Chronic dietary ingestion of Bacillus thuringiensis spores promotes intestinal inflammation and aging in non-target adult Drosophila

ABSTRACT Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a spore-forming Gram-positive bacterium, is the leading microbial insecticide used in both organic and conventional agriculture to fight lepidopteran larvae. Bt insecticides, which consist of a mix of Bt spores and crystals of entomopathogenic toxins (Cry toxins), kill target pest larvae rapidly after ingestion by destroying their intestinal epithelium. The potential adverse effects of chronic consumption of Bt spores by non-target organisms have not been thoroughly investigated. In this study, using adult Drosophila melanogaster, a non-target dipteran organism of Bt insecticides, we show that chronic ingestion of agricultural doses of spores in the diet reduces lifespan. Our results demonstrate that Bt spore ingestion affects gut morphology, promotes dysplasia, alters septate junctions and enhances epithelial permeability. In addition, we observed increased levels of inflammatory signaling pathways and reactive oxygen species. Taken together, our results indicate that chronic consumption of Bt spores promotes inflammation and oxidative stress, leading to premature aging of the gut and early lethality in Drosophila. Extended to non-target insects, which account for 85% of animal biodiversity, our study suggests that highly persistent Bt spores may have unintended long-term effects on the environment. Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.