Study on the Reproductive Efficiency of Glossina pallidipes and Glossina fuscipes fuscipes under Laboratory Conditions

Study on the Reproductive Efficiency of Glossina pallidipes and Glossina fuscipes fuscipes under Laboratory Conditions | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Study on the Reproductive Efficiency of Glossina pallidipes and Glossina fuscipes fuscipes under Laboratory Conditions Masresha Yehualashet, Mintesnot Tsegaye, Daniel Getahun This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8120783/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract SIT is based on the mass production, radiation-based sterilization and release of sterile male tsetse flies over a target area to suppress or locally eliminate a target tsetse population. The aim of this study was to assess the reproductive efficiency of Glossina pallidipes and Glossina fuscipes fuscipes reared under laboratory conditions in terms of productivity, and survival of flies fed on different animal blood. A total of 384 flies from each female G. pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes were used to study the Reproductive Efficiency of Glossina pallidipes and Glossina fuscipes in terms of productivity and survival of flies obtained from stock colony of Kality Tsetse Research Center and fed on animals’ blood of bovine, camel, ovine and caprine for a period of 3 months. Duncan multiple range test was performed to analyze pupae per initial female, pupae production, fecundity, survival test fed on different blood diets using Stata computer software (version 12.0). The result reviled that Pupae per initial female recorded in G. pallidipes fed on the blood of caprine was significantly lower compared to those flies fed on the blood of the other animals. On the other hand, female flies of G. fuscipes fuscipes which fed on the blood of camel had significantly higher mean pupae per initial female than those flies fed on the blood of ovine, bovine, and caprine. Moreover, pupae quality as measured by weight class showed that flies fed caprine blood had also more small weight pupae (class A and B) compared to flies fed camel blood. However, in G. pallidipes, a statistically significant difference was not recorded in their survival rate in females flies fed camel, bovine and ovine blood. But in general camel blood was found to be the most suitable blood followed by ovine, bovine, and caprine in terms of productivity, pupae production, fecundity, and pupae weight of flies. Camel blood meal should be used for invitro feeding purpose of both G.pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes species of tsetse flies under laboratory condition to ensure better production. 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) are medically and economically important insects of the genus Glossina that belong to the family Glossinidae ( 1 ). They are confined almost exclusively to the sub-Saharan African continent, between 5°N to 20°S, latitudes, but the two species are found in southwest Saudi Arabia ( 2 ). Over 31 species of tsetse flies are present in the continent of Africa. However, only five species namely, Glossina pallidipes , G. m. submorsitans , G. f. fuscipes , G. tachinoides , and G. longipennis are known in different parts of Ethiopia (Amhara, Benishangul Gumuz, Oromia, Southern and Gambella) region of Ethiopia are infested with more than one species of tsetse fly ( 4 ). In Africa, the presence of tsetse flies and parasites is considered a major cause of poverty in humans (sleeping sickness) and animals (Nagana) (5; 6). Vaccinating against the African animal Trypanosomiasis is unsuccessful due to the sophisticated and evasive nature of the parasite. The parasites are shrouded in a thick glycoprotein coat and they can intermittently change resulting in the immune system being in a constant state of catch-up to identify the ever-changing parasite ( 7 ), and existing trypanocidal for chemotherapy is not always effective due to a reduction in efficacy as a result of increasing drug resistance in the parasites ( 8 ). Currently, the vector control methods are sequential aerosol spraying technique (SAT), ground spraying, aerial spraying, insecticide-treated targets or live baits, the use of impregnated traps, and the sterile insect technique (SIT) ( 9 ). SIT is based on the mass production of tsetse flies; radiation-based sterilization and the release of sterile insects over a target area to reduce or eradicate the target tsetse fly population ( 10 ). As compared to other tsetse control methods, the SIT has a non-residual effect on the environment and does not affect the non-target organisms, is species-specific, and can easily be integrated with biological control and chemical methods ( 11 ). The technique has been effectively used for the eradication of the new world screwworm (NWS) (Cochliomyia hominivorax) from North and then Central America to Panama ( 12 ) and tsetse ( G. austeni ) from Unguja Island in Zanzibar ( 13 ). The SIT project in Ethiopia was initiated and designed in 1997 with the support of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in the southern Rift Valley area. Its general objective was to create a tsetse-free zone in a 25, 000 square kilometer area suitable for agricultural development. To achieve this objective, the Kality Tsetse Fly Mass Rearing and Irradiation Center was inaugurated on 3 February 2007 with the mission of creating a zone free of tsetse fly in the Southern Rift Valley of Ethiopia ( 14 ). Mass rearing of tsetse flies ( Glossina spp.) in the laboratory is dependent on the high availability of blood and free of microbiological contaminant blood diet (15; 16; 17; 18). The use of host animals for live feeding for tsetse flies in mass-rearing insectariums is a risk to animals. For this reason, in the laboratory, it is necessary to develop effective and standardized daily tsetse fly feeding methods without using live animals for daily blood feeding ( 19 ).Therefore, the use of membrane (in vitro) feeding technique to successfully produce mass tsetse flies and economically less risky. 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Description of the Study Area The present experimental study was carried out at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center of Insectarium located in Addis Ababa. 3.2 Blood Collection and Processing Before the collection day, the containers, stirring material, and any other materials that were in contact with the blood were washed and sterilized in the oven for 24 hours. Blood of bovine (cattle), ovine (sheep), camel, and caprine (goat) was collected during the first week of January of 2023 from the cut of blood vessel of each host type in hygienically and separately collected from Addis Ababa Municipal Abattoir, in 10-liter stirring containers that allow defibrinating using the blood using a magnetic stirrer to prevent blood from clotting. The collected blood of each animal was sieved and poured separately into four-liter bottles and immediately taken to Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center. The blood of each animal in each bottle was labeled and stored in a cold room ( − 20°C) ( 20 ). 3.2.1 Blood Processing Procedures and Irradiation The collected blood was checked for microbial contamination, and bioassay for its nutritive value, and proportioned into bottles with a manageable size to be irradiated and fed to tsetse flies ( 21 ). After four days of storage, all the 4 liter bottles that were collected on the same day were thawed. Blood was mixed into a 100 liter container, previously sterilized, to obtain one overall sample of the blood collected each day. This sample was later used for the bioassay (also called 25 day feeding test) and was composed of 25 vials labeled carefully. One single bioassay was carried out for each collection day. After sampling for the bioassay, the blood in the 100 litter container was proportioned into a volume of 2 liters bottle, and was labeled. The labeled bottles were frozen until the result of the bioassay was available. During the proportioning, a sample of the blood of each bottle must be taken and labeled this samples were kept together with its original bottle and was later be used for microbial screening ( 20 ). Blood preparations were performed under UV laminar fans to reduce microbial contamination. Each frozen blood group with 2 liter bottles to were irradiated at 1- 1.5kilogray (kGy) in the gamma cell 220 excel. After irradiation the blood was tested for bacteria by inoculating 3ml of a blood sample with syringe onto the petri Dishes and mixed with agar and the samples were incubated at 37°C for 48–72 hours and read at 48 hrs and 72 hrs. The results were checked for bacterial colonies after 48 and 72 hrs. Blood with accepted colony number were passed for tsetse feeding (< 10 colony number) and the rest discarded ( 21 ).The bioassay samples were irradiated, after which, the 25 day feeding test was conducted by feeding the blood diet for tsetse flies at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center. The bioassay test was done for 25 days checking feeding response, survival and number of pupae production. The parameter was used for to calculate the quality factor the QF greater than one. Bioassay used for blood diet suitable for in colony maintenance for tsetse flies. The irradiated blood was transferred in to the working laboratory room and thawed in water until it changed in to liquid blood at + 4°C refrigerators for feeding purpose. 3.3 Experimental Flies The tsetse fly species used for the study were G. pallidipes and G. f. fuscipes of teneral flies obtained from the stock colonies of Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center. 3.4 Research Design An experimental study was conducted at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center. The experiment composed of two groups: A. Fecundity, Pupae per Initial Female (PPIF), survival rate and pupae production and weight class The sample sizes of the test flies used for the specific types of experiments carried out were based on ( 21 ). Accordingly, for a. Feeding and productivity test (fecundity, PPIF and pupae production) experiment : 384 female and 96 male flies of G. pallidipes and384 female and 96 male flies of G. fuscipes fuscipes (i.e., 32 females and 8 male flies per cage) b. Survival (mortality) rate experiment : 384 female and 96 male flies of G. pallidipes and 384 female and 96 male flies of G. fuscipes fuscipes . All the activities performed in the study were conducted following the center's standard operating procedure. 3. 5 Experimental Procedures 3.5.1 Pupae per Initial Female (PPIF) and Fecundity Test of Female G. pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes Thirty-two teneral female flies and 8 male flies (4:1 ratio) of G. pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes were randomly selected from the stock colonies and were separately placed in three cages (diameter of 20 cm and width of 5 cm).The flies in each cage were assigned to feed on different blood sources (treatments): bovine, camel, ovine and caprine, for 90 days. The feeding schedule was five days per week (Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday) for ten minutes and the temperature of the blood was adjusted to 35–37°C each time. Each treatment was replicated three times. Female productivity was measured as pupae per initial female (PPIF), the total number of pupae produced in a given time divided by the number of initial females. PPIF is 'commonly used to assess the health of the Glossina colonies ( 21 ). 