system of organisms first and assault the gastrointestinal tract. Microplastics were observed in the digestive system of Deep-sea fish and commercial fishes (kai yin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The physical blockage of the digestive system and interaction with nutrition are two of the most noticeable outcomes of fish microplastic intake. this case becomes especially true for ichthyoplankton in later growth phases, which hunt and eat microplastics and food (Boris jovanoic 2017)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe intestine is the primary digestive, absorptive and immunological organ, and it plays a critical role in the growth and maintenance of the body's metabolic rate. As a microbe-containing ecosystem in the intestine and intestinal flora is primarily responsible for controlling several physiological processes of the host like amino acid, protein synthesis, and nutrient absorption. Recent advancements in research have discovered that the intestine's flora is not only engaged in metabolism and absorption of nutrients but is intimately related to inflammation and nutritional absorption. The gut flora mediates the onset and progression of brain disorders. These microbes are also involved in the production of the mucus layer of the gut coating of mucus toxins from outside the body might cause problems to the beneficial, neutral, and harmful bacteria, which are involved in dynamic equilibrium. Their imbalance can cause problems like inflammation, abnormal metabolism, etc. Numerous research has found that this balance of intestinal flora is destroyed by the presence of microparticles, decreasing benefits and increasing harmful bacteria. Along with that, the intestinal villi also get deformed, and a decrease in the mucus layer is also observed (kai yin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteus is a microbiological hallmark of inflammation of the intestine and primarily involves using amino acids. In case of a contaminated environment containing an enormous quality of microplastics. When the ecosystem has a very high amount of microplastic pollution, there will be a high concentration of proteobacteria which produces bacterial outputs like lipopolysaccharides, which results in inflammation, enhanced permeability of the intestine, and thinning of the intestinal wall.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs invasive pathogen bacteria, actinomycetes are involved in the creation of secondary metabolites. The high concentration of actinomycetes is reduced due to microplastics, which can damage the intestinal barrier, boost their sensitivity to immune stimulation and improve their action. When microplastic is found in high quantity, it causes physical abrasion causing crypt cell loss and increased villi cell loss, leukocyte inflammation, and infiltration (kai yin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section5\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.6.1.2 Reproductive system\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn \u003cem\u003eDanio rerio, Picatada margaritifera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eand Daphnia magna-\u003c/em\u003elike organisms, microplastics tend to affect toxicity during the reproduction and development of embryos, gametes, and off springs. The process of hatching, the antioxidant ability of the embryo, and metabolism get affected due to the covering of the chorionic membrane of the embryo with micro plastic or nanoplastic. Defects in the formation of gametes which result from an imbalance in the metabolism of energy, damage to gonads, oxidative stress, hormonal disorder, and inflammation, are caused due to micro plastics as well as nano plastics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeficiency or abnormality in development results from reproductive toxicity due to microplastics, and these particles have a higher probability of being transferred genetically. The various studies also found that nano plastic has more adhesion to mussel embryos, oyster gametes, and sea urchins. It was found that the chorionic layer contains numerous pores with diameters up to 500 nm, which can hinder the entry of 100 nm. However, it is fascinating that 50 and 200 nm particles can enter the chorionic layer, adversely influence the embryo, and get deposited in the yolk sac. In the case of microplastics, they cannot get inside the chorion, cover it and decrease the availability of oxygen. The internal area of this chorionic membrane will create a deficient oxygen environment retarding embryo hatchability and altering its heart rate and hatching rate. When vitellogenesis occurs, a protein ellin synthesized in the liver is transferred to an advancing oocyte. This micro plastic particle can cause harm to the liver, which may result in abnormality to the synthesis of vitellogenesis release and formation, which can result in embryonic toxicity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicro plastic can also affect the embryo indirectly by affecting the release of hormones. It can cause various problems like a decrease in the level of luteinizing hormones, lutein stimulating hormone, testosterone, inflammation, damage to the testicular blood barrier, malformation in sperms, and testicular degeneration (kai yin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) Introduction reproductive disease, which is passed from one generation to another via microplastic particles and its plasticizer, can cause serious risk to the next generations of organisms, starting from copepods to higher trophic levels (Shengyan et al. 2020). Oysters are also significantly affected by microplastics. Gamete formation, gamete quality, and the success of fertilization are also remarkably obstructed, which may result in fewer oocytes, reduced sperm development and deformation in the mantle or shell.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section5\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.6.1.3 Immune system\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt has been proved that various hazardous organic pollutants get absorbed by MPs from the surrounding environment; if consumed, will remain in the body. Microplastic's biological effects have been studied at several levels, ranging from molecular levels such as gene regulation and protein modifications through tissue-organ to an individual. The inflammation due to micro plastics subjection can lead to intrusion in the components of the immune system. It can lead to a reaction in the lysosomal membrane damage, granulocyte formation, and neutrophil trap release. Innate immunity, which is present in organisms since birth, is one of the first lines of protection for organisms against numerous agents, making them a viable target for nano plastic interaction for the defence system of the host to get activated; it is really necessary for the excitation of neutrophils, as