Decision Support for CBRN Avoid and Protect Missions

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This calls for effective decision support to improve situational awareness (SA) at the lowest practical echelon. Applied Research Associates, Inc. conducted a 22-month project to research Avoidance and Protection, the CBRN phase with greatest uncertainty and cognitive work demands, to determine how the Android Tactical Assault Kit (ATAK) could best support operator procedures and decision making. We confirmed U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) CBRN doctrine, created battalion commander, medical officer, CBRN specialist, and Soldier or Marine use cases, developed a concept video around existing CBRN passive defense workflows and tasking, then reviewed the concept with CBRN specialists returning from deployment as well as Integrated Early Warning and CBRN Support to Command-and-Control developers. Resulting improvement to decision support can more effectively sustain the operator’s observe, orient, decide, and act (OODA) loop while minimizing cognitive load. Decision making decision support chemical biological radiological nuclear defense cognitive work situational awareness Cognitive Systems Engineering Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction Command and control (C2) in the era of peer competition requires forward military forces to operate in contested and disconnected environments with the risk of exposure to Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear (CBRN) hazards. CBRN hazards include elements such as toxic industrial chemicals (TICs), toxic industrial biologicals (TIB), and toxic industrial radiologic materials. Their accidental or deliberate release and spreading can damage or destroy life, vital resources, or prevent mission accomplishment. Understanding such hazards helps a commander foresee how they might potentially affect operations (FM 3–11, 2022). Avoid and Protect operations monitor for CBRN hazards, detect them, assess the threat, and avoid contamination through techniques such as route planning. Mitigation operations may neutralize or remove a hazard and decontaminate persons or property that have been exposed. 1.1 Tactical Edge Front line combatants who perform CBRN defense operate at the tactical edge : the system of platforms, sites, and personnel (U.S. military, allied, coalition partners, first responders) who operate at lethal risk in a battle or crisis. Here, operators rely on battlespace management systems for situational awareness (SA) and connectivity to both survive and to ensure mission success. Forward deployed forces are fully engaged and highly stressed. They depend on information systems being available, providing accurate reliable information (integrity), and making the source of information evident (transparency) (NIST, 2022 ). Providing timely and effective warning of a potential or actual CBRN threat enables forces to maintain freedom of action on the battlefield. 1.2 Decision Support CBRN information density, speed, and complexity can overwhelm the decision maker. Uncertainty about information can increase duress in time critical situations (Shattuck et al., 2009 ). The significant reduction in the time between decision making and decision execution that modern CBRN operations require calls for improved decision support for better SA at the lowest practical echelon (USMC, 2017 ). More junior front line units do not have the resources to support such decisions that are available to more senior battle staff at a tactical operations center (TOC). An effective new generation CBRN decision support system (DSS) would assemble various sources of information into a unified display. This spares the user from the cognitive work of integrating multiple data sources. Battlespace management systems such as the Android Team Awareness Kit (ATAK) can provide more junior Soldiers with decision support that captures senior level expertise that is available to higher echelon staff. Providing such usable, relevant, integrated information will improve front line SA and ensure operators can adapt to changing tactical conditions. Improved CBRN decision support can more effectively support the operator observe, orient, decide, and act (OODA) loop (Brehmer, 2005 ) while minimizing cognitive workload (Marshall, 2002 ). 2. Materials and Methods We used a Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE) (Woods and Roth, 1988 ) mixed methods approach to both learn how CBRN decision makers confront complexity in their work settings and to model the CBRN decision support system concept. CSE is particularly suited to the study of cognitive work in a setting such as the CBRN Avoidance and Protection. CSE is part of naturalistic decision making (NDM) (Nemeth and Klein, 2011 ) which is the study of human cognitive performance in actual, or natural, settings. The professional literature has developed three criteria to describe research that counts as NDM study: It focuses on expertise, takes place in field settings, and reflects the conditions that complicate our lives. The strength of well-crafted NDM studies comes with understanding context by embracing the richness and complexity of human behavior in a natural, or “field,” work setting such as CBRN operations. It also produces findings that reflect the complexity and nuance of how operators perform actual work. CBRN operations at the tactical edge are on the high end of complexity. Those who perform CBRN operations do not follow formal theories of behavior, but instead do what is useful (Wahlstrom, 1988 ) to defend against threats. The team used methods from the CSE approach such as literature review, observations, interviews, development of a model of cognitive work, prototyping, and evaluation to understand cognitive work required for Avoidance and Protection operations. We applied findings from those methods to identify opportunities in which technology can be used to improve decision making performance. Team members were certified to perform, and experienced in the conduct of, field studies. Our application for human subject research was approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) and U.S. Army Office of Human Research Oversight (OHRO). 2.1 Literature Review The team used U.S. armed forces CBRN doctrine to identify Avoidance and Protection objectives and procedures across echelons. The team identified the battlespace management environment, stakeholders, and individual and team tasks. They developed use cases for CB decision makers (e.g., Unit Commander, Medical Officer, CBRN Specialist, and Soldier-Marine). Figure 1 illustrates the current relationships among the elements of CBRN doctrine: National Defense Strategy, Joint Publications, Field Manuals, Allied Tactical Publications, and Tasks/Standards. Chapter II, Section 4 of FM 3–11 (2022) describes the information flow for Avoidance and Protection that informed our project. [Figure 1 near here] Figure 1 : Elements of CBRN Doctrine Copyright © 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission. 2.2 Subject Matter Expert (SME) Interview At the start of the project, we conducted semi-structured interviews using Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) (Crandall et al., 2006 ) with three experienced former CBRN non-commissioned officers. CTA includes a variety of methods that can help humans to perform cognitive work, which is primarily problem solving and decision making. CTA methods are used to determine requirements for information needed to support cognitive work. Requirements are then used to guide the development and evaluation of products such as displays, procedures, and training that will support operator decision and control and, as a result, improve problem diagnosis and solution (Potter et al., 1998 ). SME interviews included review of the guide we had developed for subsequent interviews, as well the first draft of an Avoid and Protect operational view. We later interviewed six members of the Illinois U.S. Army National Guard Civil Support Team for details on CBRN tasks they perform. 2.3 Representation An operational view (OV-1) is a pictorial representation of a mission or scenario showing the main concepts and interesting or unique aspects of operations. Based on the literature review and SME interviews, the team developed a draft Avoid and Protect OV-1 (Fig. 2 ) including key decision makers. [Figure 2 near here] Figure 2 : Notional Operational View (OV-1) Copyright © 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission. Figure 2 includes the objective such as a village in need of protection during a humanitarian mission. It also shows a unit of one’s own forces that would secure the site to protect a civilian population, and the location of CBRN event between the two that poses a hazard. It shows elements to detect and describe the hazard, including a reconnaissance unit, sensors, and a CBRN specialist non-commissioned officer. Command elements include a company-level tactical operations center, and battalion-level tactical operations center, with a medical recovery center. Each perform an essential role in CBRN Avoid and Protect defense. 2.4 Observation Observational methods can be used to study how people perform tasks and use cognitive artifacts to coordinate work. Understanding “emerges from the researcher’s own observations and interviews out in the real world rather than in the laboratory or the academy” (Patton, 2002 ). The team observed CBRN field exercises including RESOLUTE DRAGON, the 2022 Chem/Bio Operational Assessment, U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) Chem-Bio Incident Response Force (CBIRF) training at Perry GA, and the Illinois Army National Guard (IL USANG) Civil Support Team (CST) training. During the events, team members took notes on procedures and artifacts such as maps and tables and spoke informally with operators to learn context. 