High UV Sensitivity in Graphene-Silicon Schottky Photodiodes in Industry Standard Packaging

High UV Sensitivity in Graphene-Silicon Schottky Photodiodes in Industry Standard Packaging | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article High UV Sensitivity in Graphene-Silicon Schottky Photodiodes in Industry Standard Packaging Ardeshir Esteki, Christoph P. Gebauer, Jülide Avci, Heinrich D. B. Gottlob, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7851174/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 19 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in npj 2D Materials and Applications → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Graphene is of great scientific and commercial interest due to its unique physical properties, including exceptionally high carrier mobility and light transparency over a wide wavelength range. Graphene forms a heterojunction with silicon, which can result in a Schottky barrier diode with a depletion region that extends into the silicon. These diodes can act as photodetectors because photons entering the depletion region generate electron-hole pairs, which are separated and contribute to a photocurrent. Although graphene-silicon Schottky photodiodes (GSSDs) have been investigated for over a decade, their maturity for commercial application has yet to be demonstrated. Here, we applied industry-standard semiconductor encapsulation techniques to our GSSDs and investigated devices in commercially available packages. Our GSSDs show significantly higher responsivities in the ultraviolet spectrum than commercially available silicon photodetectors before and after packaging. Moreover, packaged GSSDs greatly outperform commercial gallium nitride photodetectors and match the responsivities of silicon carbide photodiodes in the UV range. The packaged devices additionally underwent three industrial lifetime stress tests. They showed stable dark- and photocurrents for over 900 hours, passing the harsh conditions of industrial stress tests. Overall, our results demonstrate the potential of GSSDs as promising alternatives to conventional photodiodes. Physical sciences/Materials science Physical sciences/Nanoscience and technology Physical sciences/Optics and photonics Physical sciences/Physics Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction The two-dimensional (2D) material graphene exhibits high carrier mobility and broadband optical absorbance, making it a promising candidate for high-speed optoelectronic devices, particularly when integrated with conventional silicon semiconductor technology 1 – 7 . In recent years, significant progress has been made in bridging the gap between graphene research and its implementation in industrial applications 8 – 12 . Photodetectors are among the most promising areas of emerging graphene applications 13 – 25 . In particular, graphene-silicon Schottky photodiodes (GSSDs) have been widely studied 5 , 6 , 26 – 29 and have been shown to have high responsivities across the ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR) ranges 6 , 30 – 33 . GSSDs typically require n-doped silicon because exposure to ambient air p-dopes graphene, for example, through the adsorption of H 2 O molecules 34 . This results in the formation of a Schottky junction between the graphene and the silicon substrate. The responsivity of GSSDs can be further enhanced by partially passivating the silicon area with thin silicon dioxide (SiO 2 . The resulting devices feature interdigitated Schottky and graphene-insulator-silicon (GIS) regions, resulting in the highly effective collection of charge carriers photogenerated in the silicon 6 , 26 , 35 . Here, we report the performance of GSSDs with interdigitated GIS regions in the UV range and benchmark it against state-of-the-art commercial photodiodes. We explored the influence of industry-standard packaging on device performance and conducted standard industrial lifetime and stress tests, bringing GSSDs closer to industrial implementation. Results and Discussion Chemical vapor-deposited graphene was transferred onto Si substrates with prepatterned SiO 2 structures. The graphene forms a Schottky junction with the n-type Si, and a graphene-insulator-silicon capacitor in the SiO 2 regions. A schematic cross-section, a rendered overview image, and a top-view optical image of a GSSD are shown in Figs. 1 a-c. The devices were mounted on a standard TO18 header and measured initially. They were then encapsulated by attaching a metal can with a UV-transparent glass onto the TO18 header and measured again (see the inset in Fig. 1 c). Alternatively, the mounted devices were encapsulated by gluing a metal frame around the header and filling the resulting cavity with a commercial polymer. Details of the fabrication process are described in the Methods section. We compared three sets of devices, measuring them before and after encapsulation in this manner. One set comprised commercial silicon photodiodes (commercial diodes), and the other two comprised graphene‒silicon Schottky photodiodes fabricated with commercial graphene (GSSD 1, see Methods section) and with graphene grown in-house (GSSD 2). The GSSD devices were designed to match the outer dimensions of the commercial diodes exactly, providing a basis for a valid