well as their role, is necessary for determining the state of health of organisms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIf the regular neutrophils\u0026rsquo; functioning is affected and their capability to phagocytose and destroy microorganisms is disturbed, then the steady development and longevity of the organism are affected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a study using gilthead seabream as a model marine fish, PVC microparticles were found to have little to no impact on the innate immune response characteristics. The researchers discovered that micro-particles (PVC) do not influence various immunological activities such as peroxidase concentration, restriction-phagocytosis, and respiratory burst activity. A study on the Chinese mitten crab \u003cem\u003eEriocheir sinensis\u003c/em\u003e showed reduced levels of lysozyme(LZM) and acid phosphatase (AcP) after being exposed to different PS-Micro Plastic concentrations at various levels. In low-dose or short-exposure-time experiments, there was an initial increase ( Moslem et al. 2020)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section5\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.6.1.4 Organs misfunctioning\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen microplastics are exposed to the organs and tissues, it disrupts metabolic activity and gives sublethal responses. These responses can be observed in alteration of gene expression, oxidative stress, endocrine disorders, and immune responses. Ingestion of microplastics can also simultaneously and critically affect the organism's development and alter the organism's metabolism. The presence of polystyrene microplastics increases the amount of mucus and triggers inflammation in the gut of zebrafish. The microplastics will cross the biological barriers, cell membrane, to the digestive system; this significantly influences numerous biological processes, which may cause irreversible and long-lasting damage to the organ and organism (Shengyan p et al. 2020). In the case of organisms like the Asian green mussel \u003cem\u003ePerna viridis\u003c/em\u003e, microplastic ingestion leads to decreased byssus thread production, respiration, and food clearance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, for Pomatoschistus, it leads to uncommon swimming. For both these creatures, it can lead to death following starvation ( Wei Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Several researchers have found that the transfer of particles into the stomach of fish is affected by their size. In fact small microplastics equal to 5 mm were detected, larger ones such as 20 mm were not found. The triglyceride to cholesterol ratio in the blood serum cholesterol distribution between the liver and muscle is also altered by the accumulation of ingested plastic particles (Boris Jovanovic 2017)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe hard microplastics do not have a regular shape and rough surface. They usually have sharp edges and can interfere, pierce the gut lining of fish, and cause mechanical damage and ulceration. Fish that have been fed with microplastics shows various organ misfunctioning such as an increase of goblet cells and hyperplasia of goblet cells, shortening and swelling of villi, loss of regular structure of serosa, and vacuolation of enterocytes were all histopathological structural alternation in the distal part of intestine in the laboratory experiment conducted (Boris Jovanovic 2017)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.7 Marine reptiles\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSea turtles are long-living sentinel species for microplastic pollution. They are likely to consume similar microplastics as that humans as they have the same exposure routes and share similar marine trophic chains (Meaza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Sea turtles during their seasonal movements such as foraging, nesting and migration are exposed to microplastic pollution (Pagano et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Sea turtles must hold their breath during lengthy dives and take quick breaths between dives, making them highly susceptible to inhaling microplastics. Additionally, all Sea turtles except Dermochelys lack nasal turbinate structures that enable them to sneeze out trapped particles from the air, which aggravates microplastic exposure(Meaza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnlike macroplastics, uptake of microplastics by marine turtles does not lead to gastrointestinal obstruction as they can easily cross the gut lumen. However, the impact of microplastics at the cellular and subcellular levels and the potential chemical toxicity of contaminants associated with microplastics are still unknown (Duncan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.8 Aquatic mammals\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe direct consumption of microplastic by marine mammals is not reported widely. However, numerous reports of cetaceans ingesting large plastic debris are known (Lusher et al. 2015). The data on microplastic uptake by marine mammals is still scarce as beachings are incidental, and their large sizes and high decomposition rates make it difficult to assess their stomachs for microplastics (Ribeiro et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Although the frequency of microplastic ingestion among cetaceans is undetermined, the possible exposure routes are identified. Cetaceans can take up microplastics through filter-feeding, inhalation, or indirectly from prey animals via trophic transfer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBaleen whales can trap microplastics between their baleen plates while filtering the water for prey organisms. Thus, they are more susceptible to ingesting microplastics than toothed or beaked whales that do not show filter-feeding. Indirect uptake of microplastics via trophic transfer is also seen among cetaceans. Microplastics ranging from 2 to 5 mm were isolated from faeces of fur seals and are thought to be obtained through trophic transfer from its prey, lantern fish (Lusher et al. 2015). The toxicity of ingested microplastics is determined by the time they take to transit through the intestines and then be excreted. Information on the gut passage time of microplastics in marine mammals is largely unknown (Meaza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCetaceans can be considered biomonitors for microplastic pollution. The concentration of phthalates in the blubber of stranded fin whales (\u003cem\u003eBalaenoptera physalus\u003c/em\u003e) could be used as an indicator of microplastic ingestion. However, there is ambiguity in determining the source of phthalates accumulated as they could be derived from micro or macro plastics or by direct uptake from seawater into the blubber(lusher et al., 2015). Microplastics can