Environmental and genetic contributions to imperfectwMel-likeWolbachiatransmission and frequency variation

ABSTRACT Maternally transmitted Wolbachia bacteria infect about half of all insect species. They usually show imperfect maternal transmission and often produce cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI). Irrespective of CI, Wolbachia frequencies tend to increase when rare only if they benefit host fitness. Several Wolbachia , including w Mel that infects Drosophila melanogaster cause weak or no CI and persist at intermediate frequencies. On the island of São Tomé off West Africa, the frequencies of w Mel-like Wolbachia infecting D. yakuba ( w Yak) and D. santomea ( w San) fluctuate, and the contributions of imperfect maternal transmission, fitness effects, and CI to these fluctuations are unknown. We demonstrate spatial variation in w Yak frequency and transmission on São Tomé. Concurrent field estimates of imperfect maternal transmission do not predict spatial variation in w Yak frequencies, which are highest at high altitudes where maternal transmission is the most imperfect. Genomic and genetic analyses provide little support for D. yakuba effects on w Yak transmission. Instead, rearing at cool temperatures reduces w Yak titer and increases imperfect transmission to levels observed on São Tomé. Using mathematical models of Wolbachia frequency dynamics and equilibria, we infer temporally variable imperfect transmission or spatially variable effects on host fitness and reproduction are required to explain w Yak frequencies. In contrast, spatially stable w San frequencies are plausibly explained by imperfect transmission, modest fitness effects, and weak CI. Our results provide insight into causes of w Mel-like frequency variation in divergent hosts. Understanding this variation is crucial to explain Wolbachia spread and to improve w Mel biocontrol of human disease in transinfected mosquito systems.