3.5.2 Evaluation of Pupae Production and Pupae weight The pupae produced by the flies were collected daily from larviposition cups throughout the experimental period starting from day 16–20 after emergence expected and were sorted into normal and abort larvae three by visual observation recorded ( 22 ). Normal pupae were collected in to a separate Petri Dish, labeled according to the cage number and kept for 24 hours before weighing. Then the normal pupae were categorized into five weight classes using pupae balance. The pupae were sorted in to the standard system A (smallest, below 23 mg) to E (largest, above37 mg) for G. pallidipes and A (smallest below 22 mg) to the (largest, above 36 mg) for G. f. fuscipes length of the collection area was adjusted to correspond the five weight classes previously defined to pupae of G. pallidipes and G. f. fuscipes (Table 1 ). The pupae collected from the 3 cages of one experimental group were pooled together ( 22 ). Table 1.Definition of pupae weight classes for different Glossina species Pupae weight class (mg) Species A B C D E Glossina pallidipes 36 Glossina fuscipes 34 Glossina morsitans 29 Glossina tachinoides 20 Note: = greater than 3.5.3 Evaluation of Survival Rate of Female G. Pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes Mortality was recorded daily for each test group throughout the experimental period. Mortality rate in each cage was checked every day starting from day 2 after emergence up to the end of experimental period. Dead flies were recorded into blood-fed and starved fly mortalities. The mortality rate was calculated according to Standard Operating Procedures for Mass-Rearing of Tsetse flies. Survival was calculated by subtracting the number of dead flies from the previous day recorded of the total number of survival flies in each cage ( 21 ). The two Glossina species were maintained under different optimum environmental conditions of insectariums at a temperature of 23–25°C and RH of 75–80% for G. pallidipes and 23–25°C and RH of 80–85% for G. f. fuscipes ( 17 ). 3.6 Data Analysis Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) was performed to analyze PPIF, pupae production, fecundity, and survival of flies fed on different blood diets using Stata computer software (version 12.0) at 5% significance level. Results were presented using tables Pupae weight class percentages were analyzed compared with KTFRC's standard operating procedure (SOP)( 21 ). 4. RESULTS 4.1Pupae per initial females (PPIF) Pupae per initial females of G. pallidipes and G. f. fuscipes are shown in Table 2 . Significantly lower (P < 0.05) PPIF was recorded in G. pallidipes fed on the blood of caprine compared to flies fed on blood of the other animals. However, female of G. fuscipes fuscipes fed on the blood of camel had significantly higher mean (P 0.05) difference among these flies (Table 2 ). Table 2 Mean (± SD) pupae per initial female of G.pallidipes and G.fuscipes fuscipes fed on the blood of different animals Tsetse species Treatment G.pallidipes G.f. fuscipes Bovine 2.332 ± 0.489 ab 2.02 ± 0.193 a Camel 2.98 ± 0.325 bc 3.35 ± 0.52 c Ovine 2.5 ± 0.605 abc 2.15 ± 0.55 ab Caprine 0.79 ± 0.435 d 1.60 ± 0.64 ad Means in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance (DMRT) 4.2 Average Pupae Production by G. pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes Female flies of G. pallidipes fed on caprine blood significantly showed lower (P < 0.05) pupae production than flies fed on the blood of other animals (Table 3 ). On the other hand, G. f. fuscipes female flies fed on the blood of camel showed significantly higher (P < 0.05) mean pupae production compared to those flies fed on the blood of bovine, ovine and caprine (Table 3 ). Table 3 Mean (± SD) pupae production of G. pallidipes and G. f. fuscipes fed on blood of different animals Tsetse species Treatment G.pallidipes G.fuscipes fuscipes Bovine 76.6 ± 16.60 ab 67.3 ± 6.50 ab Camel 96.6 ± 7.62 ac 113.3 ± 16.8 c Ovine 83.0 ± 22.53 a 69.3 ± 14.8 ab Caprine 24.66 ± 12.89 d 52.66 ± 21.19 b Means in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance (DMRT) 4.3 Pupae weight Class (%) G. pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes In G. pallidipes the highest pupae weight (class E, >37) was recorded on camel (51%), followed by bovine blood diets (class E, >37) (29%)(Table 4 ).In G. f. fuscipes the highest pupae weight class (class C, (45%) was recorded on camel blood diets than other blood diets (Table 5 ). Table 4 Mean % of pupae produced by female of G. pallidipes fed on different blood of animals sorted in to different pupae weight class Treatment Pupae weight class (%) A B C D E Bovine 4 7 26 34 29 Camel 2 3 14 30 51 Caprine 16 32 30 14 8 Ovine 4 9 28 34 25 Pupae classes represented by letters A to E indicate weight in ascending order where 'A' refers to small pupae while 'E' refers to large pupae Table 5 Mean % of pupae produced by female of G. fuscipes fuscipes fed on different blood of animals sorted in to different pupae weight class Treatment Pupae weight class (%) A B C D E Bovine 29 55 13 3 0 Camel 8 30 45 14 2 Caprine 17 31 30 14 8 Ovine 19 56 22 3 0 Pupae classes represented by letters A to E indicate weight in ascending order where 'A' refers to small pupae while 'E' refers to large pupae. 4.4 Fecundity Fecundity of females of G. pallidipes fed on the blood of caprine was significantly lower (P 0.05) between the caprine and bovine blood. Unlike G. pallidipes , female flies of G. f. fuscipes fed on the blood of camel had significantly higher fecundity (P < 0.05) compared to those flies fed on other blood of animals (Table 6 ). Table 6 Mean fecundity of female G. pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes fed on different blood diets during the survival day Tsetse species Treatment G.pallidipes G.f. fuscipes Bovine 0.676 ± 0.037 ab 0.526 ± 0.015 a Camel 0.786 ± 0.138 bc 0.93 ± 0.149 c Ovine 0.771 ± 0.118 bc 0.61 ± 0.175 ab Caprine 0.54 ± 0.056 a 0.55 ± 0.130 a Means in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance (DMRT) 4.5 Female Survival Rate of G. Pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in weekly survival rate of female G. pallidipes fed on different blood of animals (Table 7 ). In contrast, significantly (P < 0.05) higher survival rate of G. f. fuscipes female was recorded on those fed on bovine blood diet, while lower survival rate was observed on caprine (Table 7 ). Table 7 Mean (± SD) of survival rate of female of G.pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes fed on blood of different animals Tsetse species Treatment G.pallidipes G.fuscipes fuscipes Bovine 0.218 ± 0.13 ab 0.354 ± 0.117 b Camel 0.239 ± 0.06 ab 0.17 ± 0.20 ab Ovine 0.104 ± 0.017 ab 0.291 ± 0.23 ab Caprine 0.062 ± 0.082 a 0.062 ± 0.107 a Means in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance (DMRT) 5. DISCUSSION For a colony to sustain- the minimum PPIF should be above 2.1 for 13 weeks and fecundity (as pupae per female per ovarian cycle) should be above 0.6 ( 23 ). However, pupae production below 3 per initial female results in no effective colony growth, or even decline ( 24 ). Based on this fact, the results of this study indicated that camel blood diets in G. f. fuscipes flies resulted in the highest mean PPIF (3.35) and fecundity(0.93) in which they were found to be above the standard PPIF (PPIF = 3)and fecundity(F = 0.6) value required to have a steady colony growth (effective colony growth). Similarly, the mean PPIF and fecundity, of G. pallidipes in camel, ovine and bovine blood diets, and G. f. fuscipes flies under ovine blood diets, were found to be above the standard (PPIF = 2.1) and fecundity (F = 0.6) value- required to sustain or survive the colony. However, caprine blood diets in G. pallidipes and both bovine and caprine blood diets in G. f. fuscipes resulted in extremely lower PPIF and fecundity values below the standard minimum values required to sustain or survive the colony compared with the rest diet. In the present study, the highest PPIF and fecundity of flies indicative of the overall performance and the nutritional quality of the blood diets ( 21 ).Several studies have revealed that insufficient nutrition of the female fly would lead to abortions. Increased abortion rates and reduced productivity resulting from an inadequate diet would hamper colony growth (25; 26), ( 21 ). However, the reproductive performance of G.pallidipes flies in vitro-fed on goat blood was significantly lower compared with flies fed on others sources of blood. In both species the overall results obtained from the pupae quality test were consistent with the findings of the reproductive test. G. pallidipes flies maintained feeding on caprine blood diets not only produced a low quantity of pupae but also a poor quality of small and light pupae which fell mostly into the smaller size categories A–B weight class. Similarly, G.f. fuscipes flies maintained feeding on camel blood diet produced a higher quantity with a good quality of pupae which fell mostly into the heavier weight categories C–E weight class. These results were in line with the findings of ( 27 ) who found that the weight of pupae depends on the amount and quality of blood fed by a female during pregnancy, with a highly significant correlation between puparia weight and quality of blood ingested. It is a fact that pupae class is a good overall quality indicator of the effectiveness of colony maintenance where each weight class can be defined using a weight-sorting machine. The mean pupae weights should approximate the values developed by ( 22 ), and no more than 10% of the puparium should be in weight class 'A'( 21 ). Consequently, the results of this study indicated that G. pallidipes flies maintained on camel, bovine and ovine blood diets,-the percentage of class 'A' pupae were found to be in the acceptable range which was less than 10%. In contrast, G. f. fuscipes flies maintained in all diets except camel blood, the percentage of class 'A' pupae were found to be in the unacceptable range which was greater than 10%. Both species of flies maintained on camel blood diets resulted in good quality of pupae while flies reared on caprine blood produced a poor quality pupae. This finding is in agreement with the previous report by ( 28 ) on female G. pallidipes , where the highest percentage of (A class) pupae were found on flies that were maintained under caprine blood diets compared with ovine and bovine blood diets. The reason for this finding could be due to the nutrient shortfall needed for the required performance in flies fed caprine blood diets and due to presence of better nutritive value in camel blood diets that supports the development of large pupae weight class as stated by previous findings, which stated pupae quality is an indication of the nutritional status of the fly and is reflected by pupae weight and size. High fecundity and low mortality is correlated with pupae size and weight. Very small and light pupae resulted in low emergency rate, a low number of strong and viable flies. The size and weight of pupae are reflection of the maintenance and feeding of female flies, and her ability to transfer the nutrients to her offspring ( 14 ). According to the present study, G. f. fuscipes showed a higher mean survival percentage under in-vitro feeding of bovine than caprine blood diets. The result obtained in G. f. fuscipes is in agreement with the report of ( 28 ) that the females of G. pallidipes fed on caprine blood diets showed lower average survival rate than flies fed on bovine, ovine and pig blood diets. However, we did not find significant differences in the survival rates of females of G. pallidipes flies fed on camel, bovine, ovine and caprine blood diet. This contradicts with the finding of ( 28 ) that G. pallidipes fed on caprine blood diets showed lower average survival rate than flies fed on bovine, ovine and pig blood diets. The low survival rate in case of caprine blood may be due to the differences in host specificity of G. f. fuscipes and a range of physiological