A new method for predicting the spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation δ 18 O based on deep learning and spatial and temporal clustering

Predicting precipitation δ 18 O accurately is crucial for understanding water cycles, paleoclimates, and hydrological applications. Yet, forecasting its spatio-temporal distribution remains challenging due to complex climate interactions and extreme events. We developed a method combining spatio-temporal clustering and deep learning neural networks to improve multi-site, multi-year precipitation δ 18 O predictions. Using a comprehensive dataset from 33 German sites (1978-2021), our model considers precipitation δ 18 O and its controlling factors, including precipitation and temperature distribution. We applied the K-means++ method for classification and divided data into training and prediction sets. The CNN[1](#fn-0002) model extracted spatial features, while the Bi-LSTM model focused on temporal features. Spatio-temporal clustering using K-means++ improved forecast accuracy and reduced errors. This study highlights the potential of deep learning and clustering techniques for forecasting complex spatio-temporal data and offers insights for future research on isotope distributions.