comparison. Figure 1 d shows the I-V characteristics of one GSSD 1, one GSSD 2, and one commercial diode on a semilogarithmic scale under dark and illuminated conditions. This served as a first functionality test, and the higher dark current observed in most of the GSSD diodes compared to the commercial diode provides important feedback for further device optimization, especially of the graphene-silicon interface. The photocurrent of all three device types was first measured under illumination at 277 nm and 405 nm before encapsulation. The photoresponsivity \(\:{R}_{p}=\frac{{I}_{ph}}{{P}_{opt}}\) (1), with I ph being the generated photocurrent and P opt the incident illumination power, is one of the key performance metrics for photodiodes 36 and was determined using a gallium phosphide (GaP) reference photodiode calibrated by an external laboratory. Notably, all device types display a small photovoltaic effect. The data obtained at 277 nm illumination are shown in Fig. 2 a. GSSD 2 shows ~ 200% higher R p than commercial diodes, whereas the R p of GSSD 1 is ~ 100% higher. Under illumination at 405 nm (Fig. 2 b), GSSD 2 still has a 50% higher R p than commercial Diodes, whereas GSSD 1 has a 10% greater R p . The difference observed between GSSD1 and GSSD2 may stem from variations in the doping levels of the graphene sheets, which lead to different Schottky barrier heights and different contact resistances. The silicon and GSSD devices were then encapsulated with metal cans with UV-transparent glass. The dark current of the photodiodes remained within a similar order of magnitude for all three device types. The GSSDs maintained their superior performance under 277 nm illumination over commercial diodes. The improvement was again smaller under 405 nm illumination: 15% for GSSD 2 and 5% for GSSD 1. R p decreased by 20 to 30% after encapsulation for all device types. 10% of these losses originate from the absorption of the UV transparent glass (see SI Fig. 1 ), whereas the remaining losses are attributed to a shadowing effect of the metal can and the influence of the encapsulation processes on the graphene and graphene‒silicon interfaces. The data are summarized in Figs. 2 c and d. Additionally, we compared the performance of the GSSD devices to that of commercially available and similarly packaged devices made of silicon carbide (SiC), GaP, and gallium nitride (GaN), typically used for UV photodetection and sold in UV-compatible packages. Our GSSD 2 devices significantly outperform all other device types except for SiC devices, which are slightly better at 277 nm wavelength illumination. The higher UV responsivity can be explained by considering the absorption behavior of the diodes. In conventional silicon photodiodes, the p-n junction resides beneath the silicon surface. Photons reaching this area can transfer their energy to electrons and generate electron-hole pairs, which are separated by the built-in electric field of the junction and contribute to the photocurrent. The optical absorption depth of silicon is defined as the depth at which incident light drops to 1/e of its initial intensity and depends on the incident light’s wavelength 37 : photons with longer wavelengths penetrate deeper into silicon, whereas photons with shorter wavelengths are absorbed closer to its surface (Fig. 3 a). Consequently, silicon photodiodes are generally less sensitive to UV light, as UV photons are absorbed near the surface, away from the p-n junction (Fig. 3 b ) . In GSSDs, the atomically thin graphene resides on the n-doped silicon, and the resulting Schottky junction is located at the surface of the device (Fig. 3 c). Therefore, UV photons are more likely to create charge carriers at the junction, where they contribute to the photocurrent. This makes GSSDs more efficient detectors for UV light than conventional silicon photodiodes. We then performed lifetime and stress tests to assess the realistic product potential of packaged GSSD 2 first in polymer-filled, non-hermetic packages, which are more commonly used than hermetic packages with caps and lenses, but are more susceptible to environmental hazards. Three industry-standard tests were conducted in accordance with JEDEC JESD22 standards to evaluate the reliability of packaged solid-state devices: temperature cycling, high-temperature storage, and humidity-temperature storage. The temperature cycling involved continuous shifts between low ( + 90°C) temperatures for 906 cycles with 30 minutes of soaking time per temperature level. This test was performed to simulate the mechanical stress induced by changing the ambient temperature to which devices are typically exposed during their lifetime. The high-temperature and humidity-temperature storage tests lasted 906 hours each, with conditions of approximately + 90°C and 80% RH at + 80°C, respectively. The high-temperature storage tests are used to accelerate the diffusion-based thermal aging of devices and to simulate years of operation with the Arrhenius equation. The humidity-temperature storage is used to investigate possible corrosion of the package, which would particularly affect the graphene and graphene-silicon interface. Following these tests, the devices were stored at ambient conditions for an additional month and then heated to 100°C for 16 