Understanding Moral Growth in Adolescence: Evidence from a Multi-Wave Longitudinal Study

Understanding Moral Growth in Adolescence: Evidence from a Multi-Wave Longitudinal Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Understanding Moral Growth in Adolescence: Evidence from a Multi-Wave Longitudinal Study Małgorzata Bronikowska This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9278671/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background This longitudinal study investigated the development of moral competence among adolescents and examined the influence of selected environmental factors, including religion, education, parents, Physical Education teacher, peers, and media. Examining these determinants is particularly relevant in the context of contemporary social transformations associated with increasing moral ambiguity, shifting value orientations, and a growing prevalence of risk behaviours among young people. These processes may affect adolescents’ psychosocial development, well-being, and health-related behaviours, highlighting the importance of moral competence as a factor relevant to public health. Methods A longitudinal study using the diagnostic survey method was conducted among students from randomly selected secondary schools in the Wielkopolska (Greater Poland) region of Poland. The study sample comprised 209 adolescents aged 15–19 years (57.2% boys and 48.8% girls) who were followed throughout four years of secondary education between 2020 and 2024. Data were collected in three consecutive measurement waves over a 40-month period. Moral competence was assessed using the validated Lind’s Moral Competence Test and the author-developed Moral Influence Scale . Given the non-normal distribution of the data, nonparametric statistical procedures were applied, including McNemar’s test to assess changes over time, Spearman’s rank-order correlations to examine associations between variables, and regression analysis to identify predictors of moral competence. Results The findings indicated a significant increase in the proportion of adolescents representing a medium level of moral competence between the second and third measurement waves (p = 0.014). Correlation analyses showed that at lower levels of moral competence, moral reasoning was weakly associated with selected external influences, particularly religion and the PE teacher; however, these associations weakened as competence levels increased. Regression analysis identified religion as the only significant predictor of medium-level moral competence. Conclusions The findings support stage-based models of moral development, suggesting that adolescents’ moral reasoning becomes increasingly autonomous over time. The results emphasize the importance of moral education and value-based reflection. Adolescents also identified the physical education teacher as an influential factor, highlighting the potential role of physical education contexts in fostering moral development. Moral competence Adolescents Moral development Environmental influences Longitudinal study Figures Figure 1 Introduction In recent decades, a troubling devaluation of moral values has been observed worldwide. Despite the seriousness of this phenomenon, it has not yet received adequate recognition or comprehensive understanding among researchers and educators. Therefore, I undertook cross-sectional research in order to contribute to the clarification of this problem. At the outset, it is worth recalling what morality is. Morality is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon [ 1 , 2 , 3 ], that has occupied human reflection since the beginning of civilization. Its development depends on both internal factors such as motivation, emotion, intention, and cognition [ 2 , 4 , 5 ], and external ones, including social norms, cultural expectations, and peer or institutional influences [ 6 , 3 , 7 , 8 ]. Throughout history, different cultures have established their own moral systems, such as Confucian ethics, hwarang do, kalos kagathos, fair play, ubuntu, and Judeo-Christian or Islamic ethics, to guide the behavior of their communities and ensure social order [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. In the contemporary world, ethical norms are subject to growing contestation, as behaviors once considered morally impermissible are increasingly framed as acceptable and, consequently, normalized [ 11 , 12 ]. This phenomenon has sparked growing concern among scholars and educators about the apparent decline in moral responsibility and integrity in modern societies [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. When addressing morality in a research context, particular emphasis should be placed on the role of moral competence. Moral competence is understood as the ability to resolve conflicts and make decisions through reasoning based on ethical principles and dialogue [ 16 ]. It signifies more than mere knowledge or social conformity, encompassing an understanding of moral principles, their practical application, and responsibility for one’s choices. One of the most critical challenges in this regard is not only the preservation but also the development of moral competence [ 17 , 16 ]. The concept has deep philosophical roots: Socrates connected moral virtue with the pursuit and knowledge of the good [ 18 , 19 ], and later Levy-Suhl [ 20 ] described this capacity as moral maturity. From birth and throughout adolescence, moral learning occurs largely through imitation of adults, especially parents and educators of all kinds [ 21 ]. In this regard physical education (PE) teachers occupy a particularly important role, as their work allows them to observe students in dynamic social and competitive situations that naturally require moral decision-making, including rule adherence, fair play, cooperation, and respect for peers. Their sustained engagement often fosters closer teacher – student relationships, which can further support the development of moral competence. These observations are consistent with previous research demonstrating that sports environments and PE classes promote essential moral and social values, such as honesty, responsibility, and empathy [ 22 , 23 , 24 ]. In this context also Bandura’s social learning theory [ 25 ] emphasizes that modeling, rather than verbal instruction alone, is crucial for developing moral behavior. Yet, inconsistencies between adults’ expectations and their actions often undermine moral education of younger generations. Children quickly recognize discrepancies between words and behaviors, which weakens their trust and negatively impacts their moral development [ 16 ]. Compounding this issue, both parents and teachers frequently lack sufficient preparation to address everyday moral dilemmas [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Moreover, sociological and psychological research indicates that contemporary youth increasingly exhibit a relativistic and individualized approach to moral norms, which is reflected in the selective application of ethical principles and greater tolerance toward behaviors that violate traditional social norms. At the same time, judgments about right and wrong during adolescence are significantly shaped by peer influence and by the pluralism of contemporary value systems [ 30 , 31 ]. Empirical studies support the importance of social relationships for moral growth. Speicher [ 32 ] found that adolescents who experienced warm, communicative relationships with parents showed higher increases in moral competence than those raised in emotionally distant or neglectful environments. Similarly, a lack of close bonds during childhood can lead to hostility and impaired moral reasoning, as Freud argued when describing how weak early attachments hinder the formation of the superego [ 33 , 34 ]. Other research confirms that many young people today exhibit low levels of moral competence [35; 36]. While such findings may reflect the natural pace of moral development [ 17 ], they underline the importance of educational contexts that actively foster moral reflection and responsibility [ 32 ]. Drawing on earlier research conducted by Piaget [ 37 , 38 ] adolescents develop autonomy through cooperation, dialogue, and mutual understanding – conditions often missing in modern educational systems. The increasing deprivation of sensory and social experiences, combined with limited contact with significant “role modeling” adults, negatively affects cognitive and moral growth [ 39 ]. The theoretical foundation of this study is based on Kohlberg’s [ 17 ] stage theory of moral development, extended by neo-Kohlbergian perspectives [ 40 ]. Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning evolves through three universal levels, pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional, each encompassing distinct stages of moral understanding. Although these stages are sequential and universal, the rate of one’s progress depends on age, education, and environmental influences. Importantly, not all individuals reach the post-conventional stage, characterized by reasoning based on universal ethical principles. Kohlberg [ 17 ] also noted that adolescents may exhibit temporary declines in moral reasoning as they balance conformity with growing autonomy [ 41 ]. Rest’s [ 42 , 43 ] later research refined that perspective, showing that moral competence typically rises through adolescence and stabilizes in adulthood, when individuals develop the ability to reason based on internalized values rather than external authority. In an ideal scenario, this developmental process would be nurtured through consistent moral education within families and school settings. However, contemporary social realities often hinder this process. The progressively intensifying process of fragmentation of family life, shortcomings in educational systems, and exposure to contradictory moral messages in media and public life all contribute to the confusion about moral norms [ 26 , 44 ]. Environmental psychology further stresses that moral behavior emerges from continuous interaction between individuals and their surroundings [ 45 ], making the study of these environmental factors essential for understanding moral growth. Identifying the key periods and contexts that influence moral development is therefore critical. The present study seeks to examine how moral competence changes during adolescence and how selected environmental factors – such as religion, education, parents, PE teacher, peers, and media – shape this process. Specifically, it addresses the following three research questions: Does the level of moral competence among adolescents change during secondary school education? If so, does it increase or decrease over time? Which of the selected environmental factors significantly influence these changes? To answer these questions, a three-wave longitudinal study was conducted among secondary school students to analyze changes in moral competence over time and to identify the environmental determinants shaping adolescents’ moral reasoning and development. Material and Methods The research employed a longitudinal study methodology, as pronounced by Caruana et al. [ 46 ], to investigate phenomena of moral competence development. Such studies are characterized by their comprehensive and time-consuming nature; however, the data acquired through them form a spectrum of variables enabling precise observation of evolving changes, particularly within the realm of moral competence levels. Longitudinal research allows, among others, for the examination of the extent to which the behavior under investigation is biologically determined, as well as for the analysis of individual differences and the identification of universal developmental structures, including developmental stages. The described longitudinal studies were conducted as part of a four-year research project (see Fig. 1 ). The study involved the sample of participants (N = 209) from randomly selected secondary schools in the Wielkopolska (Greater Poland) region in Poland (57.2% boys, 48.8% girls aged 15–19). These participants were followed throughout the next four years over the span of the secondary school level (from 2020 to 2024 year) during which they took part in the three consecutive measurements. Participation in all three waves of the survey was entirely voluntary. To maintain the voluntary character of participation and ensure the longitudinal consistency of