2.5 Descriptive Model of Cognitive Work CSE techniques can be used to produce a model of cognitive work that represents how people perform it in actual settings. Creation of a model draws from individual accounts to describe behavioral patterns that a DSS can support. Cognitive work includes what Cacciabue and Hollnagel ( 1995 ) have termed “macrocognitive” activities, that are “the cognitive functions that are performed in natural (rather than artificial laboratory) decision-making settings.” Klein et al. ( 2003 ) described macrocognition as “the mental activities that must be successfully accomplished to perform a task or achieve a goal.” The macrocognitive activities in Table 1 , drawn from Crandall et al. ( 2006 ), support development of descriptive models of these activities to identify and understand how they occur. Table 1 Macrocognitive Activities Macrocognitive Activity Description Naturalistic decision making Reliance on experience to identify a plausible course of action and use of mental simulation to evaluate it. Sensemaking/situation assessment Diagnosis of how current state came about and anticipation of how it will develop. Planning Changing action in order to transform a current state into a desired state. Adaptation/replanning Modification, adjustment or replacement of a plan already implemented. Problem detection Ability to notice potential problems at an early stage. Coordination How team members sequence actions to perform a task. Developing mental models Mental imagery and event comprehension, based on abstract knowledge and domain concepts and principles. Mental simulation and storyboarding Use of mental models to consider the future, enact a series of events, and ponder them as they lead to possible futures. Managing uncertainty and risk Coping with a state or feeling in which something is unknown or not understood. Turning leverage points into courses of action Ability to identify opportunities and turn them into courses of action. Managing attention Use of perceptual filters to determine the information a person will seek and notice. Figure 3 is an initial descriptive cognitive model of CBRN Avoidance and Protection tasks based on our literature review, observations, and interviews. Organized according to macrocognitive activities, they show how operators perform as a team to synchronize their efforts. This model helps to identify promising directions for a DSS to improve task performance. For example, anticipation involves the ability to do forward thinking, develop mental models, and do mental simulation. A DSS would make information available for such tasks. [Figure 3 near here] Figure 3 : Descriptive Model of Cognitive Work in Avoidance and Protection Copyright © 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission. 2.6 Prototyping Based on results from the literature review, interviews, and observations, the team developed use cases for four members of the CBRN decision network in an Avoidance and Protection phase: battalion commander, medical officer, CBRN specialist, and Soldier or Marine. The concept integrates information that is unique to each role and needed to support decisions. We then created a video to demonstrate how the TAK interface might support cognitive work by each of the four decision makers. The video reflected the current TAK functions and TAK CB mission applications. We used the approach to garner feedback on the data type and presentation operators prefer, rather than the current TAK data display. Our goal was to understand and validate the optimal approach for future CB mission applications and data visualization to support timely and effective decision making. Figure 4 is a screen from the concept video showing an alert, route, sensor location and status, and information tabs for the CBRN Specialist. [Figure 4 near here] Figure 4 : ATAK interface concept for CBRN Specialist Copyright © 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission. The common operating picture (COP) integrates sensor data, messages across echelons, and alerts. The plan view map provides current view of unit location, route, sensors, and CBRN threats. Tabs make it possible to quickly find information including assigned units, reconnaissance and decontamination team status, weather, known and suspected threats in the vicinity, routes planned and taken, and medical status down to the individual level (including heat stress while in mission oriented protective posture, or “MOPP,” gear). The range of cognitive work and experience among those who make CBRN decisions requires tailoring displays to present information that is needed to spare user from coping with information that is unnecessary. This aligns information according to user experience and aptitude and accommodates practical considerations (e.g., Soldier/Marine operating display in MOPP gear). Tailoring information according to each role in the decision network ensures each decision maker gets no less, and no more, than needed for mission performance. Table 2 shows how we organized tabs to manage information by role. Table 2. Interface Information by Role Unit Operational Commander Medical Officer CBRN Specialist Soldier/Marine Zulu and local time Units, unit types are at location shown. Mission objective Current combat power Units’ protective posture Exposure to hazard that occurred. Effect of exposure to hazard Recovery requirements Other hazards in vicinity Zulu and local time Agent dose, concentration, any prior prophylaxis Number of personnel who have been exposed, when, and for how long Personnel in MOPP gear, and for how long Casualties, and whether they need evacuation. Medical resources at unit(s) Zulu and local time Sensors: fixed, mobile Reconnaissance Threat Weather Route/destination Decontamination Zulu, and local time Route/destination Protective posture/ MOPP level 2.7 Evaluation The team reviewed the concept demonstration videos with 5 members of the 190th Chemical Reconnaissance Detection Unit, Montana ARNG 631st Chemical Company over a teleconference platform. All had recently returned from deployment, performing CBRN tasks in support of operations in Eastern Europe. Sessions included a primary and secondary interviewer, and one or two participants. Each session followed an interview guide and lasted roughly 45 minutes. 3. Results 3.1 Interface Concept Design Features The team established performance requirements and minimum capabilities for a new prototype DSS based on data collected during the initial interviews, the literature review, and observations of CBRN field exercises. A new DSS needs to improve upon existing systems that CBRN Specialists use and be compatible with systems the Specialists must use to report. Table 3 lists current U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) CBRN reporting systems. Table 3 Existing U.S. DoD CBRN Reporting Systems System Purpose Homeland Security Information Network (HSIN) Used during domestic response missions and operates as a central data repository for reporting. Joint Warning and Reporting Network 2 (JWARN) Used by the U.S. DoD as an information transfer system to support CBRN reporting during operations. Emergency Response Guidebook (ERG) app Used by CBRN Specialists to provide background data and reference information to support operational planning and response. Blue Force Tracker (BFT) / JBC-P (Joint Battle Command Platform) The U.S. Army’s communication system for battlespace management that provides a platform to submit and track CBRN reports. Command Post of the Future COP (Common Operational Picture) A map system used with the BFT or JBC-P that allows operators to share overlays to multiple commands and command echelons. 3.2 Prototype Evaluation Reviews with members of the 190th Chemical Reconnaissance Detection Unit yielded observations as well as recommendations shown in Table 4 . Quotes are taken from interviews with members (from most to least senior) at the rank of Chief Warrant Officer (CWO), Sergeant First Class (SFC), Staff Sergeant (SSG), and Sergeant (SGT). “Something like this would be really useful to them [infantry units] because if that one guy that was actually up there working with them had access to this and could communicate between the two, that would actually work really well.” (SFC) “This is definitely… it would be helpful to get it up to the Battalion Commander for sure.” (SFC) “They'd definitely want to just make all those up on the same screen instead of trying to import them from something else. It'd be a lot easier.” (SFC) “They got this, ‘Hey, this is what's up, what should we do? We're going to do this.’ It's all pretty much there.” (SSG) “The integration of the sensors I'm very interested in…If you guys have that way of integrating, I think that'd be pretty awesome.” (CWO2) “I think it would probably make the Soldiers a lot more confident just because they have that information at their fingertips.” (SFC) “I think it fits in very well and allows the ability for that CBRN Specialist to provide that mobile commander information and the teams around them.” (CWO2) “This being in an all-in-one compass on an Android phone I think looks very good and very applicable to a CBRN NCO.” (CWO2) “I also like the possibility that you're pointing out from Army to Marine …having that common point of being able to operate together I think is a very good point, and I think you hit that nail on the head.” (CWO2) “Trying to get a new soldier to understand BFT sometimes is really complicated. So, I think bringing it into the platform to where it's on a cell phone is going to be easier for them to pick up.” (SFC) “So, the Battle Captain or the Battle NCO, depending on who's in charge during that shift, is really where you're going to have to look at placing these.” (SFC) “This COP is something that we've mock set up ourselves, so this being in an all-in-one encompassed on an Android phone, I think looks very good and very applicable to a CBRN NCO.” (CWO2) “I think it's just going to be an upgrade in technology really… If it's going to look similar to this, this is going to be for sure ideal. It's going to be a vast upgrade.” (SFC) “I think the weather is really going to be helpful on this…If this has a real time weather, you can almost estimate where the contamination's going to go depending on the density of the contaminant and