hours. The photocurrents were subsequently measured under illumination with an LED at a wavelength of 850 nm and a power density of 1 mW/cm². This wavelength was chosen because the aging behavior of the packaging materials was optimized for infrared light. Therefore, the degradation of the optical properties of the package materials due to the stress tests is minimized at infrared wavelengths and contributes less to the measured device degradation. The results of the temperature cycling and temperature storage tests are presented in Figs. 4 a and b. Note that the industry standard for evaluating a diode’s photocurrent change due to stress is the drift data instead of absolute values, as the passing criteria are typically defined by drift limits. Here, the photocurrent drift remains low at less than 6%, which is close to the measurement tolerance of approximately 5% of the measurement system, stemming from variances in handling, the setup, and tolerances of the hardware components. We observed minor drifts in both the positive and negative directions after the stress test and storage. After storage, the devices were baked for 16 hours at 100°C, which reversed their photocurrent drift. This indicates that moisture and/or package material residues that either enter or already reside within the non-hermetic package adsorb to the graphene and influence its doping level 34 . Most of these molecules can be removed again from the graphene surface by heating the device. The photocurrent drift data of the GSSD 2 devices after humidity-temperature storage are shown in Figs. 4 c and d . In this high-humidity environment, the non-hermetically sealed devices were exposed to significant humidity levels (Fig. 4 c). Here, the moisture entered the package and affected the performance of the photodiodes through the adsorption of water molecules on the graphene surface and edges, resulting in a substantial increase in the dark current. Although the high photocurrent drift decreased after the humidity was driven out of the package by storage under ambient conditions or baking, it remained high, ranging from 24% to 62%. We subsequently conducted the same humidity-temperature storage test with GSSD 2s encapsulated in a hermetic metal-glass-based package (Fig. 4 d). The drift after 906 hours remained below 10%, as moisture could not (or hardly) enter the packages, demonstrating the importance of suitable package selection for GSSDs. Conclusion We fabricated and investigated commercially packaged graphene-silicon Schottky photodiodes with high responsivity across the UV and visible wavelength ranges. Our GSSD photodiodes outperform commercial silicon, GaP and GaN diodes at UV wavelengths of 277 nm and 405 nm, and almost match SiC diodes at 277 nm. Industry-standard lifetime and stress tests revealed high sensitivity to humidity, which we mitigated with suitable packaging. The ease of integrating graphene with modern silicon production lines, coupled with the comparable UV detection performance of GSSDs to SiC photodiodes, highlights the potential of this technology. Methods Device Fabrication : N-doped (10–20 Ohm cm) silicon chips with a dimension of 2 cm × 2 cm with 20 nm thermally grown SiO 2 were used as substrates. Interdigitated structures of bare silicon and SiO 2 were fabricated via optical lithography and wet etching. Metal contacts of 20 nm Ti and 200 nm Ni were sputtered on the top side of the samples and patterned via a lift-off process. CVD graphene was sourced commercially (type 1) and grown on copper in-house by chemical vapor deposition (type 2). The graphene was transferred onto the samples with a semidry process and patterned via reactive ion etching, similar to 38,12 . Ti (20 nm) and Ni (200 nm) were deposited on the unstructured side of the samples. The devices were divided by blade dicing and then attached to a standard TO18 header with conductive silver epoxy. This epoxy connected the cathode of the chip to one of the TO18 header pins. The chip's anode contact was wire bonded to a second pin, which was electrically isolated from the rest of the header. The devices were then encapsulated via one of two methods: (1) by hermetically welding a metal can with a UV-transparent glass window on the TO18 header (see transmission spectrum in SI Fig. 1 ) or (2) by gluing a metal frame around the TO18 header and filling the resulting cavity with a commercially available polymer (inset in Fig. 2 c). Note that most of the tools used for packaging are available in standard semiconductor production environments. Electrical characterization Electrical measurements were performed via a Cascade Summit 12000 semiautomatic probe station connected to a Hewlett-Packard 4156B precision semiconductor parameter analyzer and a Hewlett-Packard E5250A low-leakage switch main frame, under ambient air conditions. The bias voltages for all devices were swept from − 2 V to + 2 V. A white light source (TECHNIQUIP FOI-150, 150 W Fiber Optic Illuminator) was used to preliminarily characterize the devices. Optical characterization Dark currents were measured with a Keysight B2902A source measurement unit. The photocurrents were stimulated with a calibrated illumination tube that offers a variety of visible and infrared wavelengths at defined intensities. UV illumination was realized with UV LEDs. The photocurrents of the measured devices were compared to those of a calibrated reference UV detector. Declarations Research Funding This work received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program under the Graphene Flagship Core 3 (881603), by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, BMBF, within the GIMMIK project (03XP0210), and by the German Research Foundation (INST 221/96-1). Author Contribution M.C.L. and H.D.B.G. conceived the experiments. A.E. fabricated the devices. A.E., C.G., and J.A. performed the optoelectronic measurements and material characterization. 