the dataset, only respondents who completed the study at all three measurement points were included in the final statistical analyses. As a result, the final response rate represented 63.3% of the original sample (N = 392). The results of the remaining participants, who took part only in the first (N = 139) or the first and second time points of the study (N = 44), were not included in the statistical analysis. Within the project framework, a survey technique was employed, utilizing a diagnostic questionnaire. To assess these dimensions, two complementary tools were used: first, the Moral Competence Test (MCT) proposed by Lind [ 47 ], which measures an individual’s ability to apply moral principles consistently in decision-making; and second, the Moral Influence Scale (MIS), designed to capture the extent to which external social factors – such as peers, adults, and institutional norms – shape a person’s moral judgments and behaviors [ 27 ]. Research tool Measurement of Moral Competence Moral competence was assessed using Lind’s Moral Competence Test (MCT) [ 47 ]. For this study, a validated and certified Polish version of the MCT was employed [ 48 ]. Participants were presented with two moral dilemmas (i.e., the worker’s dilemma and the doctor’s dilemma) and asked to evaluate a series of statements by indicating their level of agreement or disagreement. Responses were recorded on a nine-point Likert-type scale, ranging from − 4 (totally disagree) to + 4 (totally agree). Each dilemma comprised 12 statements, with six supporting and six opposing the proposed behavior. These statements corresponded to one of the six stages of moral development as outlined by Kohlberg [ 17 ]. The moral competence score represented by the Community Index (C-Index), is calculated on a scale from 1 to 100. This index quantifies an individual’s ability to assess arguments based on their moral quality, reflecting the extent to which moral principles influence personal judgments rather than subjective opinions. C-Index scores are categorized as follows: extremely low (< 9), low (10–19), medium (20–29), high (30–39), very high (40–49), and extremely high (≥ 50). For the purposes of this study, participants were classified into three levels of moral competence: low (≤ 19), medium (20–29), and high (> 29). Cronbach’s Alpha for the scale was 0.89. According to empirical research on moral judgment, four basic assumptions must be met for the MCT to be considered valid and reliable [ 49 ]. Justifying the above, it should be emphasized that the specificity of Lind’s MCT lays in the fact that it is not a classical psychometric instrument based on a unidimensional scale measuring a single trait. Rather, it bears repeating that the MCT was designed to assess moral argumentation competence – that is, an individual’s ability to engage in moral reasoning, rather than merely expressing agreement or disagreement with the moral content presented in the test. Moreover, the test evaluates the consistency with which individuals judge moral arguments, regardless of whether these arguments support or oppose a given stance. This is achieved through the use of aforementioned two distinct moral dilemmas, each accompanied by arguments constructed at various levels of moral development according to Kohlberg’s theory [ 17 ]. As such, the MCT does not assume high internal correlations between all items, as is typical in standard psychometric tests. Its primary aim is to measure the internal consistency of moral evaluations, rather than the content agreement across items. Moral Influence Scale (MIS) To examine the role of various environmental factors in shaping moral competences, an 8-item scale was developed by the authors specifically for the purposes of this kind of study [ 27 ]. The scale was introduced with the question: “What/who has influenced your moral competences?” and comprised the following items: religion (e.g., faith in God or in someone/something), school education, parents, PE teacher, peers, media, hobbies, and other influences. Participants responded on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (i.e., not at all) to 5 (i.e., very much). The internal consistency of the scale, as assessed by Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.63. Although this value is below the commonly recommended threshold of 0.70 for established measures, it is considered acceptable for exploratory research, particularly when investigating newly developed instruments [ 50 ]. Data analyses Due to the lack of normality in the data, as confirmed by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (p < 0.05), a comparative analysis of changes over time was conducted using nonparametric methods. For all three waves of the study (Wave 1 – W1, Wave 2 – W2, Wave 3 – W3), frequencies and percentages of participants in each moral competence category (Low, Medium, High) were calculated. Within-subject changes between consecutive waves (W1 vs W2 and W2 vs W3) were analyzed using McNemar’s test, which is appropriate for assessing changes in paired categorical data over time. Absolute and percentage changes in each category were computed, and the proportion of participants showing an increase in moral competence was reported. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Furthermore, interrelationships among the factors influencing moral competence were examined. As the data did not meet the assumptions for parametric testing, Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient was used to assess associations between the selected variables. The strength of correlations was interpreted following Cohen’s guidelines, with coefficients of r ≤ 0.39 considered weak, r = 0.40–0.59 moderate, and r ≥ 0.60 strong. To further explore how different levels of moral competence (Low, Medium, High) relate to the selected predictors, separate regression analyses were conducted for each level of the C-Index. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. All analyses were performed using Statistica, version 13.0 (TIBCO Software Inc.). Ethics The research protocol was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the Karol Marcinkowski University of Medical Sciences in Poznań (decision no. 893/18) prior to the commencement of the study. All procedures performed were consistent with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki as revised in World Medical Association [ 51 ]. Prior to the study, all participants were thoroughly informed about the study’s objectives, potential risks, and anticipated benefits. Written parental consent was obtained for each participant, and all participants had been explicitly informed that their participation was voluntary and that their responses would remain anonymous. They were also asked to provide honest and accurate responses and assured that the data collected and the resulting findings would be used exclusively for research purposes. After completing the organizational procedures, participants were asked to fill out the questionnaire during in-person sessions conducted in whole-class groups under standard classroom conditions. Each survey session took approximately 25–30 minutes to complete. The assessment was carried out three times (i.e., Waves, W), with consistent intervals of twenty months between each wave (see Fig. 1 ). Results The analysis of moral competence levels (MCL) across the three measurement points (W1, W2, W3) presented in Table 1 showed that at W1, first measurement, the majority of participants exhibited a low MCL (N = 131, 63%). At W2, conducted 20 months later, this proportion increased slightly to 137 participants (66%), but the change from W1 to W2 was not statistically significant (p = 0.320). During this interval, 39% of participants (N = 82) showed some change in moral competence, but only 22% (N = 36) demonstrated an improvement (Δ% = +4%). Substantial changes were observed between W2 and W3, measured (40 months after the first assessment). At W3, the number of participants with low MCL decreased from 137 to 115 (55%; Δ% = − 8%), while the proportion of participants with medium MCL increased from 18% to 26% (Δ% = +8%) and those with high MCL increased from 16% to 19% (Δ% = +3%). Overall, 42% of participants (N = 88) experienced a change in MCL between W2 and W3, with 32% (N = 53) showing the improvement. These differences were statistically significant (p < 0.001). The results indicate a gradual, cumulative increase in moral competence over the 40-month period. Table 1. Changes of Moral Competence Levels Across Three Measurement Points (W1, W2, W3). Notes: MCL – moral competence level, V1 – first wave, W2 – second wave, W3 – third wave, p – p value, * – significant Correlational analysis In the next stage of the analysis, we examined the relationships between variables by calculating Spearman’s rank-order correlations separately for adolescents with low, medium, and high levels of moral competence (see Table 2 ). Table 2 Correlation matrix according to the level of moral competences in youth. Variable C-Index Religion Education Parents PE Teacher Peers Media Low MCL (N = 131) Madia C-Index 0.16 0.01 0.03 0.07 -0.03 -0.01 Religion 0.27 0.25 0.28 0.12 0.19 Education 0.39* 0.29 0.26 0.30 Parents 0.17 0.22 0.34 PE Teacher 0.23 0.20 Peers 0.60* Medium MCL (N = 36) C-Index 0.34 -0.31 -0.04 -0.11 -0.19 -0.08 Religion -0.12 -0.15 -0.04 -0.20 -0.06 Education 0.18 0.11 0.01 0.34 Parents -0.22 -0.04 0.06 PE Teacher 0.12 0.10 Peers 0.57* Madia High MCL (N = 42) C-Index 0.01 -0.07 0.04 0.15 0.37 0.25 Religion -0.08 0.15 0.19 -0.23 -0.08 Education 0.04 0.14 0.06 0.01 Parents -0.07 0.08 0.11 PE Teacher 0.13 0.05 Peers 0.64* Media * – p < 0.05; correlation ≤ 0.39 weak; 0.40–0.59 moderate; and ≥ 0.60 strong For the low moral competence group, weak, but positive associations were observed between the C-Index and religion (r = 0.16) as well as PE teacher (r = 0.07), although none reached statistical significance. The strongest correlation within this group was found between peers and media (r = 0.60, p < 0.05), suggesting that these environmental factors may interact in shaping shared attitudes and behaviors rather than directly influencing moral reasoning. In the medium moral competence group, the correlations between the C-Index and contextual variables were generally weak and non-significant. The only notable association appeared again between peers and media (r = 0.57, p < 0.05), indicating that peer communication and media exposure may be interrelated influences in this developmental stage. Interestingly, a negative (though non-significant) correlation emerged between religion and education (r = − 0.12), which may reflect diverse socialization contexts and patterns among adolescents. For the high moral competence group, no significant relationships were found between the C-Index and any of the external factors. However, moderate positive correlations were observed between C-Index and PE teacher (r = 0.37, p < 0.05), and between peers and media (r = 0.64, p < 0.05), suggesting that at more advanced stages of moral development, interpersonal and communicative contexts remain relevant but may operate through more indirect mechanisms of influence. Regression analysis Regression analysis for the C-Index showed that models for the low and high levels could not be estimated due to insufficient variance. For the medium level, the model yielded R = 0.366, R² = 0.082, F(2,33) = 2.556, p = 0.093, SE = 2.741. Only Religion was found to be a significant predictor (p = 0.04), whereas Parents (p = 0.15) and Education (p = 0.20) were not. These results indicate that religious factors may play a more prominent role in predicting medium levels of moral competence than parental or educational influences. Discussion The results of this longitudinal study indicate that significant changes in moral competence levels (MCL) occurred primarily between the second (W2) and third (W3) measurement points, suggesting a gradual and cumulative pattern of moral development [ 52 , 7 ]. No significant differences were observed between the first (W1) and second measurements (W2), indicating minimal initial changes, which aligns with Kohlberg’s [ 4 ] theory that moral development is a stepwise process dependent on accumulated experiences and reflection on social norms. These findings highlight that adolescents’ natural moral development might be closely linked to educational and socio-emotional experiences. As shown in Table 1, the