adaptations to the specific host blood feeding. G. f. fuscipes female flies do not prefer to feed on caprine blood diet both at the field level and under laboratory in ideal ecology. Although tsetse flies, including G. pallidipes , are selective in their choice of hosts (except for the palpalis group, like G. f. fuscipes ) ( 29 ), the present study shows that G. pallidipes can be maintained on less preferred hosts like camel blood. This is also in agreement with (30; 31; 32). It is now well known that G. morsitans morsitans , G. palpalis , G. tachinoides , and G. pallidipes can be reared easily on less preferred hosts. Based on this fact, the results of this study indicated that G. pallidpes flies can be maintained under feeding of camel blood diets. This finding disagreed with the report of ( 21 ) that rearing of tsetse flies using in vitro membrane feeding of bovine, porcine, or a mixture of both blood have been a method of routine for colony maintaining. Tests using only bovine blood (at FAO /IAEA laboratories, Sibersdof, Austria) also demonstrated that most tsetse species could be maintained by feeding bovine blood alone. The result also clearly revealed that the overall performance of G. pallidipes colonies maintained on in vitro feeding of camel blood diets were nearly as good as maintained on bovine and ovine blood diets showing that camel blood diets can be absolutely useful for maintaining and rearing of both G. f. fuscipes and G. pallidipes colonies under laboratory condition at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center laboratory. It would appear, therefore, that tsetse flies have a physiological capability to digest and utilize as efficiently the blood of several mammals, including some on which they do not normally feed, such as wildebeest (33; 34). According to the result, the PPIF and fecundity of female G. pallidipes fed on bovine and ovine blood was almost comparable to that of camel blood fed flies, there were no statistical difference among them. This result agreed with the report of ( 28 ) who reported G. pallidipes colonies flies of the same strain (at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center laboratory) maintained on bovine and ovine blood diets were produced significantly more pupae than those fed on caprine, porcine and mixed blood diets. According to ( 35 )after prolonged maintenance, he found that a population of G. swynnertoni fed on sheep gave far better results than one fed on guinea pigs in Geigy racks; he also found that from the beginning of maintenance G. pallidipes did far better on sheep ( 36 ). It is known that the host preference of G.pallidipes in nature may include, in addition to bovines, smaller mammals such as bush pigs ( 37 ). Porcine- and bovine blood, and various combinations thereof, were therefore evaluated as rearing diets for these species. However the reproductive performance of G.pallidipes flies in vitro-fed on goat blood was significantly lower compared with flies fed on others sources of blood. According to the result, the PPIF (0.79) and fecundity (0.54) value of G. pallidipes flies fed on goat blood diet was extremely lower than the minimum standard value of PPIF (2.1) and fecundity (0.6). This result also agreed with the report of ( 28 ) who reported both the PPIF and fecundity value of the same strain of G. pallidipes colonies flies fed on caprine blood diet was lower than the standard value (2.1) and 0.6 respectively. According to ( 28 ), G. pallidipes colonies flies maintained on bovine and ovine blood were also produced significantly more pupae than those fed on caprine, porcine and mixed blood diets. This also agreed with the PPIF reported on generation F3 G. austeni and G. pallidipes fed on reconstituted freeze-dried caprine blood ( 23 ). This showed that the caprine blood diet highly reduces G. f. fuscipes female fly production. This was due to a lower nutritional value of caprine blood that supports the development of pupae in G. f. fuscipes resulting in lower pupae production and in the pregnancy cycle larval development is adversely affected by a nutritional shortfall. The quantity and weight of pupae depends on the amount of blood fed by a female during pregnancy, with a highly significant correlation between pupae weight and quality of blood diet fed (28; 38). The overall performance of the G. f. fuscipes flies fed camel blood diets was superior as compared to bovine, ovine and caprine blood diets which are most commonly used blood diets for rearing purposes in various laboratories showing that camel blood diets also can be absolutely useful for maintaining and rearing of G. f. fuscipes colonies under laboratory condition at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center laboratory. The tsetse fly Glossina palpalis (Diptera: Glossinidae, including G. f. fuscipes ) probably has no match among haematophagus insects in its vertebrate host range. According to ( 39 ) this fly can feed on any vertebrate it contacts. It is also not responsive to host derived odors presently being evaluated as olfactory baits and incorporated in trapping technology strategies for tsetse flies ( 40 ). However, G.f. fuscipes colonies fly in vitro-fed on bovine, ovine and caprine blood diets were invariably survived and reproduced. This result was disagree with the report of ( 28 ) who reported the PPIF female G. pallidipes fed on bovine blood was almost comparable to that of ovine blood fed flies (PPIF = 2.77) but agreed with the report of ( 28 ) who reported the PPIF value of G.pallidipes colonies flies fed on caprine was lower than the standard value (2.1). The difference was due to the fact that the two tsetse species belong to different groups of Glossina species (riverine and savannah) possibly exhibiting difference in host preferences (41; 42). 6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMONDATIONS In conclusion, overall performance of the G. f. fuscipes flies fed on camel blood diets was superior as compared to bovine, ovine and caprine blood diets. In addition overall performance of G.pallidipes colonies maintained on in vitro feeding of camel blood diets were nearly as good as maintained on bovine and ovine blood diets, showing that camel blood diets can be useful for maintaining and rearing of both G. f. fuscipes and G.pallidipes colonies under laboratory condition. The result encourages the use of blood diets for tsetse mass rearing in Ethiopia, considering the presence of large number of camel in the country, which are slaughtered in large numbers at Addis Ababa (Akaki Kality) Municipal Abattoirs near to Addis Ababa where the rearing facility is located. On the other hand, the low performance of the G.pallidipes flies fed caprine blood, particularly low PPIF, low fecundity and high proportion of lighter pupae, low longevity and low survival rate, indicated that caprine blood diet is nutritionally poor to be used for colony development. Similarly, G. f. fuscipes flies fed on goat, bovine and ovine blood diets showed low performance compared to camel blood indicating that these diets have low nutritional quality and therefore not qualified as a preferred diet for tsetse flies feeding. Therefore, based on the above results, the following recommendations have been forwarded: Camel blood diet was superior as compared to bovine, ovine and caprine blood showing that camel blood diets can be absolutely useful for maintaining and rearing of G. f. fuscipes and G. pallidipes tsetse fly colonies to ensure better production under laboratory conditions. Bovine blood diet, which has been used invitro feeding techniques at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center, produced not only a low quantity of pupae but also a poor quality of pupae. The highest overall percentage of inferior pupae quality (class A) (29%) recorded in G. f. fuscipes species fed on bovine blood diet were found to be in the unacceptable range which was greater than 10% showing that bovine blood diet is unsuitable for maintaining and rearing of G. f. fuscipes colonies. Hence camel blood could be considered as an alternative colony feeding in order to assure better tsetse production at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center. Further investigations should be done to assess the nutritional contents of camel diets for tsetse fly rearing. The mass-rearing of tsetse remains challenging, especially when more than one species is involved. The optimal rearing diet may differ between colonies and tsetse species and might need to be customized for each production unit. Decisions on the most suitable rearing diet will not only depend on the biological requirements of the flies involved but will also be influenced by the availably of a suitable blood source on a continuous and economic basis. Quality control and research on factors to optimize the diet needs to be done continuously. Declarations All experimental procedures involving Glossina pallidipes and Glossina fuscipes fuscipes were conducted in accordance with institutional and national guidelines for the care and use of animals in research. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the relevant Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) / Animal Ethics Committee, which provided oversight throughout the duration of the study. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Author Contribution A.B. conceived the study and designed the methodology, wrote the initial manuscript draftABC. performed the analyses, revised and edited the manuscript.All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. Acknowledgments: The authors thank the Adama Science and Technology University and staffs of KTFRC insectaries for their technical support and their cooperation. References Radostits OM, Gay CC, Hinchcliff KW, Constable PD. (2007). Veterinary Medicine: A textbook of the diseases of cattle, horses, sheep, pigs and goats, 10th. London, UK. Warnes M, Van den Bossche P, Chihiya J, Mudenge D, Robinson T, Shereni W, Chadenga V. Evaluation of insecticide treated cattle as a barrier to reinvasion of tsetse to cleared areas in northeastern Zimbabwe. Med Vet Entomol. 1999;13(2):177–84. Kotye FD. A comparative study on the ecology of tsetse flies (diptera: glossinidae) in the wabe and walga river systems. Addis Ababa University; 2006. Langridge WP. A tsetse and trypanosomiasis survey of Ethiopia.Ministry ofOverseas. Development of British and Ministry of Agriculture of Ethiopia.Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 1976. p. 97. Dyck VA, Hendrichs J, Robinson AS. Sterile insect technique: principles and practice in area-wide integrated pest management. Taylor & Francis; 2021. Feldmann U, Dyck V, Mattioli R, Jannin J, Vreysen M. (2021). Impact of tsetse fly eradication programmes using the sterile insect technique Sterile Insect Technique (pp. 1051–1080): CRC Press. For cosmetics. Journal of Cosmetic Science , 69(3):187–202. Jeremy S, Samuel B, Stefan M. African Trypanosomiasis: New insights for disease control. Parasitology. 2010;137:1975–1975. Stany G, Peter H, Oumar D, Mark E. (2001). African bovine Trypanomosis: the problem of drug Resistance. Trends Parasitol 25–8. WHO. (2011).Vector control, Human African Trypanosomiasis. Accessed time September 10, 2011. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs259/en/ Dyck VAm, Hendrickx G, Robinson AS. Sterile insect technique. Vienna, Austria: Springer, International Atomic Energy Agency; 2005. Leak SG. (1999). Tsetse biology and ecology: their role in the epidemiology and control of Trypanosomiasis. Richard W, David S. (1997): Myiasis. In: Veterinary Ectoparasites: Biology, Pathology, and Control. 2nd ed., London. Vreysen M. Principles of area-wide integrated tsetse fly control using the sterile insect technique. MédecineTropicale. 