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FGAP71. https://www.thorlabs.com/catalogpages/Obsolete/2020/FGAP71.pdf. Advanced Photonix Inc. SMT Photodiode Assembly SD 019-101-411. https://mm.digikey.com/Volume0/opasdata/d220001/medias/docus/2610/SD%20019-101-411.pdf. OSI Optoelectronics. UV Enhanced Series. https://www.osioptoelectronics.com/media/pages/products/photodetectors/uv-enhanced-100-qe/uv-005/a6e223e35a-1675100383/uv-enhanced-inversion-layer-photodiodes.pdf. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files 20251013EstekiGebauerGSSDSI.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 19 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in npj 2D Materials and Applications → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 17 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 04 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Nov, 2025 Reviews received at journal 06 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 05 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 03 Nov, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 22 Oct, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 20 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 13 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7851174","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":546277094,"identity":"40103fda-f4a6-464f-9dd4-f432f4fb9df5","order_by":0,"name":"Ardeshir Esteki","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"RWTH Aachen University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ardeshir","middleName":"","lastName":"Esteki","suffix":""},{"id":546277095,"identity":"af3cc141-99d7-4b0e-a1de-3a23453d1e5f","order_by":1,"name":"Christoph P. 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14:03:49","extension":"html","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":128932,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7851174/v1/0d49ff633769b529c864d029.html"},{"id":96914014,"identity":"d3793c44-3356-4cba-8e10-227de4fc9050","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:05:07","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2814013,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e) Schematic cross-section of a graphene silicon Schottky diode with Ti/Ni contacts and interdigitated graphene-insulator-silicon (GIS) regions.\u003cstrong\u003e b)\u003c/strong\u003e. Rendered image of the GSSD in a).\u003cstrong\u003e c) \u003c/strong\u003eTop-view optical image of a fabricated GSSD. The light blue areas represent Schottky junctions, whereas the darker areas were oxidized, forming GIS regions. Inset: Top-view photograph of a fully packaged GSSD.\u003cstrong\u003e d\u003c/strong\u003e) Photocurrent in dark (dashed lines) and illuminated (continuous lines) conditions for a commercially available silicon photodiode and graphene‒silicon Schottky photodiodes of types 1 and 2 after industrial packaging. The diodes were illuminated by a white LED with a color temperature of 4300K and illuminance of 1000lx.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7851174/v1/8d661774d15b44244ea811a2.png"},{"id":96728857,"identity":"f4558d7d-afcc-4cce-beb7-2e0c79352d8e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-25 12:58:30","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":250877,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea) \u003c/strong\u003eR\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e of commercial silicon diodes and two different types of GSSDs under 277 nm light illumination (unpackaged and packaged). \u003cstrong\u003eb)\u003c/strong\u003e R\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e values of unpackaged (red) and packaged (blue) commercial silicon diodes, GSSD\u0026nbsp;1 and GSSD\u0026nbsp;2 under 405 nm light illumination. \u003cstrong\u003ec)\u003c/strong\u003e R\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e comparison of packaged GSSD\u0026nbsp;1 (dark red), GSSD\u0026nbsp;2 (yellow), commercial silicon (blue), silicon carbide\u003csup\u003e39–41\u003c/sup\u003e (purple), gallium phosphide\u003csup\u003e42,43\u003c/sup\u003e (green), and UV-enhanced silicon diodes\u003csup\u003e44,45\u003c/sup\u003e (light blue) at\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e277\u0026nbsp;nm illumination and\u003cstrong\u003e d) \u003c/strong\u003eat\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e405 nm light illumination. Note: Data for SiC diodes are not available in \u003cstrong\u003ed)\u003c/strong\u003e owing to their lack of sensitivity at 405\u0026nbsp;nm.