proportion of participants with low MCL decreased from 131 (63%) at W1 to 115 (55%) at W3, while the percentage of participants with medium and high MCL increased from 18% to 26% and 16% to 19%, respectively. This pattern reflects the natural progression of moral competence during schooling and is consistent with prior research indicating that systematic educational experiences and social interactions strengthen moral and social competencies [ 53 , 54 ]. Notably, participants with lower initial MCL demonstrated the greatest relative growth, consistent with the developmental potential theory and the “catch-up” effect in moral competence [ 55 , 56 ]. These findings underscore the significance of long-term, natural moral development during adolescence. In a six-year longitudinal study, Krettenauer et al. [ 57 ] examined the development of moral emotions and decision-making in adolescents aged 15 to 21. They found that, as participants matured, the likelihood of experiencing positive emotions following morally salient choices increased, indicating that moral processes undergo systematic development and transformation throughout adolescence and into early adulthood. Furthermore, regular school experiences and everyday social interactions were shown to support adolescents’ progression toward higher levels of moral competence, even in the absence of formal educational interventions [ 4 ]. In addition, Gini et al. [ 58 ], examining moral identity and the internalization of moral principles, reported that during adolescence, moral norms and regulations tend to become increasingly internalized and cognitively sophisticated compared to childhood. This developmental stage involves a deeper understanding of complex issues, including the well-being of others, justice, and human rights, highlighting adolescence as a pivotal period for the development of advanced moral competencies. Further, Spearman’s rank-order correlations, calculated separately for participants with low, medium, and high MCL (see Table 2 ), provide additional evidence. The correlational patterns observed across the three competence levels provide valuable insight into how environmental factors relate to adolescents’ moral development. Among individuals with low moral competence, the weak but positive associations with religion and PE teacher suggest an initial, externally guided orientation toward moral norms. This corresponds with the pre-conventional and conventional stages of moral reasoning described by Kohlberg [ 52 ]. They are also consistent with previous research highlighting adolescence as a key developmental period for the consolidation of moral identity and the internalization of moral norms. During this stage, moral values become increasingly integrated into the individual’s self-concept, fostering more autonomous moral regulation and prosocial behavior. Similar patterns have been reported in contemporary studies on moral development among adolescents [e.g., 59; 60]. Moreover, an interesting finding concerns the role of religion related to previous study [ 27 ]. Among participants with low moral competence, religion was attributed a level of importance in shaping moral development comparable to that of the PE teacher. This observation is noteworthy in the Polish context, a country traditionally characterized by strong Catholic roots. However, no significant correlations with other factors were identified. This pattern may reflect broader socio-cultural changes associated with Poland’s democratic transformation over the past decades [ 61 ], as younger generations appear to be gradually weakening their traditional ties with the Church, despite the continued presence of religious education in schools. Then the significant correlation between peers and media indicates that social and communicative environments interact strongly at this developmental level, reinforcing shared attitudes rather than promoting autonomous moral reflection. In the context of Poland, some empirical evidence supports the notion that peer relations and digital media interact in shaping adolescent socialization and moral outlooks. Research on peer‑group dynamics emphasizes that during adolescence, peer relationships are a critical developmental factor – not only can peers model maladaptive behaviors, but they can also reinforce shared norms through mutual influence rather than encourage individual moral reflection [ 62 ]. Moreover, previous studies of Polish youth highlight that social comparison on social media, especially in relation to values and self‑identity, contributes to normative pressures around behavior and morality [ 63 ]. These findings suggest that communicative (media) and social environments (peer networks) strongly interact during adolescence in Poland, potentially limiting opportunities for deep, intrinsic autonomous moral reasoning. In the group with medium moral competence, moral reasoning appears to be in a transitional phase. The overall low and non-significant correlations between the C-Index and environmental variables suggest a gradual shift from external regulation toward more internalized moral frameworks. The negative correlation tendency between religion and education may reflect diverse socialization patterns where moral discourse becomes more individualized. These findings are consistent with previous research conducted in the Polish context, which similarly reports weak, inconsistent, or transitional links between moral competence and environmental or socialization variables. For example, Nowak et al. [ 64 ] demonstrated that religious and ethical affiliations produce heterogeneous and segmented effects on the C-Index, suggesting that adolescents and young adults may rely on increasingly individualized moral frameworks rather than externally imposed norms. Likewise, studies examining moral education among Polish medical students [e.g., 65, 66] show that while social and familial influences remain present, their predictive power weakens as individuals move toward more autonomous forms of moral reasoning. Finally, recent analyses using the MCT in Central Europe [e.g., 67] confirm that associations between religiosity, educational environment, and moral competence tend to be low or statistically non-significant, reinforcing the interpretation that individuals in the medium-competence group are undergoing a gradual internalization of moral norms rather than relying on external regulation. For adolescents with high moral competence, the lack of significant correlations between the C-Index and external factors may indicate increased autonomy and self-reflection. Moderate associations between PE teacher and the C-Index, and between peers and media, suggest that social context remain relevant but functions more as catalysts for reflection rather than direct source or reference in terms of moral norms. These results align with Rest et al. [ 43 ] conception of moral competence as an integrative ability combining cognitive, affective, and contextual inputs into independent moral judgment. From the theoretical point of view the present results can be interpreted within established theories of moral development. Kohlberg’s stage theory [ 17 ] suggests that moral reasoning evolves from externally oriented conformity toward autonomous judgment based on internalized ethical principles. The decreasing strength of environmental correlations across competence levels supports this progression. Then in Rest et al. [ 43 ] four-component model, moral competence reflects the interaction of sensitivity, judgment, motivation, and character. Religion and PE teacher appear influential in early stages, whereas later development involves critical evaluation and integration of such frameworks. From Bandura et al. [ 6 ] social-cognitive perspective, the link between peers and media illustrates the role of social modeling in moral learning. The weakening of this link at higher levels indicates a shift toward self-regulated morality. Finally, Narvaez & Vaydich’s [ 68 ] concept of moral expertise emphasizes the role of contextual experience and reflection. The decreasing environmental impact observed here may signify the transition from guided to self-directed moral functioning. In addition to natural development, moral competence in adolescents can be actively fostered through evidence-based educational strategies. Recent studies indicate that adapting PE curricula to include experiential and reflective learning, as well as integrating moral and social competence content, significantly enhances students’ ethical reasoning and social skills [ 69 , 70 ]. Supportive teacher – student relationships further promote moral sensitivity and ethical behavior, while individualized approaches that encourage empathy, ethical reflection, and self-regulated decision-making outperform traditional instruction in cultivating advanced moral reasoning [ 71 , 72 ]. Taken together, these findings highlight that a multi-faceted approach, including pedagogical innovation, teacher development, and structured opportunities for moral engagement, can effectively strengthen adolescents’ moral competence, complementing the natural developmental processes observed longitudinally. Therefore the results of this study have important implications for moral and educational practice. They suggest that adolescents’ moral competence can be strengthened through environments that encourage ethical reflection, dialogue, and value-based decision-making. Schools should consider integrating moral education and character development programs into their curricula, emphasizing empathy, social responsibility, and perspective-taking. Family environments that promote open discussion about moral issues and model prosocial behavior can further enhance these effects. By fostering such contexts, educators and parents can play a pivotal role in supporting adolescents’ transition toward more autonomous and reflective moral reasoning. Future research should explore the longitudinal and interactive effects of cognitive, social, and cultural factors on the development of moral competence. Particular attention should be given to the role of education systems, peer influence, and digital environments in shaping adolescents’ moral understanding. Expanding cross-cultural comparisons would also provide valuable insight into how cultural norms and belief systems influence moral reasoning patterns. Moreover, applying mixed-methods designs and advanced modeling techniques could deepen our understanding of how individual and contextual variables jointly contribute to moral growth. Conclusions This longitudinal study demonstrated that adolescents’ moral competence gradually improves over time, with a notable increase in medium levels of moral reasoning. The findings confirm that moral development is a complex process shaped not only by individual cognitive maturation but also by contextual and environmental influences. Among the examined predictors, religion emerged as a significant factor, suggesting that moral belief systems and reflective engagement with values may strengthen moral understanding. Although the observed association was relatively weak, the identification of the PE teacher as a relevant factor highlights the potential importance of sport-related educational contexts in moral development. Future research should therefore incorporate variables related to adolescents’ engagement in sport, both at recreational and competitive levels, to more comprehensively examine how sport participation may contribute to the development of moral competencies. The results highlight the importance of integrating moral and ethical education into both family and school settings to support adolescents’ moral growth as an important component of not only mental health but also social well-being. Future research should further investigate the interplay between personal, educational, and cultural variables to better understand the mechanisms that promote moral competence development. Limitations Despite its valuable contributions, this study has some limitations. The sample was limited to adolescents from a specific educational and cultural context, which may restrict generalizability. The use of self-report measures could introduce response bias or social desirability effects. Additionally, the small number of participants with high moral competence, due to the voluntary nature of the study, limited the estimation of regression models for that group. Future studies should employ more diverse samples and complementary methodologies, such as qualitative or behavioral assessments, to gain a deeper understanding of moral competence development mechanisms. Abbreviations PE – Physical Education MIS – Moral Influence Scale MCT – Moral competence Test C-Index – Community Index W (1-3) – Wave MCL – Moral Competence Level Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The research protocol was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the Karol Marcinkowski University of Medical Sciences in Poznań (decision no. 893/18). Then written informed consent was obtained from all participants, and parental/guardian consent was secured for each participant where applicable. All consent documents are in the author’s possession. Consent for publication Not Applicable Data availability The datasets used and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The author declare no competing interests. Funding Open access funding provided by Poznan University of Physical Education. Although the information in the manuscript and on a electronic form may seem contradictory, I would like to clarify that at the time the paper is accepted for publication, the relevant university authorities provide funding for the article. Author contributions Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Review & Editing – MB; Validation, Supervision – MB; Investigation, Writing – Original Draft – MB; Visualization – MB; Project Administration – MB; Funding Acquisition, Software, Formal Analysis, Resources, Data Curation – N/A. Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Magdalena Lewandowska, Head of the Computational Section, for her insightful statistical consultations, which contributed to the development of this publication. Authors' information Małgorzata Bronikowska – an Associate Professor. Her research focuses on sport pedagogy and physical education, with particular emphasis on the moral dimensions of youth. She specializes in assessing and developing moral competence among adolescents through sport and educational interventions. She has authored numerous publications on moral development and active lifestyles in educational and intercultural contexts, and is actively involved in international research collaborations. References Bentahila L, Fontaine R, Pennequin V. Universality and cultural diversity in moral reasoning and judgment. Front Psychol. 2021;12:764360. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.764360 . Cowell JM, Decety J. Precursors to morality in development as a complex interplay between neural, socioenvironmental, and behavioral facets. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112(41):12657–62. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1508832112 . Limone P, Toto GA. Origin and development of moral sense: a systematic review. Front Psychol. 2022;13:887537. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.887537 . Kohlberg L. The philosophy of moral development: moral stages and the idea of justice. San Francisco: Harper & Row; 1981. Haidt J. The emotional dog and its rational tail: a social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. 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Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17:5324. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155324 . Power FC, Higgins-D’Alessandro A. The just community approach to moral education. In: Nucci L, Narvaez D, editors. Moral and character education. New York: Routledge; 2008. pp. 230–47. Piaget J. To understand is to invent: the future of education. New York: Penguin Books; 1973. Piaget J. The moral judgment of the child. London: Routledge; 2013. McLaughlin KA, Sheridan MA, Nelson CA. Neglect as a violation of species-expectant experience: neurodevelopmental consequences. Biol Psychiatry. 2017;82(7):462–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.02.1096 . Han H. Analyzing theoretical frameworks of moral education. J Moral Educ. 2014;43:32–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.02.1096 . Mouratidou K. Supporting students’ moral development through physical education. Prog Educ. 2010;18:99–117. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11247064 . Rest JR. Development in judging moral issues. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press; 1979. Rest J, Narvaez D, Bebeau M, Thoma S. A neo-Kohlbergian approach. Educ Psychol Rev. 1999;11:291–324. Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej. Polacy o wychowaniu dzieci. Warszawa: CBOS; 2022. https://www.cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2022/K_125_22.PDF?utm_source=chatgpt.com . Chow JY, Davids K, Button C, Shuttleworth R, Renshaw I, Araújo D. The role of nonlinear pedagogy in physical education. Rev Educ Res. 2007;77:251–78. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430305615 . Caruana EJ, Roman M, Hernández-Sánchez J, Solli P. Longitudinal studies. J Thorac Dis. 2015;7(11):E537. https://doi.org/10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2015.10.63 . Lind G. How to teach morality. Berlin: Logos; 2016. Nowak E. Demokracja zaczyna się w umyśle. Principia. 2013;57–58:23–40. https://doi.org/10.4467/20843887PI.14.002.1526 . Lind G. Review and appraisal of the Moral Judgment Test [Internet]. 2000 [cited 2026 Mar 26]. Available from: www.unikonstanz.de. Nunnally JC, Bernstein IH. Psychometric theory. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1994. World Medical Association. Declaration of Helsinki. JAMA. 2013;310(20):2191–4. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 . Kohlberg L. The psychology of moral development. Ethics. 1987;97(2):441–56. https://doi.org/10.1086/292850 . Durlak JA, Weissberg RP, Dymnicki AB, Taylor RD, Schellinger KB. The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning. Child Dev. 2011;82(1):405–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x . Kirkpatrick DL, Kirkpatrick JD. Evaluating training programs. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler; 2006. Hattie J. Visible learning. London: Routledge; 2009. Guskey TR. Professional development and teacher change. Teach Teach. 2002;8(3):381–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/135406002100000512 . Krettenauer T, Colasante T, Buchmann M, Malti T. Development of moral emotions. J Youth Adolesc. 2014;43(4):583–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9994-5 . Gini G, Thornberg R, Bussey K, Angelini F, Pozzoli T. Longitudinal links of morality and aggression. J Youth Adolesc. 2022;51(3):524–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01518-9 . Hardy SA, Carlo G. Moral identity. Child Dev Perspect. 2011;5(3):212–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00189.x . Krettenauer T, Hertz S. What develops in moral identities? Hum Dev. 2015;58(3):137–53. https://doi.org/10.1159/000433502 . Borowik I. The Roman Catholic Church in democratic transformation. Soc Compass. 2002;49(2):239–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768602049002008 . Jankowiak B, Matysiak-Błaszczyk A. Ryzyko i ochrona w środowisku rówieśniczym. Stud Eduk. 2019;(53):59–73. Szega I. Profilaktyka zachowań ryzykownych młodzieży. Kultura i Wychowanie. 2024;1(25):139–48. Nowak E, Barciszewska AM, Lind G, Hemmerling K, Taradi SK. Giving moral competence high priority in medical education. Ethics Prog. 2021;12(1):104–33. https://doi.org/10.14746/eip.2021.1.9 . Rzymska I, Rzymski P, Wilczak M, Wloszczak-Szubzda A, Jarosz MJ, Musielak M. Influence of moral training on competence. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2014;21(1):161–6. https://doi.org/10.5604/1232-1966.1108599 . Steć M, Kulik MM. Psycho-didactic approach in moral education. Religions. 2021;12(6):424. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12060424 . Salej Higgins S, Vega Sanabria G, Unger RB, et al. Social network approach to moral competence. Ethics Prog. 2023;14(1):144–68. https://doi.org/10.14746/eip.2023.1.9 . Narvaez D, Vaydich JL. Moral development and neurobiology. J Moral Educ. 2008;37(3):289–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240802227478 . Ludwiczak M, Parry J, Bronikowska M. Improving moral competence in adolescents. J Sports Med Phys Fit. 2024;64(6):599–608. https://doi.org/10.23736/s0022-4707.23.15695-7 . Bronikowska M, Mouratidou K, Ludwiczak M, et al. Systematic review on moral competence interventions. Biomed Hum Kinet. 2024;16:55–77. https://doi.org/10.2478/bhk-2024-0007 . Yang S, Zhang H, Zhu X, et al. Teacher-student relationship and moral sensitivity. Humanit Soc Sci Commun. 2025;12:272. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04632-2 . Wang X, Kong Q, Ouyang M. Teacher-student relationships and prosocial behaviors. J Youth Adolesc. 2026;55(3):624–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-025-02236-2 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 14 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 17 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 16 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 16 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 09 Apr, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 09 Apr, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 09 Apr, 2026 First submitted to journal 09 Apr, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9278671","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":624966152,"identity":"5f6b3ea4-d05c-4f71-b90a-fe9837938d49","order_by":0,"name":"Małgorzata Bronikowska","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAxCRcABI8DAwPmBgkENI8RGhhRnIMUZIseHTwgDRwiZBlBZz6cPHHjw4Y5M4v+fws4qfbQYM5uztzx783MGQh0uLZV9aukHCjbTEDWfbzG72ArVY9hxIN+w9w1CM02FneMwkEj4czt3Az2B2g3fbHwaDGwnHJHjbGBLbCGmZ38/+rfDvNgOglsQ2yb8Etdw4nNtwtseMmResJZlNGp8tlj1saRIJZ9LqN5w5Uywt+8+Ax7LnGJu0bJsETr+Y8zAfk/xxzMZYvid948c3ZwzkQCEm+bbNJo8fhxYMwAOJKQaJBGJ1wCIXmCSI1zIKRsEoGAXDHAAARt1ZlDuC6/oAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Poznań University of Physical Education","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Małgorzata","middleName":"","lastName":"Bronikowska","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-31 10:53:42","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9278671/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9278671/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":107625807,"identity":"28bf6efe-6ad5-412c-aa28-a4d51efb0cd4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-23 10:36:17","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16403,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStages of the longitudinal study.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9278671/v1/2f53ee4a1710b4f45d390273.png"},{"id":107705781,"identity":"3b47e9c0-cc7a-4d43-98f7-f3956c63a3a0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-24 09:15:15","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":415101,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9278671/v1/eeb062e3-cd80-4773-a57c-8638b5b899c2.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Understanding Moral Growth in Adolescence: Evidence from a Multi-Wave Longitudinal Study","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn recent decades, a troubling devaluation of moral values has been observed worldwide. Despite the seriousness of this phenomenon, it has not yet received adequate recognition or comprehensive understanding among researchers and educators. Therefore, I undertook cross-sectional research in order to contribute to the clarification of this problem.