2001;61(4–5):397–410. IAEA. (2007).Technical cooperation report for 2006. Report by the director general, international atomic agency, 2007. Nash TAM, Jordan AM, Boyle JA. The large-scale rearing of G. austeni (Newst.)In the laboratory.The final technique. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1968;62:336–41. Van der Vloedt A. (1982). Recent advances in tsetse mass rearing with particular reference to Glossina palpalispalpalis (Rob.-Desv.) fed in vivo on guinea pigs. Paper presented at the sterile insect technique and radiation in insect control: proceedings, International Symposium on the Sterile Insect Technique and the Use of Radiation in Genetic Insect Control, held in Neuherberg, 29 June-3 July 1981. Williamson D, Dame D, Gates D, Cobb P, Bakuli B, Warner P. Integration of insect sterility and insecticides for control of Glossina morsitansmorsitans Westwood (Diptera: Glossinidae) in Tanzania. V. The impact of sequential releases of sterilized tsetse flies. Bull Entomol Res. 1983;73(3):391–404. Olandunmade M, Takken W, Tenabe S, Onah J, Dengwat L, Feldmann U, van der Vloedt A. (1990). Eradication of Glossina palpalispalpalis (Robineau-Desvoidy) (Diptera: Glossinidae) from agro pastoral land in central Nigeria by means of the sterile insect technique Sterile insect technique for tsetse control and eradication of Radiation in Genetic Insect Control, held in Neuherberg, 29 June-3 July 1981. Wetzel H, Luger D. In vitro feeding in the rearing of tsetse flies (Glossina m. morsitans and G.ppalpalis, Diptera: Glossinidae). Tropenmedizin und Parasitologie. 1978;29(2):239–51. Feldmann U. Guide lines for the rearing of tsetse flies using the membrane feeding technique. In: Techniques of insect rearing for the development of integrated pest and Vector management strategies: Ochieng-Odero. J. P. R, editor. ICIPE science; 1994c. pp. 449–71. FAO/IAEA. (2006). Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations and International Atomic Energy Agency.In: Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for Mass-Rearing Tsetse flies. Zelger R, Russ K. Untersuchungenuber die mechanischeTrennung von Mannchen und Weibchen der KirschfruchtfliegeimPuppenstadium. Z ang Zool. 1976;63:257–66. Opiyo, M. A., Ngowo, H. S., Mapua, S. A., Mpingwa, M., Nchimbi, N., Matowo, N. S.,… Okumu, F. O. (2021). Sub-lethal aquatic doses of pyriproxyfen may increase pyrethroid resistance in malaria mosquitoes. PLoS One, 16(3): e0248538.. IAEA. (2003). Automation for tsetse mass rearing for use in sterile insect technique programmes.Final report of a coordinated research project 1995–2001, May/2003.IAEA-TECDOC1353.IAEA, Vienna, Austria, Pp.1–45. Mellanby H. Experimental work on reproduction in the tsetse fly. Glossina palpalis Parasitology. 1937;29(1):131–41. Ward RA. Tsetse fly colonization (Diptera: Muscidae, Glossina spp). Bull ESA. 1970;16(2):111–5. Kettle DS. Medical and veterinary entomology. 2nd ed. Wallingford, United Kingdom: CABI Publishing; 1995. Assefa K. (2012). Study on the survival and reproductive performance of female G. pallidipes (Diptera: Glossinidae) at Kality Tsetse Fly Rearing and Irradiation Center, Addis Ababa. MSc Thesis, Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies, Department of Biology, Pp.26. Jaenson TGT, Takken W. Rearing of Glossina pallidipes using membrane-feeding technology. EntomologiaExperimentalisetApplicata. 1980;27(1):102–4. Buxton PA. (1955). The Natural History of Tsetse flies. An Account of the Biology of the Genus Glossina (Dipterans).The Natural History of Tsetse flies. An Account of the Biology of the Genus Glossina (Dipterans), (10). Langley PA. The effect of host pregnancy on the reproductive capability of the tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans, in captivity. J Insect Physiol. 1968;14(1):121–33. Moloo S, Grootenhuis J, Kar S, Karstad L. Survival and reproductive performance of female Glossina morsitansmorsitans when maintained on the blood of different species of wild mammals. Med Vet Entomol. 1988;2(4):347–50. Weitz B. The feeding habits of Glossina. Bull World Health Organ. 1963;28(5–6):711. Moloo SK. An artificial feeding technique for Glossina. Parasitology. 1971;63(3):507–51. Willett KC. The laboratory maintenance of Glossina. I Parasitology. 1953;43(1–2):110–30. Geigy R. (1948). Rearing of Glossina palpalis. ActaTropica, 5(3):201 – 18. De Beer CJ, Venter GJ, &Vreysen MJ. (2016).Improving the diet for the rearing of Glossina brevipalpisNewstead and Glossina austeni Newstead: Blood source and collection–processing–feeding procedures. PLoS ONE, 11(12), e0168799. Langley PA, Pimley RW. Quantitative aspects of reproduction and larval nutrition in Glossina morsitansmorsitansWestw. (Diptera, Glossinidae) fed in vitro. Bull Entomol Res. 1975;65(1):129–42. Jordan AM, Lee-Jones F, Weitz B. The natural hosts of tsetse flies in Northern Nigeria. Annals Trop Med Parasitol. 1962;56(4):430–42. Willemse LPM, Takken W. Odor-induced host location in tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae). J Med Entomol. 1994;31(6):775–94. Clausen A. Bauer, Breloeer, Salchow, &Staak. (1998). Host preferences of tsetse (Diptera: Glossinidae) based on blood meal identifications. Med Vet Entomol, 12(2):169–80. Auty H, Morrison LJ, Torr SJ, Lord J. Transmission dynamics of Rhodesian sleeping sickness at the interface of wildlife and livestock areas. Trends Parasitol. 2016;32(8):608–21. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8120783","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":546662192,"identity":"218b1362-b421-471f-8999-ab5b50ab2d2f","order_by":0,"name":"Masresha Yehualashet","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Masresha","middleName":"","lastName":"Yehualashet","suffix":""},{"id":546662193,"identity":"4c8a49cb-12c2-4a04-b466-72e7d978fd8f","order_by":1,"name":"Mintesnot Tsegaye","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kality Tsetse Fly Research 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INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.1 Background of the Study\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) are medically and economically important insects of the genus \u003cem\u003eGlossina\u003c/em\u003e that belong to the family Glossinidae (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). They are confined almost exclusively to the sub-Saharan African continent, between 5\u0026deg;N to 20\u0026deg;S, latitudes, but the two species are found in southwest Saudi Arabia (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Over 31 species of tsetse flies are present in the continent of Africa. However, only five species namely, \u003cem\u003eGlossina pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eG. m. submorsitans\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eG. longipennis\u003c/em\u003e are known in different parts of Ethiopia (Amhara, Benishangul Gumuz, Oromia, Southern and Gambella) region of Ethiopia are infested with more than one species of tsetse fly (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). In Africa, the presence of tsetse flies and parasites is considered a major cause of poverty in humans (sleeping sickness) and animals (Nagana) (5; 6).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVaccinating against the African animal Trypanosomiasis is unsuccessful due to the sophisticated and evasive nature of the parasite. The parasites are shrouded in a thick glycoprotein coat and they can intermittently change resulting in the immune system being in a constant state of catch-up to identify the ever-changing parasite (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e), and existing trypanocidal for chemotherapy is not always effective due to a reduction in efficacy as a result of increasing drug resistance in the parasites (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, the vector control methods are sequential aerosol spraying technique (SAT), ground spraying, aerial spraying, insecticide-treated targets or live baits, the use of impregnated traps, and the sterile insect technique (SIT) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSIT is based on the mass production of tsetse flies; radiation-based sterilization and the release of sterile insects over a target area to reduce or eradicate the target tsetse fly population (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). As compared to other tsetse control methods, the SIT has a non-residual effect on the environment and does not affect the non-target organisms, is species-specific, and can easily be integrated with biological control and chemical methods (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). The technique has been effectively used for the eradication of the new world screwworm (NWS) (Cochliomyia hominivorax) from North and then Central America to Panama (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e) and tsetse (\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e) from Unguja Island in Zanzibar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe SIT project in Ethiopia was initiated and designed in 1997 with the support of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in the southern Rift Valley area. Its general objective was to create a tsetse-free zone in a 25, 000 square kilometer area suitable for agricultural development. To achieve this objective, the Kality Tsetse Fly Mass Rearing and Irradiation Center was inaugurated on 3 February 2007 with the mission of creating a zone free of tsetse fly in the Southern Rift Valley of Ethiopia (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMass rearing of tsetse flies (\u003cem\u003eGlossina\u003c/em\u003espp.) in the laboratory is dependent on the high availability of blood and free of microbiological contaminant blood diet (15; 16; 17; 18). The use of host animals for live feeding for tsetse flies in mass-rearing insectariums is a risk to animals. For this reason, in the laboratory, it is necessary to develop effective and standardized daily tsetse fly feeding methods without using live animals for daily blood feeding (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e).Therefore, the use of membrane (in vitro) feeding technique to successfully produce mass tsetse flies and economically less risky.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Description of the Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe present experimental study was carried out at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center of Insectarium located in Addis Ababa.