Using Command & Control for Coordinating UAV Fleets for Missions With Changing Contexts

Using Command & Control for Coordinating UAV Fleets for Missions With Changing Contexts | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Using Command & Control for Coordinating UAV Fleets for Missions With Changing Contexts Moussa Amrani, Abdelkader Ouared This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7869728/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 24 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Innovations in Systems and Software Engineering → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Search-and-Rescue (SaR) missions often expose first responders to extreme risks,particularly when operating in hazardous or unstable environments. Recent advances have made it possible to deploy swarms of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to assist in these operations, offering enhanced situational awareness, faster coverage, and reduced human exposure. Yet, the dynamic and unpredictable nature of SaR environments poses persistent challenges in coordinating drone teams, ensuring communication, and maintaining adaptability in the face of unexpected changes. Command & Control (C2) is a long-established military concept concerned with how entities and resources are organised, coordinated, and directed to achieve strategic objectives. In recent years, C2 has found renewed relevance in highly distributed and information-rich domains, such as disaster relief, humanitarian response, and large-scale coordination systems. Its core principles, namely structured communication, adaptive organization, and mission-driven alignment, make it an appealing framework for managing drones fleets in SaR missions. In this paper, we extend our previous work by providing a refined and formalised representation of C2 for drone-based SaR operations. First, we revisit and clarify NATO’s concepts of C2 Approaches and C2 Agility, grounding them in the operational realities of autonomous drone coordination. Second, we introduce a formal specification of C2 Systems, expressed through both a Domain-Specific Modeling Language (DSML) for system design, and a Structural Operational Semantics (SOS) that formally defines their dynamic behaviour. This dual representation enables systematic reasoning about the correctness and adaptability of C2-driven drone coordination. Third, we report on a simulation environment that operationalises our metamodel, allowing the design, execution, and observation of C2 System behaviours under evolving mission conditions. Altough preliminary, our paper aims at pushing forward formal foundations ofC2 for (semi-)autonomous drone systems, and provide a way toward designing fleets capable of adaptive, reliable, and verifiable behaviour. Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 24 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Innovations in Systems and Software Engineering → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 13 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 01 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 08 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 19 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 09 Nov, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 18 Oct, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 16 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 15 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7869728","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":543494961,"identity":"27e37e2e-94c7-4fee-9ecb-1afb40b64f42","order_by":0,"name":"Moussa Amrani","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Namur","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Moussa","middleName":"","lastName":"Amrani","suffix":""},{"id":543494962,"identity":"75898e2b-c435-426b-8586-aba57d9cb763","order_by":1,"name":"Abdelkader Ouared","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Namur","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdelkader","middleName":"","lastName":"Ouared","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-10-15 15:23:17","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7869728/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7869728/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11334-026-00625-9","type":"published","date":"2026-04-24T15:57:27+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":96220062,"identity":"7b5e4d80-4a0f-4384-b0dd-9fb7c80c450a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-18 23:03:55","extension":"json","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4747,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"701328b7cd6b43859dbdda15893ccde6.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7869728/v1/84c43085a5fcef2aecdc2058.json"},{"id":107929994,"identity":"4998313e-0832-461a-942f-9bbc9251e7b2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-27 16:24:13","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":879041,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"ISSEFULL.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7869728/v1_covered_b4565d28-bf07-4a75-b6b4-5a0d767d25e0.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Using Command \u0026 Control for Coordinating UAV Fleets for Missions With Changing Contexts","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"innovations-in-systems-and-software-engineering","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"isse","sideBox":"Learn more about [Innovations in Systems and Software Engineering](http://link.springer.com/journal/11334)","snPcode":"11334","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11334/3","title":"Innovations in Systems and Software Engineering","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7869728/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7869728/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSearch-and-Rescue (SaR) missions often expose first responders to extreme risks,particularly when operating in hazardous or unstable environments.\u0026nbsp;Recent advances have made it possible to deploy swarms of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles\u0026nbsp;(UAVs) to assist in these operations, offering enhanced situational awareness,\u0026nbsp;faster coverage, and reduced human exposure. Yet, the dynamic and unpredictable\u0026nbsp;nature of SaR environments poses persistent challenges in coordinating drone teams,\u0026nbsp;ensuring communication, and maintaining adaptability in the face of unexpected changes. Command \u0026amp; Control (C2) is a long-established military concept concerned with how entities and resources are organised, coordinated, and directed to achieve strategic objectives. In recent years, C2 has found renewed relevance in highly distributed and information-rich domains, such as disaster relief, humanitarian response, and large-scale coordination systems. Its core principles, namely structured communication, adaptive organization, and mission-driven alignment, make it an appealing framework for managing drones fleets in SaR missions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this paper, we extend our previous work by providing a refined and formalised\u0026nbsp;representation of C2 for drone-based SaR operations. First, we revisit and clarify\u0026nbsp;NATO’s concepts of C2 Approaches and C2 Agility, grounding them in the operational\u0026nbsp;realities of autonomous drone coordination. Second, we introduce a formal specification\u0026nbsp;of C2 Systems, expressed through both a Domain-Specific Modeling Language (DSML)\u0026nbsp;for system design, and a Structural Operational Semantics (SOS) that formally\u0026nbsp;defines their dynamic behaviour. This dual representation enables systematic\u0026nbsp;reasoning about the correctness and adaptability of C2-driven drone coordination.\u0026nbsp;Third, we report on a simulation environment that operationalises our metamodel,\u0026nbsp;allowing the design, execution, and observation of C2 System behaviours under\u0026nbsp;evolving mission conditions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAltough preliminary, our paper aims at pushing forward formal foundations ofC2 for (semi-)autonomous drone systems, and provide a way toward designing fleets\u0026nbsp;capable of adaptive, reliable, and verifiable behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Using Command \u0026amp; Control for Coordinating UAV Fleets for Missions With Changing Contexts","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-18 23:03:51","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7869728/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-13T16:46:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-01T20:52:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"99972583294787982571052247656689128811","date":"2025-12-08T18:42:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-19T23:08:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"62937485950782878643183042440203017835","date":"2025-11-09T15:46:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-09T14:59:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-18T19:28:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-16T04:28:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Innovations in Systems and Software Engineering","date":"2025-10-15T15:11:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"innovations-in-systems-and-software-engineering","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"isse","sideBox":"Learn more about [Innovations in Systems and Software Engineering](http://link.springer.com/journal/11334)","snPcode":"11334","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11334/3","title":"Innovations in Systems and Software Engineering","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"bafd164f-2f11-4ce4-994e-589048e7b9b6","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-27T16:23:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7869728","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11334-026-00625-9","journal":{"identity":"innovations-in-systems-and-software-engineering","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Innovations in Systems and Software Engineering"},"publishedOn":"2026-04-24 15:57:27","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 24th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-18 23:03:51","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11334-026-00625-9","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11334-026-00625-9","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7869728","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7869728","identity":"rs-7869728","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}