function as a medium for transporting chemicals spatially as well as through and up food webs. Organochlorine chemicals can hinder reproductive success by being detrimental to the endocrine and immune system (Nelms et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zantis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.9 Aquatic birds\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeabirds are considered an indicator species for marine plastic pollution. However, plastic levels in sea birds with wide migratory or foraging ranges may not be consistent with plastic pollution levels in their collected locations (Baak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). microplastic ingestion by sea birds is widespread and reported even from remote polar regions. Microplastics isolated from penguin scats confirm significant levels of microplastics in Antarctic and sub Antarctic regions and potential prevalence in Antarctic marine food webs (Bessa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Plastic ingestion by arctic seabirds is widely reported. The highest frequency of plastic ingestion is found in surface-feeding Procellariiformes species. Procellariiformes seabirds showing DMS (dimethyl sulfide) response are likely to ingest more biofouled (micro)plastics (Savoca et al.,2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, scant data is presently available on the temporal and spatial variations, physical (size, shape, colour), and chemical(polymer type) nature of the plastic ingested. The use of standardized methods for the extraction and analysis of plastics can help to solve the above problems (Baak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong seabirds, Northern fulmars and herring gulls can make the best candidates as sentinels for microplastic pollution due to their abundance over vast areas, high plastic ingestion rates, site fidelity, etc. (Biamis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Seabirds' plastic uptake can cause internal lacerations, gastrointestinal tract obstruction, and reduced feeding. The chemical toxicity of plastics can manifest as physiological effects like increased satiation and reduced growth (Baak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Coral reef ecosystem\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoral reefs form a fundamental part of the ecosystem in the saltwater system consisting of polyp, which has a calcium carbonate skeleton and is a source of great fisheries potential. It plays numerous roles in our ecosystem. It forms a barrier reef which helps reduce tidal action, produces a high amount of oxygen, absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide, and is eaten by organisms of lower trophic level that reside there and form spawning, nursery, and breeding ground. As it has unique and complex structural diversity, it is the dwelling place for almost twenty-five percent of the underwater biodiversity. Nevertheless, this highly delicate ecosystem is affected very quickly by different environmental constraints like changes in ocean temperature, ocean acidification, mining, oil spill, pollution, etc. As they form the base of the food chain, their tremendous death rate can cause significant impacts on organisms at higher trophic levels. Tremendous increment in marine plastic pollution has affected the lives of corals, because of which considerable destruction has occurred (Juliana john et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorals have a nonselective feeding nature and feed upon minute particles like zooplankton. However, during this process, they also consume microplastics due to their similar size and variable colour. When they get concentrated, their surface accumulation causes problems in their immune system, severe damage of tissue necrosis, decrease in growth, photosynthetic performance, energy spending, calcification of skeleton, reduced food intake, coral reef bleaching, and release of zooxanthellae.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe time up to which microplastic is consumed and retained in the body depends upon the size and amount of microplastic in the marine ecosystem and the size of the feeding organism. Disease-causing microorganisms, as well as chemicals that are present within the microplastic, also cause deleterious effects on the coral ecosystem and other related diseases. The other organism that depends on the corals for food, like fishes and worms, is also affected by microplastics and shows bioaccumulative effects (Juliana john et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlastic items can also cause severe problems like physical injury and wearing to corals and contribute to the intrusion of the disease-causing organism and ciliated organism, and coral disorders like the skeletal eroding band. Plastic can cause alien microbes and can interrupt the usual host-symbiont association. For example, the plastic refuge floating can act as a bearing agent for Rhodobacterales and halofolliculina, which are linked with coral-related diseases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious researchers have found microplastic concentration in the surface waters of coral reefs to range from zero to tens of thousands of items/m3 and that corals and ground deposits are hard to evaluate because of an inadequate comparable standard unit or available data. Many studies show that most of the consumed microplastic may be dismissed through the cleaning mechanism in 2 days, but the probable influence of possessed microplastics on coral is not negligible ( Wei Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Mangrove ecosystem\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the marine ecosystem, the three significant landscape includes mangrove, coral reef, and seagrass meadows. The unique interdependent union of the two different ecosystems helps in innate resistance against natural destruction. Despite various ecological roles and tremendous value, these ecosystems are affected by different pollutants. Plastic puts up almost 70 percent of marine refuge affecting the mangroves, which are transported by different tidal actions and currents. It obstructs gas interchange as well as produces adverse chemicals. As plankton are essential in regulating the food chain of the mangrove ecosystem, their build-up can pass to a higher trophic level. The expanding human activities done in mangrove and coastal areas can establish different contaminants into this environment by influencing their ecological well-being. Various creatures like bivalves, crustaceans, and mussels inhabit the areas of these mangroves; these organisms are deposit feeders, so their chance of microparticle intake in the sediment is much higher. Both land-based sources of micro particles like discharge from water treatment plants, effluents, and ocean-based sources of micro particles like tourism, fishing