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the outset, it is worth recalling what morality is. Morality is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], that has occupied human reflection since the beginning of civilization. Its development depends on both internal factors such as motivation, emotion, intention, and cognition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], and external ones, including social norms, cultural expectations, and peer or institutional influences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Throughout history, different cultures have established their own moral systems, such as Confucian ethics, hwarang do, kalos kagathos, fair play, ubuntu, and Judeo-Christian or Islamic ethics, to guide the behavior of their communities and ensure social order [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. In the contemporary world, ethical norms are subject to growing contestation, as behaviors once considered morally impermissible are increasingly framed as acceptable and, consequently, normalized [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. This phenomenon has sparked growing concern among scholars and educators about the apparent decline in moral responsibility and integrity in modern societies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. When addressing morality in a research context, particular emphasis should be placed on the role of moral competence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoral competence is understood as the ability to resolve conflicts and make decisions through reasoning based on ethical principles and dialogue [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. It signifies more than mere knowledge or social conformity, encompassing an understanding of moral principles, their practical application, and responsibility for one\u0026rsquo;s choices. One of the most critical challenges in this regard is not only the preservation but also the development of moral competence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The concept has deep philosophical roots: Socrates connected moral virtue with the pursuit and knowledge of the good [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], and later Levy-Suhl [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] described this capacity as moral maturity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom birth and throughout adolescence, moral learning occurs largely through imitation of adults, especially parents and educators of all kinds [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. In this regard physical education (PE) teachers occupy a particularly important role, as their work allows them to observe students in dynamic social and competitive situations that naturally require moral decision-making, including rule adherence, fair play, cooperation, and respect for peers. Their sustained engagement often fosters closer teacher \u0026ndash; student relationships, which can further support the development of moral competence. These observations are consistent with previous research demonstrating that sports environments and PE classes promote essential moral and social values, such as honesty, responsibility, and empathy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. In this context also Bandura\u0026rsquo;s social learning theory [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] emphasizes that modeling, rather than verbal instruction alone, is crucial for developing moral behavior. Yet, inconsistencies between adults\u0026rsquo; expectations and their actions often undermine moral education of younger generations. Children quickly recognize discrepancies between words and behaviors, which weakens their trust and negatively impacts their moral development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Compounding this issue, both parents and teachers frequently lack sufficient preparation to address everyday moral dilemmas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, sociological and psychological research indicates that contemporary youth increasingly exhibit a relativistic and individualized approach to moral norms, which is reflected in the selective application of ethical principles and greater tolerance toward behaviors that violate traditional social norms. At the same time, judgments about right and wrong during adolescence are significantly shaped by peer influence and by the pluralism of contemporary value systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical studies support the importance of social relationships for moral growth. Speicher [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] found that adolescents who experienced warm, communicative relationships with parents showed higher increases in moral competence than those raised in emotionally distant or neglectful environments. Similarly, a lack of close bonds during childhood can lead to hostility and impaired moral reasoning, as Freud argued when describing how weak early attachments hinder the formation of the superego [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Other research confirms that many young people today exhibit low levels of moral competence [35; 36]. While such findings may reflect the natural pace of moral development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], they underline the importance of educational contexts that actively foster moral reflection and responsibility [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Drawing on earlier research conducted by Piaget [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] adolescents develop autonomy through cooperation, dialogue, and mutual understanding \u0026ndash; conditions often missing in modern educational systems. The increasing deprivation of sensory and social experiences, combined with limited contact with significant \u0026ldquo;role modeling\u0026rdquo; adults, negatively affects cognitive and moral growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe theoretical foundation of this study is based on Kohlberg\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] stage theory of moral development, extended by neo-Kohlbergian perspectives [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning evolves through three universal levels, pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional, each encompassing distinct stages of moral understanding. Although these stages are sequential and universal, the rate of one\u0026rsquo;s progress depends on age, education, and environmental influences. Importantly, not all individuals reach the post-conventional stage, characterized by reasoning based on universal ethical principles. Kohlberg [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] also noted that adolescents may exhibit temporary declines in moral reasoning as they balance conformity with growing autonomy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. Rest\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e] later research refined that perspective, showing that moral competence typically rises through adolescence and stabilizes in adulthood, when individuals develop the ability to reason based on internalized values rather than external authority.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn an ideal scenario, this developmental process would be nurtured through consistent moral education within families and school settings. However, contemporary social realities often hinder this process. The progressively intensifying process of fragmentation of family life, shortcomings in educational systems, and exposure to contradictory moral messages in media and public life all contribute to the confusion about moral norms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. Environmental psychology further stresses that moral behavior emerges from continuous interaction between individuals and their surroundings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e], making the study of these environmental factors essential for understanding moral growth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentifying the key periods and contexts that influence moral development is therefore critical. The present study seeks to examine how moral competence changes during adolescence and how selected environmental factors \u0026ndash; such as religion, education, parents, PE teacher, peers, and media \u0026ndash; shape this process. Specifically, it addresses the following three research questions:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoes the level of moral competence among adolescents change during secondary school education? If so, does it increase or decrease over time? Which of the selected environmental factors significantly influence these changes?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo answer these questions, a three-wave longitudinal study was conducted among secondary school students to analyze changes in moral competence over time and to identify the environmental determinants shaping adolescents\u0026rsquo; moral reasoning and development.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe research employed a longitudinal study methodology, as pronounced by Caruana et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], to investigate phenomena of moral competence development. Such studies are characterized by their comprehensive and time-consuming nature; however, the data acquired through them form a spectrum of variables enabling precise observation of evolving changes, particularly within the realm of moral competence levels. Longitudinal research allows, among others, for the examination of the extent to which the behavior under investigation is biologically determined, as well as for the analysis of individual differences and the identification of universal developmental structures, including developmental stages. The described longitudinal studies were conducted as part of a four-year research project (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study involved the sample of participants (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;209) from randomly selected secondary schools in the Wielkopolska (Greater Poland) region in Poland (57.2% boys, 48.8% girls aged 15\u0026ndash;19). These participants were followed throughout the next four years over the span of the secondary school level (from 2020 to 2024 year) during which they took part in the three consecutive measurements. Participation in all three waves of the survey was entirely voluntary. To maintain the voluntary character of participation and ensure the longitudinal consistency of the dataset, only respondents who completed the study at all three measurement points were included in the final statistical analyses. As a result, the final response rate represented 63.3% of the original sample (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;392). The results of the remaining participants, who took part only in the first (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;139) or the first and second time points of the study (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;44), were not included in the statistical analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the project framework, a survey technique was employed, utilizing a diagnostic questionnaire. To assess these dimensions, two complementary tools were used: first, the Moral Competence Test (MCT) proposed by Lind [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e], which measures an individual\u0026rsquo;s ability to apply moral principles consistently in decision-making; and second, the Moral Influence Scale (MIS), designed to capture the extent to which external social factors \u0026ndash; such as peers, adults, and institutional norms \u0026ndash; shape a person\u0026rsquo;s moral judgments and behaviors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch tool\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasurement of Moral Competence\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoral competence was assessed using Lind\u0026rsquo;s Moral Competence Test (MCT) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. For this study, a validated and certified Polish version of the MCT was employed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. Participants were presented with two moral dilemmas (i.e., the worker\u0026rsquo;s dilemma and the doctor\u0026rsquo;s dilemma) and asked to evaluate a series of statements by indicating their level of agreement or disagreement. Responses were recorded on a nine-point Likert-type scale, ranging from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4 (totally disagree) to +\u0026thinsp;4 (totally agree). Each dilemma comprised 12 statements, with six supporting and six opposing the proposed behavior. These statements corresponded to one of the six stages of moral development as outlined by Kohlberg [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe moral competence score represented by the Community Index (C-Index), is calculated on a scale from 1 to 100. This index quantifies an individual\u0026rsquo;s ability to assess arguments based on their moral quality, reflecting the extent to which moral principles influence personal judgments rather than subjective opinions. C-Index scores are categorized as follows: extremely low (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;9), low (10\u0026ndash;19), medium (20\u0026ndash;29), high (30\u0026ndash;39), very high (40\u0026ndash;49), and extremely high (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;50). For the purposes of this study, participants were classified into three levels of moral competence: low (\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;19), medium (20\u0026ndash;29), and high (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;29). Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s Alpha for the scale was 0.89. According to empirical research on moral judgment, four basic assumptions must be met for the MCT to be considered valid and reliable [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. Justifying the above, it should be emphasized that the specificity of Lind\u0026rsquo;s MCT lays in the fact that it is not a classical psychometric instrument based on a unidimensional scale measuring a single trait. Rather, it bears repeating that the MCT was designed to assess moral argumentation competence \u0026ndash; that is, an individual\u0026rsquo;s ability to engage in moral reasoning, rather than merely expressing agreement or disagreement with the moral content presented in the test. Moreover, the test evaluates the consistency with which individuals judge moral arguments, regardless of whether these arguments support or oppose a given stance. This is achieved through the use of aforementioned two distinct moral dilemmas, each accompanied by arguments constructed at various levels of moral development according to Kohlberg\u0026rsquo;s theory [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. As such, the MCT does not assume high internal correlations between all items, as is typical in standard psychometric tests. Its primary aim is to measure the internal consistency of moral evaluations, rather than the content agreement across items.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMoral Influence Scale (MIS)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo examine the role of various environmental factors in shaping moral competences, an 8-item scale was developed by the authors specifically for the purposes of this kind of study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. The scale was introduced with the question: \u0026ldquo;What/who has influenced your moral competences?\u0026rdquo; and comprised the following items: religion (e.g., faith in God or in someone/something), school education, parents, PE teacher, peers, media, hobbies, and other influences. Participants responded on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (i.e., not at all) to 5 (i.e., very much). The internal consistency of the scale, as assessed by Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha, was 0.63. Although this value is below the commonly recommended threshold of 0.70 for established measures, it is considered acceptable for exploratory research, particularly when investigating newly developed instruments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData analyses\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDue to the lack of normality in the data, as confirmed by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), a comparative analysis of changes over time was conducted using nonparametric methods. For all three waves of the study (Wave 1 \u0026ndash; W1, Wave 2 \u0026ndash; W2, Wave 3 \u0026ndash; W3), frequencies and percentages of participants in each moral competence category (Low, Medium, High) were calculated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin-subject changes between consecutive waves (W1 vs W2 and W2 vs W3) were analyzed using McNemar\u0026rsquo;s test, which is appropriate for assessing changes in paired categorical data over time. Absolute and percentage changes in each category were computed, and the proportion of participants showing an increase in moral competence was reported. Statistical significance was set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, interrelationships among the factors influencing moral competence were examined. As the data did not meet the assumptions for parametric testing, Spearman\u0026rsquo;s rank-order correlation coefficient was used to assess associations between the selected variables. The strength of correlations was interpreted following Cohen\u0026rsquo;s guidelines, with coefficients of r\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.39 considered weak, r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.40\u0026ndash;0.59 moderate, and r\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;0.60 strong.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo further explore how different levels of moral competence (Low, Medium, High) relate to the selected predictors, separate regression analyses were conducted for each level of the C-Index. Statistical significance was set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. All analyses were performed using Statistica, version 13.0 (TIBCO Software Inc.).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthics\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The research protocol was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the Karol Marcinkowski University of Medical Sciences in Poznań (decision no. 893/18) prior to the commencement of the study. All procedures performed were consistent with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki as revised in World Medical Association [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior to the study, all participants were thoroughly informed about the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives, potential risks, and anticipated benefits. Written parental consent was obtained for each participant, and all participants had been explicitly informed that their participation was voluntary and that their responses would remain anonymous. They were also asked to provide honest and accurate responses and assured that the data collected and the resulting findings would be used exclusively for research purposes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter completing the organizational procedures, participants were asked to fill out the questionnaire during in-person sessions conducted in whole-class groups under standard classroom conditions. Each survey session took approximately 25\u0026ndash;30 minutes to complete. The assessment was carried out three times (i.e., Waves, W), with consistent intervals of twenty months between each wave (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of moral competence levels (MCL) across the three measurement points (W1, W2, W3) presented in Table\u0026nbsp;1 showed that at W1, first measurement, the majority of participants exhibited a low MCL (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;131, 63%). At W2, conducted 20 months later, this proportion increased slightly to 137 participants (66%), but the change from W1 to W2 was not statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.320). During this interval, 39% of participants (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;82) showed some change in moral competence, but only 22% (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;36) demonstrated an improvement (\u0026Delta;% = +4%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSubstantial changes were observed between W2 and W3, measured (40 months after the first assessment). At W3, the number of participants with low MCL decreased from 137 to 115 (55%; \u0026Delta;% = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8%), while the proportion of participants with medium MCL increased from 18% to 26% (\u0026Delta;% = +8%) and those with high MCL increased from 16% to 19% (\u0026Delta;% = +3%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, 42% of participants (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;88) experienced a change in MCL between W2 and W3, with 32% (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;53) showing the improvement. These differences were statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). The results indicate a gradual, cumulative increase in moral competence over the 40-month period.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1. Changes of Moral Competence Levels Across Three Measurement Points (W1, W2, W3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\n \u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/58893_b39df98f09c4a4bb/58893_custom_files/img1776940387.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"541\" height=\"243\"\u003e\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotes: MCL \u0026ndash; moral competence level, V1 \u0026ndash; first wave, W2 \u0026ndash; second wave, W3 \u0026ndash; third wave, p \u0026ndash; p value, * \u0026ndash; significant\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrelational analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the next stage of the analysis, we examined the relationships between variables by calculating Spearman\u0026rsquo;s rank-order correlations separately for adolescents with low, medium, and high levels of moral competence (see Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorrelation matrix according to the level of moral competences in youth.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC-Index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReligion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePE Teacher\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow MCL (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;131)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMadia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC-Index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReligion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePE Teacher\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMedium MCL (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;36)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC-Index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReligion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePE Teacher\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMadia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh MCL (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;42)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC-Index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReligion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePE Teacher\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.64*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e* \u0026ndash; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; correlation\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.39 weak; 0.40\u0026ndash;0.59 moderate; and \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;0.60 strong\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the low moral competence group, weak, but positive associations were observed between the C-Index and religion (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.16) as well as PE teacher (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07), although none reached statistical significance. The strongest correlation within this group was found between peers and media (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.60, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), suggesting that these environmental factors may interact in shaping shared attitudes and behaviors rather than directly influencing moral reasoning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the medium moral competence group, the correlations between the C-Index and contextual variables were generally weak and non-significant. The only notable association appeared again between peers and media (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.57, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), indicating that peer communication and media exposure may be interrelated influences in this developmental stage. Interestingly, a negative (though non-significant) correlation emerged between religion and education (r = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.12), which may reflect diverse socialization contexts and patterns among adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the high moral competence group, no significant relationships were found between the C-Index and any of the external factors. However, moderate positive correlations were observed between C-Index and PE teacher (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.37, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), and between peers and media (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.64, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), suggesting that at more advanced stages of moral development, interpersonal and communicative contexts remain relevant but may operate through more indirect mechanisms of influence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegression analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegression analysis for the C-Index showed that models for the low and high levels could not be estimated due to insufficient variance. For the medium level, the model yielded R\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.366, R\u0026sup2; = 0.082, F(2,33)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.556, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.093, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.741. Only Religion was found to be a significant predictor (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.04), whereas Parents (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.15) and Education (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.20) were not. These results indicate that religious factors may play a more prominent role in predicting medium levels of moral competence than parental or educational influences.