different stuff like that. I think all the real time information that you guys have on here is going to be super helpful.” (SFC) “I like the platform of it. I mean it's going to be really user friendly and what soldier doesn't have a cell phone?” (SGT) “…think the more information the better for sure…as long as it’s not crowded… as long as it’s easy to access with these little tabs…you don’t have to dig through to find it.” (SGT) “It's just going to be a good upgrade for us, especially with the real time. It's going to be faster, quicker, and way, way more user friendly. Save lives.” (SGT) Table 4 SME Recommendations Feature Recommendation Weather “…showing the active weather conditions would be a huge decision point for all this.” (SSGT) Hazard Footprint “If you showed something with just the entire hazard area, presumptive hazard area bubble at whatever your max safest standoff distance is.” (SSGT) “…just a quick protect in isolation zones, and I think that's very important for mobile commanders and other platoons to understand, "Hey, stay out of this circle of an area. “(CWO2) Alert “Just as long as there was some type of audible, or vibrate, or something just to let whoever is operating in this know that "Hey, you're going into a contaminated area." (SGT) “… if it's vibrating, those trucks vibrate a lot. So, if it would have to make a noise or something.” (SFC) View “Like, you're driving on that route and you're looking at the route right then [driver point of view]. You'd almost want a... “Google Maps” type view where you're looking at it from the top. That way if an indicator pops up, even a click out, you can see it coming as opposed to when your convoy gets closer to it.” (SFC) The research team also confirmed workflows across multiple TAK plug-ins (additional software components), from sensor integration (Source Term Estimation Tool), hazard prediction modelling (Effects Tool), route planning (Route Planning Tool), and protection (MOPP Tool). 4. Discussion Battle staff, operators, cognitive artifacts, and information systems at the tactical edge make up a joint cognitive system (Woods and Hollnagel, 2006 ) that can be studied and modelled using scientific methods such as CSE. The CSE approach is used to design technology, training, and processes that help people to manage cognitive complexity in such systems (Militello et al., 2010 ). We used CSE methods to develop an in-depth understanding of the operators, tasks, and work contexts (including the information systems) that are designed to support SA and decision making. Integration of five CSE phases (preparation, knowledge elicitation, analysis and representation, application design, and evaluation) produces a solution that is ecologically valid: based on data drawn directly from rigorous systematic study of the CBRN work setting. Conrath ( 1967 ) defines uncertainty as any moment in which a decision needs to be made based on an incomplete set of information. While senior commanders have the benefit of time to analyze and compare alternatives, front line operators need to rely on intuition based on experience to commit to a course of action. An integrated DSS that provides needed timely, accurate information that can be trusted mitigates the effects of uncertainty across echelons. 4.1 Cognitive Artifacts Hutchins ( 2002 ) describes cognitive artifacts as “physical objects made by humans for the purpose of aiding, enhancing, or improving cognition. Examples of cognitive artifacts include a string tied around the finger as a reminder, a calendar, a shopping list, and a computer.” Cognitive artifacts are typically used to support important, difficult activities and can externalize information, capturing details that cannot easily be held in memory. Artifacts such as a CBRN DSS can be used to sort through large amounts of data to present only what is most important, or salient , and help to synthesize data into a cohesive whole. A design prototype can help to make a novel concept easier to envision (Woods, 1998 ). As an envisioned world problem, participants need to foresee a condition such as using a new generation DSS that they have not experienced. The project’s video (Fig. 3 ) illustrates how ATAK might operate in support of Avoidance and Protection. We used the video to elicit responses, grounded in the participants' own experiences, as to how the unit and procedures need to be designed. 4.2 Participatory Design Participatory Design (PD) is the close collaboration between system developers and intended end users. We used PD during the project, assuming that those who perform skilled work are in the best position to improve it and are the best resource to attest to how work is actually performed (Van der Velden and Mörtberg, 2015 ). The use of PD can facilitate “a more humane, creative, and effective design relationship between those involved in technology’s design and its use.” A product’s quality depends on how well it supports “…the continually expanding and developing work practices of skilled practitioners” (Suchman, 1993 ). PD offers a direct link between information technology and interventional research. Clemensen (2007) recommends development project teams to “Give the participants [the] possibility to explore potential futures by trying out or creating prototypes.” Consultation with users through each phase of the project ensured the best understanding of the work domain: what is required, what is difficult, and how can a solution improve performance? The PD approach can also build support for the result among end users, as they can recognize a solution that reflects their needs and desires. Project team members’ prior development of a real time Burn Intensive Care Unit (BICU) DSS further illustrates how PD works (see Nemeth et al., 2015 ). 4.3 Limitations While U.S. Army and National Guard SMEs have reviewed the ATAK prototype, the concept needs to be programmed as interactive software to be evaluated for usability with CBRN support units from various services. 5. Conclusion The project team identified the commander’s critical information requirements to avoid hazards and make protective posture decisions, captured the TAK CBRN mission decision-making process, workflow and data representation, and modelled and evaluated a concept prototype. Future work can extend this pilot project through analysis of procedures that the Avoidance and Protection mission requires, characterization of Avoidance and Protection tasks and TAK application workflows, comparison between CBRN Avoidance and Protection tasks and TAK apps to determine fit and gaps, collection of data from deployed maneuver units to reveal and describe CBRN mental models, and development of new TAK applications for Avoidance and Protection and evaluation with maneuver units. Declarations Author Contribution Nemeth wrote the manuscript and created figures 2, 3, 4.Sedehi and DiPietrantonio created Figure 1.All ARA co-authors reviewed the manuscript. Competing Interests: The corresponding author is a member of the editorial board. Acknowledgement/Disclaimer The authors appreciate the interest in and support by members of L2 Defense, the Marine Corps CBIRF, IL ARNG, and MT ARNG. Research was sponsored by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory and was accomplished under Cooperative Agreement Number W911NF-21-2-0252. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the Army Research Office or the U.S. Government. The U.S. Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for Government purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation herein. References Brehmer B (2005) The dynamic OODA Loop: Amalgamating Boyd’s OODA Loop and the cybernetic approach to command and control. Proceedings of the10th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium: The Future of C2. MacLean, VA. Cacciabue PC, Hollnagel E (1995) Simulation of cognition: Applications. In: Hoc, JM, Cacciabue PC, Hollnagel E. (eds) Expertise and Technology: Cognition and Human-Computer Cooperation, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 55-73. 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The lead author is a member of the journal editorial board Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 09 Apr, 2024 Reviews received at journal 18 Mar, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 26 Feb, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 26 Feb, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 27 Jan, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 27 Jan, 2024 First submitted to journal 25 Jan, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3898614","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":269618911,"identity":"e634c2cd-730e-43a0-b6f8-b12394105daf","order_by":0,"name":"Christopher Nemeth","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAqElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYPCCA3Kk6kg4YEy6lsQGohXzz24+uuHjjzvp/bMPP2D4UbGNsBaJO8fSbs5IeJY741yaAWPPmduEtRhI5Jjd5kk4nNtwhsGAmbGNKC35327/STicLn+G/QOxWnLYbjMkHE4wOMNDpC0SN9LMbvakHTbceIan4CBRfuGfkfzsxg+bw/JyZ9g3PvhRQYQWFHCARPWjYBSMglEwCnABABHgQFcb8uLFAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Applied Research Associates (United States)","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Christopher","middleName":"","lastName":"Nemeth","suffix":""},{"id":269618912,"identity":"82d83d69-731e-47d3-9a6e-b2109f31c59b","order_by":1,"name":"Javad Sedehi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Applied Research Associates (United States)","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Javad","middleName":"","lastName":"Sedehi","suffix":""},{"id":269618913,"identity":"5b8bb256-6965-40e0-aa3d-3685320e4e10","order_by":2,"name":"Gregory Rule","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Applied Research Associates (United States)","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gregory","middleName":"","lastName":"Rule","suffix":""},{"id":269618914,"identity":"013534a7-3c74-4409-a14b-c86dcf428e53","order_by":3,"name":"Josef DiPietrantonio","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Applied Research Associates (United States)","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Josef","middleName":"","lastName":"DiPietrantonio","suffix":""},{"id":269618915,"identity":"6ee42585-ff69-4651-92c2-88365435eb19","order_by":4,"name":"Dawn Laufersweiler","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Applied Research Associates (United States)","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dawn","middleName":"","lastName":"Laufersweiler","suffix":""},{"id":269618916,"identity":"5f74c7e1-429a-4acb-9de8-c5fd0a9d7621","order_by":5,"name":"Natalie Keeney","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Applied Research Associates (United States)","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Natalie","middleName":"","lastName":"Keeney","suffix":""},{"id":269618917,"identity":"a5307f37-502b-472b-a160-35b3189d37c1","order_by":6,"name":"Rob Clark","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"U.S. Army DEVCOM Data Analysis Center","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rob","middleName":"","lastName":"Clark","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-01-26 00:14:55","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3898614/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3898614/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":50452220,"identity":"46d65e16-1145-4e35-84c5-0f6f8f715a14","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 17:39:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":40653,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eElements of CBRN Doctrine\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCopyright © 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"NemethetalFigure1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3898614/v1/55c0110a28c865f5ebc45638.jpg"},{"id":50451809,"identity":"b61c7e8b-653b-48a9-9ab6-5d57b7837d78","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 17:31:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35246,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNotional Operational View (OV-1)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCopyright © 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"NemethetalFigure2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3898614/v1/51099d39327cdc3dc71996de.jpg"},{"id":50451812,"identity":"cc6ea7fa-0755-4075-a94c-bda95eaf7e31","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 17:31:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65928,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDescriptive Model of Cognitive Work in Avoidance and Protection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCopyright © 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"NemethetalFigure3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3898614/v1/d3d96a53b60fe8a0f4fb9b75.jpg"},{"id":50451813,"identity":"abee5665-7217-4bef-bb88-2b4237f6fe48","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 17:31:11","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54567,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eATAK interface concept for CBRN Specialist\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCopyright © 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"NemethetalFigure4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3898614/v1/515456d81a475efcf7c7aba5.jpg"},{"id":50452560,"identity":"d179dd58-ca18-47c7-8fe8-5d56e9d8a47e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-31 17:47:11","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":545646,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3898614/v1/4af71ab9-9907-4512-a93b-4f1ec31a5366.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"Competing interest reported. The lead author is a member of the journal editorial board","formattedTitle":"Decision Support for CBRN Avoid and Protect Missions","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCommand and control (C2) in the era of peer competition requires forward military forces to operate in contested and disconnected environments with the risk of exposure to Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear (CBRN) hazards. CBRN hazards include elements such as toxic industrial chemicals (TICs), toxic industrial biologicals (TIB), and toxic industrial radiologic materials. Their accidental or deliberate release and spreading can damage or destroy life, vital resources, or prevent mission accomplishment. Understanding such hazards helps a commander foresee how they might potentially affect operations (FM 3\u0026ndash;11, 2022). Avoid and Protect operations monitor for CBRN hazards, detect them, assess the threat, and avoid contamination through techniques such as route planning. Mitigation operations may neutralize or remove a hazard and decontaminate persons or property that have been exposed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1 Tactical Edge\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFront line combatants who perform CBRN defense operate at the \u003cem\u003etactical edge\u003c/em\u003e: the system of platforms, sites, and personnel (U.S. military, allied, coalition partners, first responders) who operate at lethal risk in a battle or crisis. Here, operators rely on battlespace management systems for situational awareness (SA) and connectivity to both survive and to ensure mission success. Forward deployed forces are fully engaged and highly stressed. They depend on information systems being available, providing accurate reliable information (integrity), and making the source of information evident (transparency) (NIST, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Providing timely and effective warning of a potential or actual CBRN threat enables forces to maintain freedom of action on the battlefield.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2 Decision Support\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBRN information density, speed, and complexity can overwhelm the decision maker. Uncertainty about information can increase duress in time critical situations (Shattuck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The significant reduction in the time between \u003cem\u003edecision making\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003edecision execution\u003c/em\u003e that modern CBRN operations require calls for improved decision support for better SA at the lowest practical echelon (USMC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). More junior front line units do not have the resources to support such decisions that are available to more senior battle staff at a tactical operations center (TOC).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn effective new generation CBRN decision support system (DSS) would assemble various sources of information into a unified display. This spares the user from the cognitive work of integrating multiple data sources. Battlespace management systems such as the Android Team Awareness Kit (ATAK) can provide more junior Soldiers with decision support that captures senior level expertise that is available to higher echelon staff. Providing such usable, relevant, integrated information will improve front line SA and ensure operators can adapt to changing tactical conditions. Improved CBRN decision support can more effectively support the operator observe, orient, decide, and act (OODA) loop (Brehmer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) while minimizing cognitive workload (Marshall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe used a Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE) (Woods and Roth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e) mixed methods approach to both learn how CBRN decision makers confront complexity in their work settings and to model the CBRN decision support system concept. CSE is particularly suited to the study of cognitive work in a setting such as the CBRN Avoidance and Protection. CSE is part of naturalistic decision making (NDM) (Nemeth and Klein, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) which is the study of human cognitive performance in actual, or natural, settings. The professional literature has developed three criteria to describe research that counts as NDM study: It focuses on expertise, takes place in field settings, and reflects the conditions that complicate our lives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe strength of well-crafted NDM studies comes with understanding context by embracing the richness and complexity of human behavior in a natural, or \u0026ldquo;field,\u0026rdquo; work setting such as CBRN operations. It also produces findings that reflect the complexity and nuance of how operators perform actual work. CBRN operations at the tactical edge are on the high end of complexity. Those who perform CBRN operations do not follow formal theories of behavior, but instead do what is useful (Wahlstrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e) to defend against threats.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe team used methods from the CSE approach such as literature review, observations, interviews, development of a model of cognitive work, prototyping, and evaluation to understand cognitive work required for Avoidance and Protection operations. We applied findings from those methods to identify opportunities in which technology can be used to improve decision making performance. Team members were certified to perform, and experienced in the conduct of, field studies. Our application for human subject research was approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) and U.S. Army Office of Human Research Oversight (OHRO).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Literature Review\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe team used U.S. armed forces CBRN doctrine to identify Avoidance and Protection objectives and procedures across echelons. The team identified the battlespace management environment, stakeholders, and individual and team tasks. They developed use cases for CB decision makers (e.g., Unit Commander, Medical Officer, CBRN Specialist, and Soldier-Marine). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the current relationships among the elements of CBRN doctrine: National Defense Strategy, Joint Publications, Field Manuals, Allied Tactical Publications, and Tasks/Standards. Chapter II, Section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec15\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e of FM 3\u0026ndash;11 (2022) describes the information flow for Avoidance and Protection that informed our project.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Figure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e near here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e: \u003cb\u003eElements of CBRN Doctrine\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCopyright \u0026copy; 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Subject Matter Expert (SME) Interview\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the start of the project, we conducted semi-structured interviews using Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) (Crandall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) with three experienced former CBRN non-commissioned officers. CTA includes a variety of methods that can help humans to perform cognitive work, which is primarily problem solving and decision making. CTA methods are used to determine requirements for information needed to support cognitive work. Requirements are then used to guide the development and evaluation of products such as displays, procedures, and training that will support operator decision and control and, as a result, improve problem diagnosis and solution (Potter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSME interviews included review of the guide we had developed for subsequent interviews, as well the first draft of an Avoid and Protect operational view. We later interviewed six members of the Illinois U.S. Army National Guard Civil Support Team for details on CBRN tasks they perform.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Representation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn operational view (OV-1) is a pictorial representation of a mission or scenario showing the main concepts and interesting or unique aspects of operations. Based on the literature review and SME interviews, the team developed a draft Avoid and Protect OV-1 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) including key decision makers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Figure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e near here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e: \u003cb\u003eNotional Operational View (OV-1)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCopyright \u0026copy; 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e includes the objective such as a village in need of protection during a humanitarian mission. It also shows a unit of one\u0026rsquo;s own forces that would secure the site to protect a civilian population, and the location of CBRN event between the two that poses a hazard. It shows elements to detect and describe the hazard, including a reconnaissance unit, sensors, and a CBRN specialist non-commissioned officer. Command elements include a company-level tactical operations center, and battalion-level tactical operations center, with a medical recovery center. Each perform an essential role in CBRN Avoid and Protect defense.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Observation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservational methods can be used to study how people perform tasks and use cognitive artifacts to coordinate work. Understanding \u0026ldquo;emerges from the researcher\u0026rsquo;s own observations and interviews out in the real world rather than in the laboratory or the academy\u0026rdquo; (Patton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe team observed CBRN field exercises including RESOLUTE DRAGON, the 2022 Chem/Bio Operational Assessment, U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) Chem-Bio Incident Response Force (CBIRF) training at Perry GA, and the Illinois Army National Guard (IL USANG) Civil Support Team (CST) training. During the events, team members took notes on procedures and artifacts such as maps and tables and spoke informally with operators to learn context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Descriptive Model of Cognitive Work\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCSE techniques can be used to produce a model of cognitive work that represents how people perform it in actual settings. Creation of a model draws from individual accounts to describe behavioral patterns that a DSS can support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive work includes what Cacciabue and Hollnagel (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) have termed \u0026ldquo;macrocognitive\u0026rdquo; activities, that are \u0026ldquo;the cognitive functions that are performed in natural (rather than artificial laboratory) decision-making settings.\u0026rdquo; Klein et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) described macrocognition as \u0026ldquo;the mental activities that must be successfully accomplished to perform a task or achieve a goal.\u0026rdquo; The macrocognitive activities in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, drawn from Crandall et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), support development of descriptive models of these activities to identify and understand how they occur.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacrocognitive Activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMacrocognitive Activity\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescription\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNaturalistic decision making\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReliance on experience to identify a plausible course of action and use of mental simulation to evaluate it.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSensemaking/situation assessment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiagnosis of how current state came about and anticipation of how it will develop.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlanning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChanging action in order to transform a current state into a desired state.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdaptation/replanning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModification, adjustment or replacement of a plan already implemented.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblem detection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbility to notice potential problems at an early stage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoordination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow team members sequence actions to perform a task.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeveloping mental models\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMental imagery and event comprehension, based on abstract knowledge and domain concepts and principles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMental simulation and storyboarding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of mental models to consider the future, enact a series of events, and ponder them as they lead to possible futures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManaging uncertainty \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eand risk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoping with a state or feeling in which something is unknown or not understood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurning leverage points into courses of action\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbility to identify opportunities and turn them into courses of action.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManaging attention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of perceptual filters to determine the information a person will seek and notice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e is an initial descriptive cognitive model of CBRN Avoidance and Protection tasks based on our literature review, observations, and interviews. Organized according to macrocognitive activities, they show how operators perform as a team to synchronize their efforts. This model helps to identify promising directions for a DSS to improve task performance. For example, anticipation involves the ability to do forward thinking, develop mental models, and do mental simulation. A DSS would make information available for such tasks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Figure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e near here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e: \u003cb\u003eDescriptive Model of Cognitive Work in Avoidance and Protection\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCopyright \u0026copy; 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6 Prototyping\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on results from the literature review, interviews, and observations, the team developed use cases for four members of the CBRN decision network in an Avoidance and Protection phase: battalion commander, medical officer, CBRN specialist, and Soldier or Marine. The concept integrates information that is unique to each role and needed to support decisions. We then created a video to demonstrate how the TAK interface might support cognitive work by each of the four decision makers. The video reflected the current TAK functions and TAK CB mission applications. We used the approach to garner feedback on the data type and presentation operators prefer, rather than the current TAK data display. Our goal was to understand and validate the optimal approach for future CB mission applications and data visualization to support timely and effective decision making. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e is a screen from the concept video showing an alert, route,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003esensor location and status, and information tabs for the CBRN Specialist.