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7851174/v1/353d93aa3b803ee75789faaf.png"},{"id":96728862,"identity":"1ceeae71-4545-436a-ae7c-f4e2234d09f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-25 12:58:30","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":205905,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea) \u003c/strong\u003eAbsorption depth in silicon as a function of wavelength, plotted on a logarithmic y-axis. The data show that shorter wavelengths (UV range) are absorbed closer to the surface, whereas longer wavelengths (visible to near-infrared) penetrate deeper into the silicon substrate. \u003cstrong\u003eb-c)\u003c/strong\u003e Schematic illustrating the working principle of conventional silicon photodiodes \u003cstrong\u003eb) \u003c/strong\u003eand graphene–silicon Schottky diodes (GSSDs) \u003cstrong\u003ec)\u003c/strong\u003e. In traditional silicon photodiodes, the p-n junction is buried beneath the surface; UV photons are absorbed too close to the surface to efficiently generate a photocurrent at the junction, reducing UV sensitivity. In contrast, GSSDs feature a Schottky junction formed directly at the surface between graphene and n-doped silicon. This architecture aligns the UV absorption region with the junction location, enabling more effective generation and separation of electron-hole pairs and thereby significantly enhancing UV detection efficiency compared with that of conventional silicon photodiodes.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7851174/v1/8f21f9613ca93973ce2e83df.png"},{"id":96913546,"identity":"bc0a41f1-e60e-4550-86f4-05270890908f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:02:41","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":179507,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhotocurrent shifts in GSSD\u0026nbsp;2 due to lifetime and stress tests under 850\u0026nbsp;nm illumination. \u003cstrong\u003ea)\u003c/strong\u003e Photocurrent shifts after 168 and 906 thermal cycles from -20°C to +90°C and 30 min soaking time per temperature level, subsequent storage under ambient conditions for one month, and baking for 16 hours at 100°C. \u003cstrong\u003eb)\u003c/strong\u003e Photocurrent shifts after 168 and 906 hours of high-temperature storage at +90°C, followed by storage under ambient conditions for one month and baking for 16 hours at 100°C. \u003cstrong\u003ec) \u003c/strong\u003ePhotocurrent shifts after humidity-temperature storage at 80% RH and +80°C for 168 and 906 hours of devices encapsulated in a non-hermetic epoxy-based package, followed by storage under ambient conditions for one month and baking for 16 hours at 100°C.\u003cstrong\u003e d) \u003c/strong\u003ePhotocurrent shifts after humidity-temperature storage at 80% RH and +80°C for 500 and 1000\u0026nbsp;hours for devices encapsulated in a hermetic metal-glass package. All the photocurrent measurements were conducted at a wavelength of 850\u0026nbsp;nm and a power density of 1\u0026nbsp;mW/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7851174/v1/5a005792ec30dc6133814a1b.png"},{"id":103251254,"identity":"69c099f2-3811-4333-8776-d41f0fab18f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-23 16:07:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4260615,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7851174/v1/50663201-b4e4-426f-9cb5-3987008dfe19.pdf"},{"id":96728858,"identity":"2065baa3-f41a-4895-80f1-6a8cdce3c85b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-25 12:58:30","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":124845,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"20251013EstekiGebauerGSSDSI.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7851174/v1/51f60e88fc01ca1dfd0d19a8.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"High UV Sensitivity in Graphene-Silicon Schottky Photodiodes in Industry Standard Packaging","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe two-dimensional (2D) material graphene exhibits high carrier mobility and broadband optical absorbance, making it a promising candidate for high-speed optoelectronic devices, particularly when integrated with conventional silicon semiconductor technology\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3 CR4 CR5 CR6\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In recent years, significant progress has been made in bridging the gap between graphene research and its implementation in industrial applications\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9 CR10 CR11\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Photodetectors are among the most promising areas of emerging graphene applications\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR14 CR15 CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19 CR20 CR21 CR22 CR23 CR24\" citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In particular, graphene-silicon Schottky photodiodes (GSSDs) have been widely studied\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR27 CR28\" citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and have been shown to have high responsivities across the ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR) ranges\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR31 CR32\" citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. GSSDs typically require n-doped silicon because exposure to ambient air p-dopes graphene, for