supplies, etc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany groups of the population depend on the fishes and other aquatic organisms from mangroves for food, and recent research has indicated that microplastic bioaccumulation is very prominent. In an analysis conducted in a mangrove forest in Southern Iran by Maghsodian et al., microplastic particles were found in fish samples like \u003cem\u003ePeriophthalamus waltoni\u003c/em\u003e. It indicated that polystyrene, 26 percent was the most, and polythene, 3 percent, was the least. The abundance of these components like polythene and polystyrene was mostly due to the segmentation of different plastic products like gears and nets or wrappers, etc., for various maritime tasks (Juliana john et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Threats To Humans","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Human intake of microplastics consuming fish\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn 2017, 17% of animal protein consumed globally was contributed by fish, contributing 7% of all protein consumed globally. Approximately 20% of the average per capita intake of animal proteins is provided by fish, and it is consumed by more than 3.3\u0026nbsp;billion people globally (FAO 2020). But it becomes hazardous for human health, and according to a study based on EFSA, adults consuming 300g of analysed fish species will intake 16 MP items/week and 842 MP items/year, 0.054 MP items/g/week, 2.8 MP items/g/year (EFSA 2014). Several studies have shown that various sizes and types of MPs translocate across the mammalian gut (Lusher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). According to several authors, it has been observed that MPs ranging up to 150 \u0026micro;m are detected in the lymph of mammals. Generally, MPs smaller than 150 \u0026micro;m penetrate the biological system, and absorption is only limited up to \u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.3%, particles ranging\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;150 \u0026micro;m are not absorbed, and only a smaller fraction, size\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;20 \u0026micro;m, may penetrate organs (Lusher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). According to Smith et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, more than 90% of MPs are expelled through the excretory system consumed by human beings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec32\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 The harmful effect of MPs on human health\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most common route of microplastic exposure in the human population is toothpaste, scrubs, hand washes, and marine food sources. The chemicals associated with microplastic, such as phthalates and polychlorinated biphenyls, and several pollutants present on the surface of MPs contribute to the human dietary exposure of MPs (Sharma et al. 2017). In a study by Van Cauwernberghe and Janseen 2014, it has been proved that marine-based food sources enhance the exposure of MPs for humans through their diet and the high amount or ratio of MPs pollutant in marine organism create a significant risk to food safety. MPs consumed by food diet nearly more than 90% excreted by human's excretory system via feces. The retention of MPs particle depends on the size, shape, polymer unit, and various harmful chemicals associated with it that mimic the natural component of the human system (EFSA 2019). The research on the effects of MPs on mammalian model system concludes that with some specific features it penetrate through the living cells such as dendritic cells and M cells and into the circulatory or lymphatic system and it starts accumulating in the various organ and finally affects the physiological function of cells, tissues and organs. According to a study by Wright \u0026amp; Kelly \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, microplastic ingestion causes cellular proliferation, necrosis, and inflammation in tissue and affects the immune system. Oral exposure to nano plastics shows that it can be carried out by M cells from the gut into the blood, and finally, it enters into the lymphatic system, liver, and gall bladder. Due to their minute size, these particles can penetrate through various organs and cause harm to humans (Seltenrichal. 2017). Unfortunately, actual or permissible data are unavailable for the food's particle size, concentration, shape, and chemical composition (Sharma et al. 2017). So, advanced research and detailed analysis are required to get accurate information and data on the potential health risk of MPs occurring in a various range of food, and we can estimate the causative threat of contaminated seafood on human health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec33\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.3 Impact or threat of microplastics on food safety on a global level\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicroplastics are ingested by many aquatic organisms present in the ocean and inland water bodies (Fonseca et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This microplastic is made up of several types of polymers and additives that are absorbed or adsorb by the aquatic animal and pose a risk to the food safety of aquaculture and fishery products (Fonseca et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Generally, MPs accumulate in the gastrointestinal tract of animals that degut during fish processing and consumption to minimize direct exposure of MPs (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4). But many small fishes, such as pelagic fish, anchovies, sardines, crustaceans (shrimps), and molluscs consumed without degut and eaten whole, become hazardous to human health (Fonseca et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In African countries, some indigenous freshwater species such as Kapenta (\u003cem\u003eLimnothrissa miodon\u003c/em\u003e) and Mukene (\u003cem\u003eRastrineobola argentea\u003c/em\u003e) are eaten whole, and the same is likewise in Bangladesh also small fish like Darkina (\u003cem\u003eEsomus danricus\u003c/em\u003e) and mola (\u003cem\u003eAmblypharyngodon mola\u003c/em\u003e) are also consumed fully (Lusher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of MPs has been confirmed in various freshwater species and also in marine pelagic species such as silversides (\u003cem\u003eStolephorus commersonnii\u003c/em\u003e), and Pacific anchovy (\u003cem\u003eEngraulis japonicas)\u003c/em\u003e and European anchovy (\u003cem\u003eEngraulis encrasicolus)\u003c/em\u003e in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans (Lusher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the research, it has been noticed that particles of MPs traced the various species of crustaceans and shrimp in the coastal water of the North Sea and the Irish