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of this longitudinal study indicate that significant changes in moral competence levels (MCL) occurred primarily between the second (W2) and third (W3) measurement points, suggesting a gradual and cumulative pattern of moral development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. No significant differences were observed between the first (W1) and second measurements (W2), indicating minimal initial changes, which aligns with Kohlberg\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e] theory that moral development is a stepwise process dependent on accumulated experiences and reflection on social norms. These findings highlight that adolescents\u0026rsquo; natural moral development might be closely linked to educational and socio-emotional experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;1, the proportion of participants with low MCL decreased from 131 (63%) at W1 to 115 (55%) at W3, while the percentage of participants with medium and high MCL increased from 18% to 26% and 16% to 19%, respectively. This pattern reflects the natural progression of moral competence during schooling and is consistent with prior research indicating that systematic educational experiences and social interactions strengthen moral and social competencies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. Notably, participants with lower initial MCL demonstrated the greatest relative growth, consistent with the developmental potential theory and the \u0026ldquo;catch-up\u0026rdquo; effect in moral competence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings underscore the significance of long-term, natural moral development during adolescence. In a six-year longitudinal study, Krettenauer et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e] examined the development of moral emotions and decision-making in adolescents aged 15 to 21. They found that, as participants matured, the likelihood of experiencing positive emotions following morally salient choices increased, indicating that moral processes undergo systematic development and transformation throughout adolescence and into early adulthood. Furthermore, regular school experiences and everyday social interactions were shown to support adolescents\u0026rsquo; progression toward higher levels of moral competence, even in the absence of formal educational interventions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, Gini et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e], examining moral identity and the internalization of moral principles, reported that during adolescence, moral norms and regulations tend to become increasingly internalized and cognitively sophisticated compared to childhood. This developmental stage involves a deeper understanding of complex issues, including the well-being of others, justice, and human rights, highlighting adolescence as a pivotal period for the development of advanced moral competencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther, Spearman\u0026rsquo;s rank-order correlations, calculated separately for participants with low, medium, and high MCL (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), provide additional evidence. The correlational patterns observed across the three competence levels provide valuable insight into how environmental factors relate to adolescents\u0026rsquo; moral development. Among individuals with low moral competence, the weak but positive associations with religion and PE teacher suggest an initial, externally guided orientation toward moral norms. This corresponds with the pre-conventional and conventional stages of moral reasoning described by Kohlberg [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. They are also consistent with previous research highlighting adolescence as a key developmental period for the consolidation of moral identity and the internalization of moral norms. During this stage, moral values become increasingly integrated into the individual\u0026rsquo;s self-concept, fostering more autonomous moral regulation and prosocial behavior. Similar patterns have been reported in contemporary studies on moral development among adolescents [e.g., 59; 60]. Moreover, an interesting finding concerns the role of religion related to previous study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Among participants with low moral competence, religion was attributed a level of importance in shaping moral development comparable to that of the PE teacher. This observation is noteworthy in the Polish context, a country traditionally characterized by strong Catholic roots. However, no significant correlations with other factors were identified. This pattern may reflect broader socio-cultural changes associated with Poland\u0026rsquo;s democratic transformation over the past decades [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e], as younger generations appear to be gradually weakening their traditional ties with the Church, despite the continued presence of religious education in schools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThen the significant correlation between peers and media indicates that social and communicative environments interact strongly at this developmental level, reinforcing shared attitudes rather than promoting autonomous moral reflection. In the context of Poland, some empirical evidence supports the notion that peer relations and digital media interact in shaping adolescent socialization and moral outlooks. Research on peer‑group dynamics emphasizes that during adolescence, peer relationships are a critical developmental factor \u0026ndash; not only can peers model maladaptive behaviors, but they can also reinforce shared norms through mutual influence rather than encourage individual moral reflection [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, previous studies of Polish youth highlight that social comparison on social media, especially in relation to values and self‑identity, contributes to normative pressures around behavior and morality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. These findings suggest that communicative (media) and social environments (peer networks) strongly interact during adolescence in Poland, potentially limiting opportunities for deep, intrinsic autonomous moral reasoning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the group with medium moral competence, moral reasoning appears to be in a transitional phase. The overall low and non-significant correlations between the C-Index and environmental variables suggest a gradual shift from external regulation toward more internalized moral frameworks. The negative correlation tendency between religion and education may reflect diverse socialization patterns where moral discourse becomes more individualized. These findings are consistent with previous research conducted in the Polish context, which similarly reports weak, inconsistent, or transitional links between moral competence and environmental or socialization variables. For example, Nowak et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e] demonstrated that religious and ethical affiliations produce heterogeneous and segmented effects on the C-Index, suggesting that adolescents and young adults may rely on increasingly individualized moral frameworks rather than externally imposed norms. Likewise, studies examining moral education among Polish medical students [e.g., 65, 66] show that while social and familial influences remain present, their predictive power weakens as individuals move toward more autonomous forms of moral reasoning. Finally, recent analyses using the MCT in Central Europe [e.g., 67] confirm that associations between religiosity, educational environment, and moral competence tend to be low or statistically non-significant, reinforcing the interpretation that individuals in the medium-competence group are undergoing a gradual internalization of moral norms rather than relying on external regulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor adolescents with high moral competence, the lack of significant correlations between the C-Index and external factors may indicate increased autonomy and self-reflection. Moderate associations between PE teacher and the C-Index, and between peers and media, suggest that social context remain relevant but functions more as catalysts for reflection rather than direct source or reference in terms of moral norms. These results align with Rest et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e] conception of moral competence as an integrative ability combining cognitive, affective, and contextual inputs into independent moral judgment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the theoretical point of view the present results can be interpreted within established theories of moral development. Kohlberg\u0026rsquo;s stage theory [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] suggests that moral reasoning evolves from externally oriented conformity toward autonomous judgment based on internalized ethical principles. The decreasing strength of environmental correlations across competence levels supports this progression. Then in Rest et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e] four-component model, moral competence reflects the interaction of sensitivity, judgment, motivation, and character. Religion and PE teacher appear influential in early stages, whereas later development involves critical evaluation and integration of such frameworks. From Bandura et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e] social-cognitive perspective, the link between peers and media illustrates the role of social modeling in moral learning. The weakening of this link at higher levels indicates a shift toward self-regulated morality. Finally, Narvaez \u0026amp; Vaydich\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e] concept of moral expertise emphasizes the role of contextual experience and reflection. The decreasing environmental impact observed here may signify the transition from guided to self-directed moral functioning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to natural development, moral competence in adolescents can be actively fostered through evidence-based educational strategies. Recent studies indicate that adapting PE curricula to include experiential and reflective learning, as well as integrating moral and social competence content, significantly enhances students\u0026rsquo; ethical reasoning and social skills [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e]. Supportive teacher \u0026ndash; student relationships further promote moral sensitivity and ethical behavior, while individualized approaches that encourage empathy, ethical reflection, and self-regulated decision-making outperform traditional instruction in cultivating advanced moral reasoning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaken together, these findings highlight that a multi-faceted approach, including pedagogical innovation, teacher development, and structured opportunities for moral engagement, can effectively strengthen adolescents\u0026rsquo; moral competence, complementing the natural developmental processes observed longitudinally.