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Figure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e near here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e: \u003cb\u003eATAK interface concept for CBRN Specialist\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCopyright \u0026copy; 2024 Applied Research Associates. Used by permission.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe common operating picture (COP) integrates sensor data, messages across echelons, and alerts. The plan view map provides current view of unit location, route, sensors, and CBRN threats. Tabs make it possible to quickly find information including assigned units, reconnaissance and decontamination team status, weather, known and suspected threats in the vicinity, routes planned and taken, and medical status down to the individual level (including heat stress while in mission oriented protective posture, or \u0026ldquo;MOPP,\u0026rdquo; gear). The range of cognitive work and experience among those who make CBRN decisions requires tailoring displays to present information that is needed to spare user from coping with information that is unnecessary. This aligns information according to user experience and aptitude and accommodates practical considerations (e.g., Soldier/Marine operating display in MOPP gear).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTailoring information according to each role in the decision network ensures each decision maker gets no less, and no more, than needed for mission performance. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows how we organized tabs to manage information by role.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterface Information by Role\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"642\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.45482866043614%\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.1603%;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnit Operational Commander\u003c/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.20872274143302%\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23.8782%;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eMedical Officer\u003c/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.233644859813083%\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.9615%;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eCBRN Specialist\u003c/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.299065420560748%\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25%;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eSoldier/Marine\u003c/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.45482866043614%\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.1603%;\"\u003eZulu and local time\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eUnits, unit types are at location shown.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eMission objective\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eCurrent combat power\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eUnits\u0026rsquo; protective posture\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eExposure to hazard that occurred.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eEffect of exposure to hazard\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRecovery requirements\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOther hazards in vicinity\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.20872274143302%\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23.8782%;\"\u003eZulu and local time\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAgent dose, concentration, any prior prophylaxis\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eNumber of personnel who have been exposed, when, and for how long\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003ePersonnel in MOPP gear, and for how long\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eCasualties, and whether they need evacuation.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eMedical resources at unit(s)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.233644859813083%\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.9615%;\"\u003eZulu and local time\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eSensors: fixed, mobile\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eReconnaissance\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThreat\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWeather\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRoute/destination\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDecontamination\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.299065420560748%\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25%;\"\u003eZulu, and local time\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRoute/destination\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eProtective posture/ MOPP level\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7 Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe team reviewed the concept demonstration videos with 5 members of the 190th Chemical Reconnaissance Detection Unit, Montana ARNG 631st Chemical Company over a teleconference platform. All had recently returned from deployment, performing CBRN tasks in support of operations in Eastern Europe. Sessions included a primary and secondary interviewer, and one or two participants. Each session followed an interview guide and lasted roughly 45 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Interface Concept Design Features\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe team established performance requirements and minimum capabilities for a new prototype DSS based on data collected during the initial interviews, the literature review, and observations of CBRN field exercises. A new DSS needs to improve upon existing systems that CBRN Specialists use and be compatible with systems the Specialists must use to report. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e lists current U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) CBRN reporting systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExisting U.S. DoD CBRN Reporting Systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSystem\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePurpose\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHomeland Security Information Network (HSIN)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsed during domestic response missions and operates as a central data repository for reporting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJoint Warning and Reporting Network 2 (JWARN)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsed by the U.S. DoD as an information transfer system to support CBRN reporting during operations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmergency Response Guidebook (ERG) app\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsed by CBRN Specialists to provide background data and reference information to support operational planning and response.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlue Force Tracker (BFT) /\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJBC-P (Joint Battle Command Platform)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe U.S. Army\u0026rsquo;s communication system for battlespace management that provides a platform to submit and track CBRN reports.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommand Post of the Future COP (Common Operational Picture)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA map system used with the BFT or JBC-P that allows operators to share overlays to multiple commands and command echelons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Prototype Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eReviews with members of the 190th Chemical Reconnaissance Detection Unit yielded observations as well as recommendations shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. Quotes are taken from interviews with members (from most to least senior) at the rank of Chief Warrant Officer (CWO), Sergeant First Class (SFC), Staff Sergeant (SSG), and Sergeant (SGT).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Something like this would be really useful to them [infantry units] because if that one guy that was actually up there working with them had access to this and could communicate between the two, that would actually work really well.\u0026rdquo; (SFC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;This is definitely\u0026hellip; it would be helpful to get it up to the Battalion Commander for sure.\u0026rdquo; (SFC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;They'd definitely want to just make all those up on the same screen instead of trying to import them from something else. It'd be a lot easier.\u0026rdquo; (SFC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;They got this, \u0026lsquo;Hey, this is what's up, what should we do? We're going to do this.\u0026rsquo; It's all pretty much there.\u0026rdquo; (SSG)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;The integration of the sensors I'm very interested in\u0026hellip;If you guys have that way of integrating, I think that'd be pretty awesome.\u0026rdquo; (CWO2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I think it would probably make the Soldiers a lot more confident just because they have that information at their fingertips.\u0026rdquo; (SFC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I think it fits in very well and allows the ability for that CBRN Specialist to provide that mobile commander information and the teams around them.\u0026rdquo; (CWO2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;This being in an all-in-one compass on an Android phone I think looks very good and very applicable to a CBRN NCO.\u0026rdquo; (CWO2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I also like the possibility that you're pointing out from Army to Marine \u0026hellip;having that common point of being able to operate together I think is a very good point, and I think you hit that nail on the head.