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Blood Collection and Processing\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBefore the collection day, the containers, stirring material, and any other materials that were in contact with the blood were washed and sterilized in the oven for 24 hours. Blood of bovine (cattle), ovine (sheep), camel, and caprine (goat) was collected during the first week of January of 2023 from the cut of blood vessel of each host type in hygienically and separately collected from Addis Ababa Municipal Abattoir, in 10-liter stirring containers that allow defibrinating using the blood using a magnetic stirrer to prevent blood from clotting. The collected blood of each animal was sieved and poured separately into four-liter bottles and immediately taken to Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center. The blood of each animal in each bottle was labeled and stored in a cold room (\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026thinsp;20\u0026deg;C) (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Blood Processing Procedures and Irradiation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe collected blood was checked for microbial contamination, and bioassay for its nutritive value, and proportioned into bottles with a manageable size to be irradiated and fed to tsetse flies (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). After four days of storage, all the 4 liter bottles that were collected on the same day were thawed. Blood was mixed into a 100 liter container, previously sterilized, to obtain one overall sample of the blood collected each day. This sample was later used for the bioassay (also called 25 day feeding test) and was composed of 25 vials labeled carefully. One single bioassay was carried out for each collection day. After sampling for the bioassay, the blood in the 100 litter container was proportioned into a volume of 2 liters bottle, and was labeled. The labeled bottles were frozen until the result of the bioassay was available. During the proportioning, a sample of the blood of each bottle must be taken and labeled this samples were kept together with its original bottle and was later be used for microbial screening (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlood preparations were performed under UV laminar fans to reduce microbial contamination. Each frozen blood group with 2 liter bottles to were irradiated at 1- 1.5kilogray (kGy) in the gamma cell 220 excel. After irradiation the blood was tested for bacteria by inoculating 3ml of a blood sample with syringe onto the petri Dishes and mixed with agar and the samples were incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 48\u0026ndash;72 hours and read at 48 hrs and 72 hrs. The results were checked for bacterial colonies after 48 and 72 hrs. Blood with accepted colony number were passed for tsetse feeding (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10 colony number) and the rest discarded (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e).The bioassay samples were irradiated, after which, the 25 day feeding test was conducted by feeding the blood diet for tsetse flies at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center. The bioassay test was done for 25 days checking feeding response, survival and number of pupae production. The parameter was used for to calculate the quality factor the QF greater than one. Bioassay used for blood diet suitable for in colony maintenance for tsetse flies. The irradiated blood was transferred in to the working laboratory room and thawed in water until it changed in to liquid blood at +\u0026thinsp;4\u0026deg;C refrigerators for feeding purpose.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Experimental Flies\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe tsetse fly species used for the study were \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e of teneral flies obtained from the stock colonies of Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Research Design\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAn experimental study was conducted at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center. The experiment composed of two groups:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA. Fecundity, Pupae per Initial Female (PPIF), survival rate and pupae production and weight class\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe sample sizes of the test flies used for the specific types of experiments carried out were based on (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, for\u003c/p\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ea. \u003cstrong\u003eFeeding and productivity test (fecundity, PPIF and pupae production) experiment\u003c/strong\u003e: 384 female and 96 male flies of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and384 female and 96 male flies of \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e(i.e., 32 females and 8 male flies per cage)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eb. \u003cstrong\u003eSurvival (mortality) rate experiment\u003c/strong\u003e: 384 female and 96 male flies of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and 384 female and 96 male flies of \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll the activities performed in the study were conducted following the center\u0026apos;s standard operating procedure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3. 5 Experimental Procedures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.5.1 Pupae per Initial Female (PPIF) and Fecundity Test of Female\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eand\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThirty-two teneral female flies and 8 male flies (4:1 ratio) of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e were randomly selected from the stock colonies and were separately placed in three cages (diameter of 20 cm and width of 5 cm).The flies in each cage were assigned to feed on different blood sources (treatments): bovine, camel, ovine and caprine, for 90 days. The feeding schedule was five days per week (Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday) for ten minutes and the temperature of the blood was adjusted to 35\u0026ndash;37\u0026deg;C each time. Each treatment was replicated three times.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFemale productivity was measured as pupae per initial female (PPIF), the total number of pupae produced in a given time divided by the number of initial females. PPIF is \u0026apos;commonly used to assess the health of the \u003cem\u003eGlossina\u003c/em\u003e colonies (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e3.5.2 Evaluation of Pupae Production and Pupae weight\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe pupae produced by the flies were collected daily from larviposition cups throughout the experimental period starting from day 16\u0026ndash;20 after emergence expected and were sorted into normal and abort larvae three by visual observation recorded (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e). Normal pupae were collected in to a separate Petri Dish, labeled according to the cage number and kept for 24 hours before weighing. Then the normal pupae were categorized into five weight classes using pupae balance. The pupae were sorted in to the standard system A (smallest, below 23 mg) to E (largest, above37 mg) for \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and A (smallest below 22 mg) to the (largest, above 36 mg) for \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e length of the collection area was adjusted to correspond the five weight classes previously defined to pupae of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The pupae collected from the 3 cages of one experimental group were pooled together (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable 1.Definition of pupae weight classes for different \u003cem\u003eGlossina\u003c/em\u003e species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePupae \u0026nbsp;weight class (mg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGlossina pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23 \u0026ndash;\u003cstrong\u003e28\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29 \u0026ndash;32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33 \u0026minus;36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt; 36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGlossina fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22 \u0026ndash;\u003cstrong\u003e27\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28 \u0026ndash;31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32 \u0026minus;35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt; 34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGlossina morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18 \u0026minus;\u003cstrong\u003e21\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22 \u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26 \u0026minus;29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 28px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGlossina tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 \u0026minus;\u003cstrong\u003e16\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17 \u0026ndash;18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19 \u0026minus;20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt; 20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: \u0026nbsp; \u0026lt; = less than \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026gt; = greater than\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003e3.5.3 Evaluation of Survival Rate of Female \u003cem\u003eG. Pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMortality was recorded daily for each test group throughout the experimental period. Mortality rate in each cage was checked every day starting from day 2 after emergence up to the end of experimental period. Dead flies were recorded into blood-fed and starved fly mortalities. The mortality rate was calculated according to Standard Operating Procedures for Mass-Rearing of Tsetse flies. Survival was calculated by subtracting the number of dead flies from the previous day recorded of the total number of survival flies in each cage (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe two \u003cem\u003eGlossina\u003c/em\u003e species were maintained under different optimum environmental conditions of insectariums at a temperature of 23\u0026ndash;25\u0026deg;C and RH of 75\u0026ndash;80% for \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and 23\u0026ndash;25\u0026deg;C and RH of 80\u0026ndash;85% for \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.6 Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuncan\u0026apos;s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) was performed to analyze PPIF, pupae production, fecundity, and survival of flies fed on different blood diets using Stata computer software (version 12.0) at 5% significance level. Results were presented using tables Pupae weight class percentages were analyzed compared with KTFRC\u0026apos;s standard operating procedure (SOP)(\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1Pupae per initial females (PPIF)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePupae per initial females of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Significantly lower (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) PPIF was recorded in \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on the blood of caprine compared to flies fed on blood of the other animals. However, female of \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on the blood of camel had significantly higher mean (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) PPIF than flies fed on the blood of ovine, bovine and caprine. Where there was no significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) difference among these flies (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD) pupae per initial female of \u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG.fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on the blood of different animals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTsetse species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBovine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.332\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.489\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.193\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCamel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.325\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.52\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOvine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.605\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaprine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.435\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64\u003csup\u003ead\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance (DMRT)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Average Pupae Production by \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale flies of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on caprine blood significantly showed lower (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) pupae production than flies fed on the blood of other animals (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e female flies fed on the blood of camel showed significantly higher (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) mean pupae production compared to those flies fed on the blood of bovine, ovine and caprine (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD) pupae production of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on blood of different animals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTsetse species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBovine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.60\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.50\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCamel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.62\u003csup\u003eac\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e113.