Sea. MPs' consumption can be reduced by peeling the head and the gills, and most of the digestive tract removed, which mainly contain MPs particles (Lusher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In the Irish Sea, MPs are traced in the stomach of the Norway Sea, and nearly 83 percent of the animals were contaminated. As per research, MPs concentration in the sample of the Irish Sea area varies from 0.40 mg to 0.80 mg per individual. Before consumption, the gastrointestinal tract is generally removed to reduce the chances of MPs consumption while eating marine animals. It has been noticed that sea cucumbers consume high concentrations of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and nylon under laboratory conditions. Echinoderms are preferably consumed along with their gastrointestinal tract, becoming an increased risk for human health (Lusher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTranslocation of MPs particles in the human body via finfish low because these species degut and peeled respectively before consumption. Nevertheless, the primary threat to human health is the consumption of bivalves because it consumed whole, and it is the most significant source of MPs from seafood to humans (Lusher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The highest number of MPs particle is contained by Chines bivalve: 4 particles/g of tissue. So, the consumption of mussel weight 225g would lead to assimilation of nearby 900 MPs particles. Overall microplastic consumption and its hazards to human health are very low based on the present scenario. Focusing on the MP's sources is imperative because their concentration is increasing faster due to degradation by natural phenomena and bioaccumulation in the food chain.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Future Perspectives To Control Microplastics","content":"\u003cp\u003eMicroplastic problems associated with the environment can be solved by focusing on controlling MPs sources attained by law regulation and eradicating MPs particles present in water (Pic\u0026oacute; et al. 2019). Some countries have already issued legislative measures to regulate the production of MPs. Cosmetic products have become a substantial source of microplastics in the environment. In 2017, the US banned microplastic beads in the production of cosmetic products. Several countries, such as the European Union, Australia, and Canada, are also considering applying adequate measures to lower the use of MPs particles in products (Pic\u0026oacute; et al. 2019). The restriction on the use and production of MPs will help clean-up up plastic particles in the ocean on a large scale, and the application of remediation technologies will help reduce water pollution in the water ecosystem (Zumstein et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The former procedure intercepts and captures plastics with the help of a floating system (Pic\u0026oacute; et al. 2019). Remediation technology is divided into various sub-tools that are discussed below. These technologies involved wastewater and drinking water treatment and various bacterial applications to biodegrade the plastic already in the aquatic environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec35\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1 Engineering Tools\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary source of MPs and microliter to the environment is wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Implementing novel technologies in these plants is the best way to manage MP pollution (Pic\u0026oacute; et al. 2019). The MPs present in the influents (90\u0026ndash;98%) are eliminated by conventional WWTP treatments (Lares et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Electrodeposition, coagulation, and membrane are the most frequent and advanced wastewater technologies. The most promising method is membrane bioreactors (MBR). It combines several membrane processes like ultrafiltration and microfiltration with biological wastewater treatment. It has been noticed that the active biological filter (BAF) is highly efficient in removing MPs from natural sources. It is a filter that permits the contaminants to degrade microorganisms in its culture and environment (Talvitie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The various treatment steps, such as chemical, mechanical, and biological treatment, BAF in advanced WWTP used to remove MPs showed retention capacity nearby 99% (Pic\u0026oacute; et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrocoagulation (EC) is a conventional process for removing MPs from wastewater sources. Its efficacy for removing microbeads is more than 90% in various conditions, proved by research in which PE microbeads are inoculated at different concentrations in artificial wastewater. This study suggests that EC effectively removes MPs from wastewater sources, and at pH 7.5, its optimal removal efficiency reaches 99.24%. In the metropolitan city, washing machine effluents are the primary sources of microplastic waste fibre. The influence of effluents can be reduced by electro-oxidation (EO) before discharge into the sewer system. In this technique, an electrochemical flow reactor is used, in which active (Ti/Pt) anodes and Ti cathode are associated with it (Pic\u0026oacute; et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec36\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2 Use of Biodegradable or Biobased Polymers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing biodegradable material is another best way to reduce the presence of plastics in natural habitats. Biodegradable material is made up of renewable starting materials such as cellulose, starch, bioethanol, and lignin. About 0.5% of 335\u0026nbsp;million tonnes of plastics are currently contributed by bioplastics, which is expected to escalate in the future (Pic\u0026oacute; et al. 2019). The various conditions and process, viz. degradation by anaerobic or aerobic biologically, is required for biodegradable plastic. But the major problem with this plastic is that it requires suitable conditions and microorganisms for degradation, which is not always provided in environmental conditions (Pic\u0026oacute; et al. 2019). It has been noticed that several biodegradable bioplastics are compostable in nature and can be degraded by a microorganism into nutrient-rich biomass within three months and no toxins or residue remain after degradation (Pic\u0026oacute; et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec37\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3 Bioengineering-Based Solutions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother method used for solving MP's problems associated with the environment is the bioengineering-based solution\u0026mdash;different types of bacteria, fungi, or isolated enzymes used for the biodegradation of plastic by the enzymatic hydrolysis method. Extracellular carboxylesterases can be used for hydrolyzing biodegradable polyesters (Zumstein et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Specialized bacteria can degrade different types of plastics. Polyethylene terephthalate can be degraded by \u003cem\u003eIdeonella sakaiensis\u003c/em\u003e, and polyethylene can be broken down by the marine fungus \u003cem\u003eZalerion maritimum\u003c/em\u003e (Pic\u0026oacute; et al. 