\u0026rdquo; (CWO2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Trying to get a new soldier to understand BFT sometimes is really complicated. So, I think bringing it into the platform to where it's on a cell phone is going to be easier for them to pick up.\u0026rdquo; (SFC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;So, the Battle Captain or the Battle NCO, depending on who's in charge during that shift, is really where you're going to have to look at placing these.\u0026rdquo; (SFC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;This COP is something that we've mock set up ourselves, so this being in an all-in-one encompassed on an Android phone, I think looks very good and very applicable to a CBRN NCO.\u0026rdquo; (CWO2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I think it's just going to be an upgrade in technology really\u0026hellip; If it's going to look similar to this, this is going to be for sure ideal. It's going to be a vast upgrade.\u0026rdquo; (SFC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I think the weather is really going to be helpful on this\u0026hellip;If this has a real time weather, you can almost estimate where the contamination's going to go depending on the density of the contaminant and different stuff like that. I think all the real time information that you guys have on here is going to be super helpful.\u0026rdquo; (SFC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I like the platform of it. I mean it's going to be really user friendly and what soldier doesn't have a cell phone?\u0026rdquo; (SGT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;think the more information the better for sure\u0026hellip;as long as it\u0026rsquo;s not crowded\u0026hellip; as long as it\u0026rsquo;s easy to access with these little tabs\u0026hellip;you don\u0026rsquo;t have to dig through to find it.\u0026rdquo; (SGT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;It's just going to be a good upgrade for us, especially with the real time. It's going to be faster, quicker, and way, way more user friendly. Save lives.\u0026rdquo; (SGT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSME Recommendations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFeature\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRecommendation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeather\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;showing the active weather conditions would be a huge decision point for all this.\u0026rdquo; (SSGT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHazard Footprint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;If you showed something with just the entire hazard area, presumptive hazard area bubble at whatever your max safest standoff distance is.\u0026rdquo; (SSGT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;just a quick protect in isolation zones, and I think that's very important for mobile commanders and other platoons to understand, \"Hey, stay out of this circle of an area. \u0026ldquo;(CWO2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlert\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Just as long as there was some type of audible, or vibrate, or something just to let whoever is operating in this know that \"Hey, you're going into a contaminated area.\"\u0026nbsp;(SGT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip; if it's vibrating, those trucks vibrate a lot. So, if it would have to make a noise or something.\u0026rdquo; (SFC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eView\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Like, you're driving on that route and you're looking at the route right then [driver point of view]. You'd almost want a... \u0026ldquo;Google Maps\u0026rdquo; type view where you're looking at it from the top. That way if an indicator pops up, even a click out, you can see it coming as opposed to when your convoy gets closer to it.\u0026rdquo; (SFC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research team also confirmed workflows across multiple TAK plug-ins (additional software components), from sensor integration (Source Term Estimation Tool), hazard prediction modelling (Effects Tool), route planning (Route Planning Tool), and protection (MOPP Tool).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eBattle staff, operators, cognitive artifacts, and information systems at the tactical edge make up a joint cognitive system (Woods and Hollnagel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) that can be studied and modelled using scientific methods such as CSE. The CSE approach is used to design technology, training, and processes that help people to manage cognitive complexity in such systems (Militello et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). We used CSE methods to develop an in-depth understanding of the operators, tasks, and work contexts (including the information systems) that are designed to support SA and decision making. Integration of five CSE phases (preparation, knowledge elicitation, analysis and representation, application design, and evaluation) produces a solution that is ecologically valid: based on data drawn directly from rigorous systematic study of the CBRN work setting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConrath (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1967\u003c/span\u003e) defines uncertainty as any moment in which a decision needs to be made based on an incomplete set of information. While senior commanders have the benefit of time to analyze and compare alternatives, front line operators need to rely on intuition based on experience to commit to a course of action. An integrated DSS that provides needed timely, accurate information that can be trusted mitigates the effects of uncertainty across echelons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Cognitive Artifacts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHutchins (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) describes cognitive artifacts as \u0026ldquo;physical objects made by humans for the purpose of aiding, enhancing, or improving cognition. Examples of cognitive artifacts include a string tied around the finger as a reminder, a calendar, a shopping list, and a computer.\u0026rdquo; Cognitive artifacts are typically used to support important, difficult activities and can externalize information, capturing details that cannot easily be held in memory. Artifacts such as a CBRN DSS can be used to sort through large amounts of data to present only what is most important, or \u003cem\u003esalient\u003c/em\u003e, and help to synthesize data into a cohesive whole.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA design prototype can help to make a novel concept easier to envision (Woods, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). As an envisioned world problem, participants need to foresee a condition such as using a new generation DSS that they have not experienced. The project\u0026rsquo;s video (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) illustrates how ATAK might operate in support of Avoidance and Protection. We used the video to elicit responses, grounded in the participants' own experiences, as to how the unit and procedures need to be designed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Participatory Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipatory Design (PD) is the close collaboration between system developers and intended end users. We used PD during the project, assuming that those who perform skilled work are in the best position to improve it and are the best resource to attest to how work is actually performed (Van der Velden and M\u0026ouml;rtberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The use of PD can facilitate \u0026ldquo;a more humane, creative, and effective design relationship between those involved in technology\u0026rsquo;s design and its use.\u0026rdquo; A product\u0026rsquo;s quality depends on how well it supports \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;the continually expanding and developing work practices of skilled practitioners\u0026rdquo; (Suchman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). PD offers a direct link between information technology and interventional research. Clemensen (2007) recommends development project teams to \u0026ldquo;Give the participants [the] possibility to explore potential futures by trying out or creating prototypes.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsultation with users through each phase of the project ensured the best understanding of the work domain: what is required, what is difficult, and how can a solution improve performance? The PD approach can also build support for the result among end users, as they can recognize a solution that reflects their needs and desires. Project team members\u0026rsquo; prior development of a real time Burn Intensive Care Unit (BICU) DSS further illustrates how PD works (see Nemeth et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile U.S. Army and National Guard SMEs have reviewed the ATAK prototype, the concept needs to be programmed as interactive software to be evaluated for usability with CBRN support units from various services.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe project team identified the commander\u0026rsquo;s critical information requirements to avoid hazards and make protective posture decisions, captured the TAK CBRN mission decision-making process, workflow and data representation, and modelled and evaluated a concept prototype. Future work can extend this pilot project through analysis of procedures that the Avoidance and Protection mission requires, characterization of Avoidance and Protection tasks and TAK application workflows, comparison between CBRN Avoidance and Protection tasks and TAK apps to determine fit and gaps, collection of data from deployed maneuver units to reveal and describe CBRN mental models, and development of new TAK applications for Avoidance and Protection and evaluation with maneuver units.