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore the results of this study have important implications for moral and educational practice. They suggest that adolescents\u0026rsquo; moral competence can be strengthened through environments that encourage ethical reflection, dialogue, and value-based decision-making. Schools should consider integrating moral education and character development programs into their curricula, emphasizing empathy, social responsibility, and perspective-taking. Family environments that promote open discussion about moral issues and model prosocial behavior can further enhance these effects. By fostering such contexts, educators and parents can play a pivotal role in supporting adolescents\u0026rsquo; transition toward more autonomous and reflective moral reasoning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research should explore the longitudinal and interactive effects of cognitive, social, and cultural factors on the development of moral competence. Particular attention should be given to the role of education systems, peer influence, and digital environments in shaping adolescents\u0026rsquo; moral understanding. Expanding cross-cultural comparisons would also provide valuable insight into how cultural norms and belief systems influence moral reasoning patterns. Moreover, applying mixed-methods designs and advanced modeling techniques could deepen our understanding of how individual and contextual variables jointly contribute to moral growth.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis longitudinal study demonstrated that adolescents\u0026rsquo; moral competence gradually improves over time, with a notable increase in medium levels of moral reasoning. The findings confirm that moral development is a complex process shaped not only by individual cognitive maturation but also by contextual and environmental influences. Among the examined predictors, religion emerged as a significant factor, suggesting that moral belief systems and reflective engagement with values may strengthen moral understanding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the observed association was relatively weak, the identification of the PE teacher as a relevant factor highlights the potential importance of sport-related educational contexts in moral development. Future research should therefore incorporate variables related to adolescents\u0026rsquo; engagement in sport, both at recreational and competitive levels, to more comprehensively examine how sport participation may contribute to the development of moral competencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results highlight the importance of integrating moral and ethical education into both family and school settings to support adolescents\u0026rsquo; moral growth as an important component of not only mental health but also social well-being. Future research should further investigate the interplay between personal, educational, and cultural variables to better understand the mechanisms that promote moral competence development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimitations\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its valuable contributions, this study has some limitations. The sample was limited to adolescents from a specific educational and cultural context, which may restrict generalizability. The use of self-report measures could introduce response bias or social desirability effects. Additionally, the small number of participants with high moral competence, due to the voluntary nature of the study, limited the estimation of regression models for that group. Future studies should employ more diverse samples and complementary methodologies, such as qualitative or behavioral assessments, to gain a deeper understanding of moral competence development mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003ePE \u0026ndash; Physical Education\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMIS \u0026ndash; Moral Influence Scale\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMCT \u0026ndash; Moral competence Test\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC-Index \u0026ndash; Community Index\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eW (1-3) \u0026ndash; Wave\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMCL \u0026ndash; Moral Competence Level\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research protocol was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the Karol Marcinkowski University of Medical Sciences in Poznań (decision no. 893/18). Then written informed consent was obtained from all participants, and parental/guardian consent was secured for each participant where applicable. All consent documents are in the author\u0026rsquo;s possession.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOpen access funding provided by Poznan University of Physical Education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough the information in the manuscript and on a electronic form may seem contradictory, I would like to clarify that at the time the paper is accepted for publication, the relevant university authorities provide funding for the article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization, Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing \u0026ndash; MB;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValidation, Supervision \u0026ndash; MB; Investigation, Writing \u0026ndash; Original Draft \u0026ndash; MB;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVisualization \u0026ndash; MB; Project Administration \u0026ndash; MB; Funding Acquisition,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSoftware, Formal Analysis, Resources, Data Curation \u0026ndash; N/A.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI would like to express my sincere gratitude to Magdalena Lewandowska, Head of the Computational Section, for her insightful statistical consultations, which contributed to the development of this publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMałgorzata Bronikowska \u0026ndash; an Associate Professor. Her research focuses on sport pedagogy and physical education, with particular emphasis on the moral dimensions of youth. She specializes in assessing and developing moral competence among adolescents through sport and educational interventions. She has authored numerous publications on moral development and active lifestyles in educational and intercultural contexts, and is actively involved in international research collaborations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBentahila L, Fontaine R, Pennequin V. Universality and cultural diversity in moral reasoning and judgment. 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J Youth Adolesc. 2026;55(3):624\u0026ndash;40. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-025-02236-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10964-025-02236-2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Moral competence, Adolescents, Moral development, Environmental influences, Longitudinal study","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9278671/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9278671/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis longitudinal study investigated the development of moral competence among adolescents and examined the influence of selected environmental factors, including religion, education, parents, Physical Education teacher, peers, and media. Examining these determinants is particularly relevant in the context of contemporary social transformations associated with increasing moral ambiguity, shifting value orientations, and a growing prevalence of risk behaviours among young people. These processes may affect adolescents\u0026rsquo; psychosocial development, well-being, and health-related behaviours, highlighting the importance of moral competence as a factor relevant to public health.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA longitudinal study using the diagnostic survey method was conducted among students from randomly selected secondary schools in the Wielkopolska (Greater Poland) region of Poland. The study sample comprised 209 adolescents aged 15\u0026ndash;19 years (57.2% boys and 48.8% girls) who were followed throughout four years of secondary education between 2020 and 2024. Data were collected in three consecutive measurement waves over a 40-month period. Moral competence was assessed using the validated Lind\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003eMoral Competence Test\u003c/em\u003e and the author-developed \u003cem\u003eMoral Influence Scale\u003c/em\u003e. Given the non-normal distribution of the data, nonparametric statistical procedures were applied, including McNemar\u0026rsquo;s test to assess changes over time, Spearman\u0026rsquo;s rank-order correlations to examine associations between variables, and regression analysis to identify predictors of moral competence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings indicated a significant increase in the proportion of adolescents representing a medium level of moral competence between the second and third measurement waves (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.014). Correlation analyses showed that at lower levels of moral competence, moral reasoning was weakly associated with selected external influences, particularly religion and the PE teacher; however, these associations weakened as competence levels increased. Regression analysis identified religion as the only significant predictor of medium-level moral competence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings support stage-based models of moral development, suggesting that adolescents\u0026rsquo; moral reasoning becomes increasingly autonomous over time. The results emphasize the importance of moral education and value-based reflection. Adolescents also identified the physical education teacher as an influential factor, highlighting the potential role of physical education contexts in fostering moral development.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Understanding Moral Growth in Adolescence: Evidence from a Multi-Wave Longitudinal Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-23 10:36:08","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9278671/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"45900237914215361167761465771677996861","date":"2026-05-14T11:00:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"116324935884089758784094989790965379493","date":"2026-05-11T12:32:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"229002039202876489837909700350225805115","date":"2026-05-11T05:38:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-17T12:14:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"336489255900901502491269046234972036437","date":"2026-04-16T04:57:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-16T04:09:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-09T12:41:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-09T12:37:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-09T12:30:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Public Health","date":"2026-04-09T10:22:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5d9a9fdd-0f7e-4a9c-8ea2-c9701dea51c5","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 23rd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"45900237914215361167761465771677996861","date":"2026-05-14T11:00:04+00:00","index":49,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"116324935884089758784094989790965379493","date":"2026-05-11T12:32:52+00:00","index":48,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"229002039202876489837909700350225805115","date":"2026-05-11T05:38:13+00:00","index":46,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-23T10:36:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-23 10:36:08","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9278671","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9278671","identity":"rs-9278671","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}