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eMicroplastics are damaging our ecosystem daily, and developing countries continue to increase microplastic production even though it affects humans adversely. Bioaccumulation in the food chain carries MPs from the molecular level to the population level, and it triggers a hazardous reaction in the individual population, communities, and human beings. Moreover, aquatic organisms suffer immensely from microplastics with manifestations of damaging gills, skin, gastrointestinal tract, organs, and mostly, even minute particles reach the brain after crossing the blood-brain barrier. It chokes the gill epithelium, reduces oxygen uptake, and leads to death. Filter-feeding organisms such as mussels and clams filter the water and accumulate microplastics inside their body. Later on, these organisms are consumed by higher trophic organisms that bioaccumulate harmful forms of plastic in the food chain and affect animal physiological and immunological responses. Even though MPs can be detected using various techniques, bioaccumulation in the food chain and its impact on human health cannot be avoided. A few of the loops or research work that are necessarily required are discussed below: The government should uphold restrictions on the use of one-time plastics as the lack of recycling and reuse of such types of plastic creates a significant problem.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDeveloping countries are facing significant issues with MPs production. International organizations should develop strict regulations to reduce contamination in the natural body and marine ecosystem.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eResearchers should examine the composition and concentration of MPs in various food sources to avoid priory before consumption.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMPs are associated with various chemicals, which dysfunctional the cell physiology; thus, the detailed study on these helps diagnose and treat the MPs-related disease.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe processing company should consider the concentration of MPs in the raw product before processing it. This should be strictly imposed on them by rules and regulations. The product should be discarded if the concentration is high as per regulation.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVarious international/ national level NGOs should take essential steps to create awareness about the effect of MPs on the human population. People should be aware of the MP\u0026apos;s threat to our ecosystem and human health. The government should encourage the use of biodegradable products such as bagasse formed from the pulp of some plants rather than promoting plastic usage. Private organizations must provide subsidies for promoting and processing biodegradable substitutes for MPs.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy researching these points, we can reduce the production of MPs, but still, lots of work is required to fill up such loops for achieving our goals. Reducing MPs contamination in the marine ecosystem would ensure our healthy lives. It will enhance the quality of marine products and will increase consumption all over the world.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Statements And Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish:\u003c/strong\u003e All authors agreed to publish this article in Environmental Science and Pollution Research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e Anuj Sharma,\u0026nbsp;Sanchu Prakash,\u0026nbsp;Malavika B.R, and\u0026nbsp;Meril Mary Mathew\u0026nbsp;prepared the manuscript. \u0026nbsp;Federica Arrigo,\u0026nbsp;Sreeja\u0026nbsp;Lakshmi\u0026nbsp;assisted in the preparation and improvisation of the manuscript.\u0026nbsp;Rosa Freitas,\u0026nbsp;Caterina Faggio\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;Preetham Elumalai reviewed, improvised and finalized\u0026nbsp;the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDisclosure\u003c/strong\u003e: This manuscript has not been published or presented elsewhere in part or in entirety.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbo-Al-Ela HG, Faggio C (2021) MicroRNA-mediated stress response in bivalve species. 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Environ Pollution 269:116142\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1: MP\u0026rsquo;s impact on shellfish\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"22.317596566523605%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOrganism\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.88698140200286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMPs type and its size\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"41.9170243204578%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMain findings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"14.878397711015737%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReference\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"22.317596566523605%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChinese mitten crab\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(\u003cem\u003eEriocheir sinensis\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.88698140200286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePS (25mg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"41.9170243204578%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Increased in the concentration of haemocyanin in the haemolymph, but significantly decreased with increased in the exposure time duration of MPs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Decreased in the activity of alkaline phosphatase.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Significant reduction in the activity of lysozyme\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;With increase in this MPs time exposure, phenoloxidase activity decrease\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Acid phosphatase activity significantly increase in hepatopancreas\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"14.878397711015737%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Liu et al. 2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"22.317596566523605%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMediterranean mussels (\u003cem\u003eMytilus galloprovincialis\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.88698140200286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLDPE (20\u0026ndash;25\u0026mu;m) and benzo(a)pyrene\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"41.9170243204578%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Stability of lysosomal membrane destabilized\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Phagocytosis activity first increase and then significantly decrease after long MPs exposure\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Granulocytes- hyalinocytes ratio get affected.