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNemeth wrote the manuscript and created figures 2, 3, 4.Sedehi and DiPietrantonio created Figure 1.All ARA co-authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e The corresponding author is a member of the editorial board.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement/Disclaimer\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors appreciate the interest in and support by members of L2 Defense, the Marine Corps CBIRF, IL ARNG, and MT ARNG. Research was sponsored by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory and was accomplished under Cooperative Agreement Number W911NF-21-2-0252. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the Army Research Office or the U.S. Government. The U.S. Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for Government purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation herein.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrehmer B (2005) The dynamic OODA Loop: Amalgamating Boyd\u0026rsquo;s OODA Loop and the cybernetic approach to command and control. Proceedings of the10th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium: The Future of C2. MacLean, VA. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCacciabue PC, Hollnagel E (1995) Simulation of cognition: Applications. In: Hoc, JM, Cacciabue PC, Hollnagel E. (eds) Expertise and Technology: Cognition and Human-Computer Cooperation, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 55-73.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eClemensen J, Larsen SB, Kyng M (2007) Participatory design in health sciences: Using cooperative experimental methods in developing health services and computer technology. Qualitative Health Research.17(1):122\u0026ndash;130. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eConrath DW (1967) Organizational decision-making behavior under varying conditions of uncertainty. Management Science. 13(8):B487.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCrandall B, Klein G, Hoffman RR (2006) Working Minds: A Practitioner\u0026apos;s Guide to Cognitive Task Analysis. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHutchins E (2002) Cognitive Artifacts. Available at the MIT COGNET Web Site: http://cognet.mit.edu/MITECS /Entry/hutchins. Accessed July 7, 2002.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFM 3-11.3 (2022) Multiservice Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Contamination Avoidance.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eChapter II, Sect 4- CBRN Information Flow Strategy. Available at Army Knowledge Online: https://www.us.army.mil. Accessed 15 January 2022.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKlein G, Ross KG, Moon BM, Klein DE, Hoffman RR, Hollnagel E (2003) Macrocognition. IEEE\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eIntelligent Systems\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e 18(3): 81-85.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMarshall SP (2002) The Index of Cognitive Activity: Measuring cognitive workload. Proceedings of the IEEE 7th Conference on Human Factors and Power Plants. 7-7. doi: 10.1109/HFPP.2002.1042860.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMilitello L, Dominguez C, Lintern G, Klein G (2010) The role of cognitive systems engineering in the systems engineering design process. Systems Engineering, 13(3):261\u0026ndash;273.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNemeth C, Anders S, Brown J, Grome A, Crandall B, Pamplin J (2015) Support for ICU Clinician Cognitive Work through CSE. In: Bisantz A, Burns C, Fairbanks T (eds) Cognitive Engineering Applications in Health Care. Taylor and Francis/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. pp.127-152.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNemeth C, Klein G (2011) The Naturalistic Decision-Making Perspective. In: Cochran JJ (ed). Wiley Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science. John Wiley and Sons, New York.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNIST (2022). Tactical edge. Available at the National Institute of Science and Technology web site: https://csrc.nist.gov/glossary/term/tactical_edge.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePotter SS, Roth EM, Woods DD, Elm WC (1998, October) A framework for integrating cognitive task analysis into the system development process. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting,\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e42(3):395-399.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShattuck L, Miller N, Kemmerer K (2009) Tactical decision-making under conditions of uncertainty: An empirical study, Human Factors, 53(4):242-246.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePatton M (2002) Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSuchman L (1993) Foreword. In: Schuler D, Namioka A (eds) Participatory Design: Principles and Practice\u003cem\u003es\u003c/em\u003e. Taylor and Francis/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. pp. vii-ix. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUSMC (2017) MCDP-1 Warfighting.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eHeadquarters, United States Marine Corps, Department of the Navy, Washington, DC, 20380-1775.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVan der Velden M, M\u0026ouml;rtberg C (2015) Participatory design and design for values. Handbook of Ethics, Values, and Technological Design: Sources, Theory, Values and Application Domains. Springer, New York, pp. 41-66. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWahlstrom B (1988) On the use of models in human decision making. In Goodstein L, Anderson H, Olsen S (eds.). Tasks, Errors and Mental Models. Taylor and Francis, New York.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWoods DD (1998) Designs are hypotheses about how artifacts shape cognition and collaboration. Ergonomics. 41: 168-73.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWoods D, Hollnagel E. (2006) Joint Cognitive Systems: Patterns in Cognitive Systems Engineering. Taylor \u0026amp; Francis/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWoods D, Roth E (1988) Cognitive Systems Engineering. In: Helander M (ed.), Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction. North-Holland, Amsterdam, pp. 3\u0026ndash;43.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"cognition-technology-and-work","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ctwo","sideBox":"Learn more about [Cognition, Technology \u0026 Work](http://link.springer.com/journal/10111)","snPcode":"10111","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10111/3","title":"Cognition, Technology \u0026 Work","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Decision making, decision support, chemical biological radiological nuclear defense, cognitive work, situational awareness, Cognitive Systems Engineering","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3898614/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3898614/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eModern Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear (CBRN) operations require a significant reduction in the time between decision making and decision execution. This calls for effective decision support to improve situational awareness (SA) at the lowest practical echelon. Applied Research Associates, Inc. conducted a 22-month project to research Avoidance and Protection, the CBRN phase with greatest uncertainty and cognitive work demands, to determine how the Android Tactical Assault Kit (ATAK) could best support operator procedures and decision making. We confirmed U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) CBRN doctrine, created battalion commander, medical officer, CBRN specialist, and Soldier or Marine use cases, developed a concept video around existing CBRN passive defense workflows and tasking, then reviewed the concept with CBRN specialists returning from deployment as well as Integrated Early Warning and CBRN Support to Command-and-Control developers. Resulting improvement to decision support can more effectively sustain the operator\u0026rsquo;s observe, orient, decide, and act (OODA) loop while minimizing cognitive load.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Decision Support for CBRN Avoid and Protect Missions","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-01-31 17:31:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3898614/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-04-09T16:50:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-03-18T19:12:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"07301a51-f8eb-43cd-84ef-89ac7f5d0b3d","date":"2024-02-26T18:27:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-02-26T18:09:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-01-27T17:27:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-01-27T17:27:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Cognition, Technology \u0026 Work","date":"2024-01-25T23:58:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"cognition-technology-and-work","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ctwo","sideBox":"Learn more about [Cognition, Technology \u0026 Work](http://link.springer.com/journal/10111)","snPcode":"10111","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10111/3","title":"Cognition, Technology \u0026 Work","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c46983a8-f2e2-4ec6-8eed-2183a9aa7c4c","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 31st, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-05-06T16:52:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-01-31 17:31:06","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3898614","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3898614","identity":"rs-3898614","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"7rjqhiLT3MXkJMwkYKINL","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}