example, through the adsorption of H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO molecules\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This results in the formation of a Schottky junction between the graphene and the silicon substrate. The responsivity of GSSDs can be further enhanced by partially passivating the silicon area with thin silicon dioxide (SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e. The resulting devices feature interdigitated Schottky and graphene-insulator-silicon (GIS) regions, resulting in the highly effective collection of charge carriers photogenerated in the silicon\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHere, we report the performance of GSSDs with interdigitated GIS regions in the UV range and benchmark it against state-of-the-art commercial photodiodes. We explored the influence of industry-standard packaging on device performance and conducted standard industrial lifetime and stress tests, bringing GSSDs closer to industrial implementation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eChemical vapor-deposited graphene was transferred onto Si substrates with prepatterned SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e structures. The graphene forms a Schottky junction with the n-type Si, and a graphene-insulator-silicon capacitor in the SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e regions. A schematic cross-section, a rendered overview image, and a top-view optical image of a GSSD are shown in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea-c. The devices were mounted on a standard TO18 header and measured initially. They were then encapsulated by attaching a metal can with a UV-transparent glass onto the TO18 header and measured again (see the inset in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ec). Alternatively, the mounted devices were encapsulated by gluing a metal frame around the header and filling the resulting cavity with a commercial polymer. Details of the fabrication process are described in the Methods section.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe compared three sets of devices, measuring them before and after encapsulation in this manner. One set comprised commercial silicon photodiodes (commercial diodes), and the other two comprised graphene‒silicon Schottky photodiodes fabricated with commercial graphene (GSSD 1, see Methods section) and with graphene grown in-house (GSSD 2). The GSSD devices were designed to match the outer dimensions of the commercial diodes exactly, providing a basis for a valid comparison. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ed shows the I-V characteristics of one GSSD 1, one GSSD 2, and one commercial diode on a semilogarithmic scale under dark and illuminated conditions. This served as a first functionality test, and the higher dark current observed in most of the GSSD diodes compared to the commercial diode provides important feedback for further device optimization, especially of the graphene-silicon interface.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe photocurrent of all three device types was first measured under illumination at 277 nm and 405 nm before encapsulation. The photoresponsivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{R}_{p}=\\frac{{I}_{ph}}{{P}_{opt}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (1),\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewith I\u003csub\u003eph\u003c/sub\u003e being the generated photocurrent and P\u003csub\u003eopt\u003c/sub\u003e the incident illumination power, is one of the key performance metrics for photodiodes\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and was determined using a gallium phosphide (GaP) reference photodiode calibrated by an external laboratory. Notably, all device types display a small photovoltaic effect. The data obtained at 277 nm illumination are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea. GSSD 2 shows\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;200% higher R\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e than commercial diodes, whereas the R\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e of GSSD 1 is ~\u0026thinsp;100% higher. Under illumination at 405 nm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eb), GSSD 2 still has a 50% higher R\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e than commercial Diodes, whereas GSSD 1 has a 10% greater R\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e. The difference observed between GSSD1 and GSSD2 may stem from variations in the doping levels of the graphene sheets, which lead to different Schottky barrier heights and different contact resistances.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe silicon and GSSD devices were then encapsulated with metal cans with UV-transparent glass. The dark current of the photodiodes remained within a similar order of magnitude for all three device types. The GSSDs maintained their superior performance under 277 nm illumination over commercial diodes. The improvement was again smaller under 405 nm illumination: 15% for GSSD 2 and 5% for GSSD 1. R\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e decreased by 20 to 30% after encapsulation for all device types. 