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Concentration of Acetylcholinesterase slightly decrease in hemolymph and its increase in gills\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"14.878397711015737%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Pittura et al. 2018)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"22.317596566523605%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMytilus galloprovincialis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.88698140200286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHDPE (1\u0026ndash;50\u0026mu;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"41.9170243204578%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Reduced weight gain and growth rate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Trigger in the reactive oxygen species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Immune receptors and antimicrobial peptides highly modulated\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Production of stress- related protein (hsp 70\u0026nbsp;and superoxide dismutase)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"14.878397711015737%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(D\u0026eacute;tr\u0026eacute;e et al. 2018)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"22.317596566523605%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTegillarca granosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.88698140200286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePS (30 \u0026mu;m) and sertraline\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"41.9170243204578%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; In haemocytes, reduction of THC and phagocytosis detected\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp;Haemocyte viability not considerably suppressed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;In the haemocytes, caspase-3 activities increased\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Increased apoptosis rates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;In haemocytes, intracellular ROS content\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"14.878397711015737%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Shi et al. 2020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"22.317596566523605%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eM. edulis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.88698140200286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhenanthrene\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2 mg ml\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"41.9170243204578%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; No significant changes in the concentration of differential haemocyte count\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;No change in the haemocytes percentage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Influenced acid phosphatase activity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"14.878397711015737%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Wootton at al. 2003)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*( PE: Polyethylene; HD-PE: High Density-Polyethylene; LDPE: Low Density Polyethylene; Polystyrene; PC: Polycarbonate; PVC: Polyvinyl chloride)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2: MPs impact on various species of fish\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"23.14410480349345%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOrganism\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.524017467248907%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMPs type and its size\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"42.64919941775837%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMain findings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"13.682678311499272%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReference\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"23.14410480349345%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZebrafish (\u003cem\u003eDanio\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ererio\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.524017467248907%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHD-PE and PS MP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(100 \u0026mu;g/L and 1000 \u0026mu;g/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"42.64919941775837%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Intestinal mucosa alteration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Changes in the neutrophils and goblet cells\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Gill epithelium alteration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Daily active rhythm affected\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"13.682678311499272%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Limonta et al., 2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"23.14410480349345%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGuppy (\u003cem\u003ePoecilia reticulata\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.524017467248907%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePS (32\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026mu;m diameters)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"42.64919941775837%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Excessive secretion of goblet cells\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Affect mucus concentration and its secretion in the gut\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Decrease the function of trypsin in the body tissue.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Block digestive tract, leads in decline growth performance and survival rate.