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.8\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOvine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.53\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.8\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaprine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.89\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.19\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance (DMRT)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Pupae weight Class (%) \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e the highest pupae weight (class E, \u0026gt;37) was recorded on camel (51%), followed by bovine blood diets (class E, \u0026gt;37) (29%)(Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).In \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e the highest pupae weight class (class C, (45%) was recorded on camel blood diets than other blood diets (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean % of pupae produced by female of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on different blood of animals sorted in to different pupae weight class\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePupae weight class (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBovine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCamel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaprine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOvine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePupae classes represented by letters A to E indicate weight in ascending order where 'A' refers to small pupae while 'E' refers to large pupae\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean % of pupae produced by female of \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on different blood of animals sorted in to different pupae weight class\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePupae weight class (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBovine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCamel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaprine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOvine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePupae classes represented by letters A to E indicate weight in ascending order where 'A' refers to small pupae while 'E' refers to large pupae.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.4 Fecundity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFecundity of females of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on the blood of caprine was significantly lower (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) than flies fed on the blood of camel and ovine (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). In addition there was no significant difference (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) between the caprine and bovine blood. Unlike \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e, female flies of \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on the blood of camel had significantly higher fecundity (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) compared to those flies fed on other blood of animals (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean fecundity of female \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on different blood diets during the survival day\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTsetse species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBovine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.676\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.037\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.526\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.015\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCamel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.786\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.138\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.149\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOvine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.771\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.118\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.175\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaprine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.056\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.130\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance (DMRT)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.5 Female Survival Rate of \u003cem\u003eG. Pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere was no significant difference (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in weekly survival rate of female\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on different blood of animals (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, significantly (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) higher survival rate of \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e female was recorded on those fed on bovine blood diet, while lower survival rate was observed on caprine (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD) of survival rate of female of \u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on blood of different animals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTsetse species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG.fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBovine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.218\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.354\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.117\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCamel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.239\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOvine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.104\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.017\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.291\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.23\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaprine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.062\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.082\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.062\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.107\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance (DMRT)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eFor a colony to sustain- the minimum PPIF should be above 2.1 for 13 weeks and fecundity (as pupae per female per ovarian cycle) should be above 0.6 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). However, pupae production below 3 per initial female results in no effective colony growth, or even decline (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e). Based on this fact, the results of this study indicated that camel blood diets in \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e flies resulted in the highest mean PPIF (3.35) and fecundity(0.93) in which they were found to be above the standard PPIF (PPIF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3)and fecundity(F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.6) value required to have a steady colony growth (effective colony growth). Similarly, the mean PPIF and fecundity, of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e in camel, ovine and bovine blood diets, and \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e flies under ovine blood diets, were found to be above the standard (PPIF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.1) and fecundity (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.6) value- required to sustain or survive the colony. However, caprine blood diets in \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and both bovine and caprine blood diets in \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e resulted in extremely lower PPIF and fecundity values below the standard minimum values required to sustain or survive the colony compared with the rest diet.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, the highest PPIF and fecundity of flies indicative of the overall performance and the nutritional quality of the blood diets (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e).Several studies have revealed that insufficient nutrition of the female fly would lead to abortions. Increased abortion rates and reduced productivity resulting from an inadequate diet would hamper colony growth (25; 26), (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). However, the reproductive performance of \u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e flies in vitro-fed on goat blood was significantly lower compared with flies fed on others sources of blood.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn both species the overall results obtained from the pupae quality test were consistent with the findings of the reproductive test. \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e flies maintained feeding on caprine blood diets not only produced a low quantity of pupae but also a poor quality of small and light pupae which fell mostly into the smaller size categories A\u0026ndash;B weight class. Similarly, \u003cem\u003eG.f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e flies maintained feeding on camel blood diet produced a higher quantity with a good quality of pupae which fell mostly into the heavier weight categories C\u0026ndash;E weight class. These results were in line with the findings of (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e) who found that the weight of pupae depends on the amount and quality of blood fed by a female during pregnancy, with a highly significant correlation between puparia weight and quality of blood ingested. It is a fact that pupae class is a good overall quality indicator of the effectiveness of colony maintenance where each weight class can be defined using a weight-sorting machine. The mean pupae weights should approximate the values developed by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e), and no more than 10% of the puparium should be in weight class 'A'(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, the results of this study indicated that \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e flies maintained on camel, bovine and ovine blood diets,-the percentage of class 'A' pupae were found to be in the acceptable range which was less than 10%. In contrast, \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e flies maintained in all diets except camel blood, the percentage of class 'A' pupae were found to be in