10% of these losses originate from the absorption of the UV transparent glass (see SI Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), whereas the remaining losses are attributed to a shadowing effect of the metal can and the influence of the encapsulation processes on the graphene and graphene‒silicon interfaces. The data are summarized in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec and \u003cb\u003ed.\u003c/b\u003e Additionally, we compared the performance of the GSSD devices to that of commercially available and similarly packaged devices made of silicon carbide (SiC), GaP, and gallium nitride (GaN), typically used for UV photodetection and sold in UV-compatible packages. Our GSSD 2 devices significantly outperform all other device types except for SiC devices, which are slightly better at 277 nm wavelength illumination.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe higher UV responsivity can be explained by considering the absorption behavior of the diodes. In conventional silicon photodiodes, the p-n junction resides beneath the silicon surface. Photons reaching this area can transfer their energy to electrons and generate electron-hole pairs, which are separated by the built-in electric field of the junction and contribute to the photocurrent. The optical absorption depth of silicon is defined as the depth at which incident light drops to 1/e of its initial intensity and depends on the incident light\u0026rsquo;s wavelength\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e: photons with longer wavelengths penetrate deeper into silicon, whereas photons with shorter wavelengths are absorbed closer to its surface (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea). Consequently, silicon photodiodes are generally less sensitive to UV light, as UV photons are absorbed near the surface, away from the p-n junction (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. In GSSDs, the atomically thin graphene resides on the n-doped silicon, and the resulting Schottky junction is located at the surface of the device (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec). Therefore, UV photons are more likely to create charge carriers at the junction, where they contribute to the photocurrent. This makes GSSDs more efficient detectors for UV light than conventional silicon photodiodes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe then performed lifetime and stress tests to assess the realistic product potential of packaged GSSD 2 first in polymer-filled, non-hermetic packages, which are more commonly used than hermetic packages with caps and lenses, but are more susceptible to environmental hazards. Three industry-standard tests were conducted in accordance with JEDEC JESD22 standards to evaluate the reliability of packaged solid-state devices: temperature cycling, high-temperature storage, and humidity-temperature storage. The temperature cycling involved continuous shifts between low (\u0026lt; -20\u0026deg;C) and very high (\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;90\u0026deg;C) temperatures for 906 cycles with 30 minutes of soaking time per temperature level. This test was performed to simulate the mechanical stress induced by changing the ambient temperature to which devices are typically exposed during their lifetime. The high-temperature and humidity-temperature storage tests lasted 906 hours each, with conditions of approximately\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;90\u0026deg;C and 80% RH at +\u0026thinsp;80\u0026deg;C, respectively. The high-temperature storage tests are used to accelerate the diffusion-based thermal aging of devices and to simulate years of operation with the Arrhenius equation. The humidity-temperature storage is used to investigate possible corrosion of the package, which would particularly affect the graphene and graphene-silicon interface. Following these tests, the devices were stored at ambient conditions for an additional month and then heated to 100\u0026deg;C for 16 hours. The photocurrents were subsequently measured under illumination with an LED at a wavelength of 850 nm and a power density of 1 mW/cm\u0026sup2;. This wavelength was chosen because the aging behavior of the packaging materials was optimized for infrared light. Therefore, the degradation of the optical properties of the package materials due to the stress tests is minimized at infrared wavelengths and contributes less to the measured device degradation. The results of the temperature cycling and temperature storage tests are presented in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea and \u003cb\u003eb.\u003c/b\u003e Note that the industry standard for evaluating a diode\u0026rsquo;s photocurrent change due to stress is the drift data instead of absolute values, as the passing criteria are typically defined by drift limits. Here, the photocurrent drift remains low at less than 6%, which is close to the measurement tolerance of approximately 5% of the measurement system, stemming from variances in handling, the setup, and tolerances of the hardware components. We observed minor drifts in both the positive and negative directions after the stress test and storage. After storage, the devices were baked for 16 hours at 100\u0026deg;C, which reversed their photocurrent drift. This indicates that moisture and/or package material residues that either enter or already reside within the non-hermetic package adsorb to the graphene and influence its doping level\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Most of these molecules can be removed again from the graphene surface by heating the device.