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"13.682678311499272%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Huang et al., 2020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"23.14410480349345%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRainbow trout\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.524017467248907%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePS (100-400 \u0026mu;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"42.64919941775837%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Inflammation in the systematic circulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Goblet cells plentifully produced in proximal and distal segment of intestine\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Goblet cells morphology change i.e. hypertrophy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;No changes observed in paracellular permeability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;In the digestive gland inducing, development of granulocytomas observed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Activity of cellular leukocytes altered\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"13.682678311499272%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Huang et al., 2020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"23.14410480349345%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFathead Minnow (\u003cem\u003ePimephalespromelas\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.524017467248907%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePS: 41.0 nm, PC: 158.7 nm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"42.64919941775837%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Oxidative burst\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Respiratory burst increase\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;No influence on phagocytosis rate due to physical size of MPs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"13.682678311499272%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Greven et al., 2016)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"23.14410480349345%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGilthead seabream\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.524017467248907%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePVC-MPs (100 or 500 mg kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"42.64919941775837%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; In the serum, Aspartate aminotransferase significantly increased\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Significantly increased of albumin, globulin and creatine kinase in the fish serum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Peroxidase activity become intensive in skin mucus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"13.682678311499272%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Espinosa et al., 2017)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"23.14410480349345%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGilthead seabream and European sea bass\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.524017467248907%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePVC, PE (40-150 \u0026mu;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"42.64919941775837%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Decreased phagocytosis activity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Respiratory burst increased\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Peroxidase activity remain unaltered\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"13.682678311499272%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Espinosa et al., 2018)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"23.14410480349345%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAtlantic horse mackerel and Atlantic chub\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emackerel\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"20.524017467248907%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVarious MPs forms in natural condition\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"42.64919941775837%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Decreased food consumption, intestinal obstruction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Decreased respiratory efficiency by choking the gill leads hypoxia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Hypoxia, infection, gill damage leads into death\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Lipid peroxidation in gills, brain and muscles\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull;\u0026nbsp;Disruption of presynaptic membrane leads increase in neurotransmitter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"13.682678311499272%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Barboza et al., 2020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*( PE: Polyethylene; HD-PE: High Density-Polyethylene; LDPE: Low Density Polyethylene; Polystyrene; PC: Polycarbonate; PVC: Polyvinyl chloride)\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Microplastic, marine ecosystem, mussel, crab, fish","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1812636/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1812636/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAnthropogenic activities have degraded the marine ecosystem badly, among which microplastic (MPs) is the primary cause. The use of MPs is increasing at extraordinary haste while the recycling and reuse are very low. They are dumped in water bodies that sequentially enter the marine ecosystem. Recently scientists have observed the presence of MPs in various tissues such as the gastrointestinal tract and some immune organs. The major problem arises when it affects the human population severely. The consumption of MPs-affected fish cause accumulation in the food chain resulting in biomagnification. It affects human health by interfering with the gut microbiome, immune response, etc. We can decrease the impact of MPs by reducing their production and detecting them in aqua-consuming organisms. There are different techniques to diagnose the concentration of MPs inside marine organisms before processing. Removal of the gut of marine food organisms before consumption is also an excellent way to reduce the impact of MPs on health, but it is not possible for small fish. So, some limits should be applied to impose the production of MPs and enhance the use of biodegradable products for human health considerations. Some protocols should be set on the boundary of MPs’ concentration for fish marketing and processing.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Present and future: the effects and possible solutions of microplastics in the marine/aquatic environment","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-08-03 17:38:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1812636/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f150408d-fe91-4949-b845-2d3d407a962f","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 3rd, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2022-09-23T14:19:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2022-08-03 17:38:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-1812636","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-1812636","identity":"rs-1812636","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"rHA-KDH7Qsr4HCuvH75dn","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}