the unacceptable range which was greater than 10%. Both species of flies maintained on camel blood diets resulted in good quality of pupae while flies reared on caprine blood produced a poor quality pupae. This finding is in agreement with the previous report by (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e) on female \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e, where the highest percentage of (A class) pupae were found on flies that were maintained under caprine blood diets compared with ovine and bovine blood diets. The reason for this finding could be due to the nutrient shortfall needed for the required performance in flies fed caprine blood diets and due to presence of better nutritive value in camel blood diets that supports the development of large pupae weight class as stated by previous findings, which stated pupae quality is an indication of the nutritional status of the fly and is reflected by pupae weight and size. High fecundity and low mortality is correlated with pupae size and weight. Very small and light pupae resulted in low emergency rate, a low number of strong and viable flies. The size and weight of pupae are reflection of the maintenance and feeding of female flies, and her ability to transfer the nutrients to her offspring (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the present study, \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e showed a higher mean survival percentage under in-vitro feeding of bovine than caprine blood diets. The result obtained in \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e is in agreement with the report of (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e) that the females of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on caprine blood diets showed lower average survival rate than flies fed on bovine, ovine and pig blood diets. However, we did not find significant differences in the survival rates of females of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e flies fed on camel, bovine, ovine and caprine blood diet. This contradicts with the finding of (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e) that \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on caprine blood diets showed lower average survival rate than flies fed on bovine, ovine and pig blood diets. The low survival rate in case of caprine blood may be due to the differences in host specificity of \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e and a range of physiological adaptations to the specific host blood feeding. \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e female flies do not prefer to feed on caprine blood diet both at the field level and under laboratory in ideal ecology.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough tsetse flies, including \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e, are selective in their choice of hosts (except for the palpalis group, like \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e), the present study shows that \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e can be maintained on less preferred hosts like camel blood. This is also in agreement with (30; 31; 32). It is now well known that \u003cem\u003eG. morsitans morsitans\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eG. palpalis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e can be reared easily on less preferred hosts. Based on this fact, the results of this study indicated that \u003cem\u003eG. pallidpes\u003c/em\u003e flies can be maintained under feeding of camel blood diets. This finding disagreed with the report of (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e) that rearing of tsetse flies using in vitro membrane feeding of bovine, porcine, or a mixture of both blood have been a method of routine for colony maintaining. Tests using only bovine blood (at FAO /IAEA laboratories, Sibersdof, Austria) also demonstrated that most tsetse species could be maintained by feeding bovine blood alone. The result also clearly revealed that the overall performance of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies maintained on in vitro feeding of camel blood diets were nearly as good as maintained on bovine and ovine blood diets showing that camel blood diets can be absolutely useful for maintaining and rearing of both \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies under laboratory condition at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center laboratory. It would appear, therefore, that tsetse flies have a physiological capability to digest and utilize as efficiently the blood of several mammals, including some on which they do not normally feed, such as wildebeest (33; 34).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the result, the PPIF and fecundity of female \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on bovine and ovine blood was almost comparable to that of camel blood fed flies, there were no statistical difference among them. This result agreed with the report of (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e) who reported \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies flies of the same strain (at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center laboratory) maintained on bovine and ovine blood diets were produced significantly more pupae than those fed on caprine, porcine and mixed blood diets. According to (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e)after prolonged maintenance, he found that a population of \u003cem\u003eG. swynnertoni\u003c/em\u003e fed on sheep gave far better results than one fed on guinea pigs in Geigy racks; he also found that from the beginning of maintenance \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e did far better on sheep (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e). It is known that the host preference of \u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e in nature may include, in addition to bovines, smaller mammals such as bush pigs (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). Porcine- and bovine blood, and various combinations thereof, were therefore evaluated as rearing diets for these species. However the reproductive performance of \u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e flies in vitro-fed on goat blood was significantly lower compared with flies fed on others sources of blood. According to the result, the PPIF (0.79) and fecundity (0.54) value of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e flies fed on goat blood diet was extremely lower than the minimum standard value of PPIF (2.1) and fecundity (0.6). This result also agreed with the report of (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e) who reported both the PPIF and fecundity value of the same strain of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies flies fed on caprine blood diet was lower than the standard value (2.1) and 0.6 respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies flies maintained on bovine and ovine blood were also produced significantly more pupae than those fed on caprine, porcine and mixed blood diets. This also agreed with the PPIF reported on generation F3 \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on reconstituted freeze-dried caprine blood (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). This showed that the caprine blood diet highly reduces \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e female fly production. This was due to a lower nutritional value of caprine blood that supports the development of pupae in \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e resulting in lower pupae production and in the pregnancy cycle larval development is adversely affected by a nutritional shortfall. The quantity and weight of pupae depends on the amount of blood fed by a female during pregnancy, with a highly significant correlation between pupae weight and quality of blood diet fed (28; 38).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe overall performance of the \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e flies fed camel blood diets was superior as compared to bovine, ovine and caprine blood diets which are most commonly used blood diets for rearing purposes in various laboratories showing that camel blood diets also can be absolutely useful for maintaining and rearing of \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies under laboratory condition at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center laboratory. The tsetse fly \u003cem\u003eGlossina palpalis\u003c/em\u003e (Diptera: Glossinidae, including \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e) probably has no match among haematophagus insects in its vertebrate host range. According to (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e) this fly can feed on any vertebrate it contacts. It is also not responsive to host derived odors presently being evaluated as olfactory baits and incorporated in trapping technology strategies for tsetse flies (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e). However, \u003cem\u003eG.f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies fly in vitro-fed on bovine, ovine and caprine blood diets were invariably survived and reproduced. This result was disagree with the report of (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e) who reported the PPIF female \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e fed on bovine blood was almost comparable to that of ovine blood fed flies (PPIF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.77) but agreed with the report of (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e) who reported the PPIF value of \u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies flies fed on caprine was lower than the standard value (2.1). The difference was due to the fact that the two tsetse species belong to different groups of \u003cem\u003eGlossina\u003c/em\u003e species (riverine and savannah) possibly exhibiting difference in host preferences (41; 42).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMONDATIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, overall performance of the \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e flies fed on camel blood diets was superior as compared to bovine, ovine and caprine blood diets. In addition overall performance of \u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies maintained on in vitro feeding of camel blood diets were nearly as good as maintained on bovine and ovine blood diets, showing that camel blood diets can be useful for maintaining and rearing of both \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies under laboratory condition. The result encourages the use of blood diets for tsetse mass rearing in Ethiopia, considering the presence of large number of camel in the country, which are slaughtered in large numbers at Addis Ababa (Akaki Kality) Municipal Abattoirs near to Addis Ababa where the rearing facility is located. On the other hand, the low performance of the \u003cem\u003eG.pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e flies fed caprine blood, particularly low PPIF, low fecundity and high proportion of lighter pupae, low longevity and low survival rate, indicated that caprine blood diet is nutritionally poor to be used for colony development. Similarly, \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e flies fed on goat, bovine and ovine blood diets showed low performance compared to camel blood indicating that these diets have low nutritional quality and therefore not qualified as a preferred diet for tsetse flies feeding.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, based on the above results, the following recommendations have been forwarded:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eCamel blood diet was superior as compared to bovine, ovine and caprine blood showing that camel blood diets can be absolutely useful for maintaining and rearing of \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e tsetse fly colonies to ensure better production under laboratory conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eBovine blood diet, which has been used invitro feeding techniques at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center, produced not only a low quantity of pupae but also a poor quality of pupae. The highest overall percentage of inferior pupae quality (class A) (29%) recorded in \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e species fed on bovine blood diet were found to be in the unacceptable range which was greater than 10% showing that bovine blood diet is unsuitable for maintaining and rearing of \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e colonies. Hence camel blood could be considered as an alternative colony feeding in order to assure better tsetse production at Kality Tsetse Fly Research Center.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurther investigations should be done to assess the nutritional contents of camel diets for tsetse fly rearing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mass-rearing of tsetse remains challenging, especially when more than one species is involved. The optimal rearing diet may differ between colonies and tsetse species and might need to be customized for each production unit. Decisions on the most suitable rearing diet will not only depend on the biological requirements of the flies involved but will also be influenced by the availably of a suitable blood source on a continuous and economic basis. Quality control and research on factors to optimize the diet needs to be done continuously.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAll experimental procedures involving Glossina pallidipes and Glossina fuscipes fuscipes were conducted in accordance with institutional and national guidelines for the care and use of animals in research. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the relevant Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) / Animal Ethics Committee, which provided oversight throughout the duration of the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflicts of Interest:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA.B. conceived the study and designed the methodology, wrote the initial manuscript draftABC. performed the analyses, revised and edited the manuscript.All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors thank the Adama Science and Technology University and staffs of KTFRC insectaries for their technical support and their cooperation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRadostits OM, Gay CC, Hinchcliff KW, Constable PD. 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Eradication of Glossina palpalispalpalis (Robineau-Desvoidy) (Diptera: Glossinidae) from agro pastoral land in central Nigeria by means of the sterile insect technique Sterile insect technique for tsetse control and eradication of Radiation in Genetic Insect Control, held in Neuherberg, 29 June-3 July 1981.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWetzel H, Luger D. In vitro feeding in the rearing of tsetse flies (Glossina m. morsitans and G.ppalpalis, Diptera: Glossinidae). Tropenmedizin und Parasitologie. 1978;29(2):239\u0026ndash;51.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFeldmann U. Guide lines for the rearing of tsetse flies using the membrane feeding technique. In: Techniques of insect rearing for the development of integrated pest and Vector management strategies: Ochieng-Odero. J. P. R, editor. ICIPE science; 1994c. pp. 449\u0026ndash;71.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFAO/IAEA. (2006). Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations and International Atomic Energy Agency.In: Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for Mass-Rearing Tsetse flies.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZelger R, Russ K. Untersuchungenuber die mechanischeTrennung von Mannchen und Weibchen der KirschfruchtfliegeimPuppenstadium. Z ang Zool. 1976;63:257\u0026ndash;66.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOpiyo, M. A., Ngowo, H. S., Mapua, S. A., Mpingwa, M., Nchimbi, N., Matowo, N. S.,\u0026hellip; Okumu, F. O. (2021). Sub-lethal aquatic doses of pyriproxyfen may increase pyrethroid resistance in malaria mosquitoes. PLoS One, 16(3): e0248538..\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIAEA. (2003). Automation for tsetse mass rearing for use in sterile insect technique programmes.Final report of a coordinated research project 1995\u0026ndash;2001, May/2003.IAEA-TECDOC1353.IAEA, Vienna, Austria, Pp.1\u0026ndash;45.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMellanby H. Experimental work on reproduction in the tsetse fly. Glossina palpalis Parasitology. 1937;29(1):131\u0026ndash;41.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWard RA. Tsetse fly colonization (Diptera: Muscidae, Glossina spp). Bull ESA. 1970;16(2):111\u0026ndash;5.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKettle DS. Medical and veterinary entomology. 2nd ed. Wallingford, United Kingdom: CABI Publishing; 1995.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAssefa K. (2012). Study on the survival and reproductive performance of female \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e (Diptera: Glossinidae) at Kality Tsetse Fly Rearing and Irradiation Center, Addis Ababa. MSc Thesis, Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies, Department of Biology, Pp.26.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJaenson TGT, Takken W. Rearing of Glossina pallidipes using membrane-feeding technology. EntomologiaExperimentalisetApplicata. 1980;27(1):102\u0026ndash;4.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBuxton PA. (1955). The Natural History of Tsetse flies. An Account of the Biology of the Genus Glossina (Dipterans).The Natural History of Tsetse flies. An Account of the Biology of the Genus Glossina (Dipterans), (10).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLangley PA. The effect of host pregnancy on the reproductive capability of the tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans, in captivity. J Insect Physiol. 1968;14(1):121\u0026ndash;33.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMoloo S, Grootenhuis J, Kar S, Karstad L. Survival and reproductive performance of female Glossina morsitansmorsitans when maintained on the blood of different species of wild mammals. Med Vet Entomol. 1988;2(4):347\u0026ndash;50.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWeitz B. The feeding habits of Glossina. Bull World Health Organ. 1963;28(5\u0026ndash;6):711.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMoloo SK. An artificial feeding technique for Glossina. Parasitology. 1971;63(3):507\u0026ndash;51.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWillett KC. The laboratory maintenance of Glossina. I Parasitology. 1953;43(1\u0026ndash;2):110\u0026ndash;30.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGeigy R. (1948). Rearing of Glossina palpalis. ActaTropica, 5(3):201\u0026thinsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026thinsp;18.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDe Beer CJ, Venter GJ, \u0026amp;Vreysen MJ. (2016).Improving the diet for the rearing of Glossina brevipalpisNewstead and Glossina austeni Newstead: Blood source and collection\u0026ndash;processing\u0026ndash;feeding procedures. PLoS ONE, 11(12), e0168799.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLangley PA, Pimley RW. Quantitative aspects of reproduction and larval nutrition in Glossina morsitansmorsitansWestw. (Diptera, Glossinidae) fed in vitro. Bull Entomol Res. 1975;65(1):129\u0026ndash;42.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJordan AM, Lee-Jones F, Weitz B. The natural hosts of tsetse flies in Northern Nigeria. Annals Trop Med Parasitol. 1962;56(4):430\u0026ndash;42.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWillemse LPM, Takken W. Odor-induced host location in tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae). J Med Entomol. 1994;31(6):775\u0026ndash;94.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eClausen A. Bauer, Breloeer, Salchow, \u0026amp;Staak. (1998). Host preferences of tsetse (Diptera: Glossinidae) based on blood meal identifications. Med Vet Entomol, 12(2):169\u0026ndash;80.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAuty H, Morrison LJ, Torr SJ, Lord J. Transmission dynamics of Rhodesian sleeping sickness at the interface of wildlife and livestock areas. Trends Parasitol. 2016;32(8):608\u0026ndash;21.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8120783/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8120783/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"SIT is based on the mass production, radiation-based sterilization and release of sterile male tsetse flies over a target area to suppress or locally eliminate a target tsetse population. The aim of this study was to assess the reproductive efficiency of Glossina pallidipes and Glossina fuscipes fuscipes reared under laboratory conditions in terms of productivity, and survival of flies fed on different animal blood. A total of 384 flies from each female G. pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes were used to study the Reproductive Efficiency of Glossina pallidipes and Glossina fuscipes in terms of productivity and survival of flies obtained from stock colony of Kality Tsetse Research Center and fed on animals’ blood of bovine, camel, ovine and caprine for a period of 3 months. Duncan multiple range test was performed to analyze pupae per initial female, pupae production, fecundity, survival test fed on different blood diets using Stata computer software (version 12.0). The result reviled that Pupae per initial female recorded in G. pallidipes fed on the blood of caprine was significantly lower compared to those flies fed on the blood of the other animals. On the other hand, female flies of G. fuscipes fuscipes which fed on the blood of camel had significantly higher mean pupae per initial female than those flies fed on the blood of ovine, bovine, and caprine. Moreover, pupae quality as measured by weight class showed that flies fed caprine blood had also more small weight pupae (class A and B) compared to flies fed camel blood. However, in G. pallidipes, a statistically significant difference was not recorded in their survival rate in females flies fed camel, bovine and ovine blood. But in general camel blood was found to be the most suitable blood followed by ovine, bovine, and caprine in terms of productivity, pupae production, fecundity, and pupae weight of flies. Camel blood meal should be used for invitro feeding purpose of both G.pallidipes and G. fuscipes fuscipes species of tsetse flies under laboratory condition to ensure better production.","manuscriptTitle":"Study on the Reproductive Efficiency of Glossina pallidipes and Glossina fuscipes fuscipes under Laboratory Conditions","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-20 15:35:02","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8120783/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8308e3ca-a4ad-46b7-9f9e-6af082409412","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 20th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-09T08:08:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-20 15:35:02","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8120783","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8120783","identity":"rs-8120783","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}