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe photocurrent drift data of the GSSD 2 devices after humidity-temperature storage are shown in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec and \u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e. In this high-humidity environment, the non-hermetically sealed devices were exposed to significant humidity levels (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec). Here, the moisture entered the package and affected the performance of the photodiodes through the adsorption of water molecules on the graphene surface and edges, resulting in a substantial increase in the dark current. Although the high photocurrent drift decreased after the humidity was driven out of the package by storage under ambient conditions or baking, it remained high, ranging from 24% to 62%. We subsequently conducted the same humidity-temperature storage test with GSSD 2s encapsulated in a hermetic metal-glass-based package (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ed). The drift after 906 hours remained below 10%, as moisture could not (or hardly) enter the packages, demonstrating the importance of suitable package selection for GSSDs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe fabricated and investigated commercially packaged graphene-silicon Schottky photodiodes with high responsivity across the UV and visible wavelength ranges. Our GSSD photodiodes outperform commercial silicon, GaP and GaN diodes at UV wavelengths of 277 nm and 405 nm, and almost match SiC diodes at 277 nm. Industry-standard lifetime and stress tests revealed high sensitivity to humidity, which we mitigated with suitable packaging. The ease of integrating graphene with modern silicon production lines, coupled with the comparable UV detection performance of GSSDs to SiC photodiodes, highlights the potential of this technology.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDevice Fabrication\u003c/b\u003e: N-doped (10\u0026ndash;20 Ohm cm) silicon chips with a dimension of 2 cm \u0026times; 2 cm with 20 nm thermally grown SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e were used as substrates. Interdigitated structures of bare silicon and SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e were fabricated via optical lithography and wet etching. Metal contacts of 20 nm Ti and 200 nm Ni were sputtered on the top side of the samples and patterned via a lift-off process. CVD graphene was sourced commercially (type 1) and grown on copper in-house by chemical vapor deposition (type 2). The graphene was transferred onto the samples with a semidry process and patterned via reactive ion etching, similar to \u003csup\u003e38,12\u003c/sup\u003e. Ti (20 nm) and Ni (200 nm) were deposited on the unstructured side of the samples. The devices were divided by blade dicing and then attached to a standard TO18 header with conductive silver epoxy. This epoxy connected the cathode of the chip to one of the TO18 header pins. The chip's anode contact was wire bonded to a second pin, which was electrically isolated from the rest of the header. The devices were then encapsulated via one of two methods: (1) by hermetically welding a metal can with a UV-transparent glass window on the TO18 header (see transmission spectrum in \u003cb\u003eSI\u003c/b\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) or (2) by gluing a metal frame around the TO18 header and filling the resulting cavity with a commercially available polymer (inset in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec). Note that most of the tools used for packaging are available in standard semiconductor production environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eElectrical characterization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectrical measurements were performed via a Cascade Summit 12000 semiautomatic probe station connected to a Hewlett-Packard 4156B precision semiconductor parameter analyzer and a Hewlett-Packard E5250A low-leakage switch main frame, under ambient air conditions. The bias voltages for all devices were swept from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2 V to +\u0026thinsp;2 V. A white light source (TECHNIQUIP FOI-150, 150 W Fiber Optic Illuminator) was used to preliminarily characterize the devices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOptical characterization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eDark currents were measured with a Keysight B2902A source measurement unit. The photocurrents were stimulated with a calibrated illumination tube that offers a variety of visible and infrared wavelengths at defined intensities. UV illumination was realized with UV LEDs. The photocurrents of the measured devices were compared to those of a calibrated reference UV detector.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch Funding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work received funding from the European Union\u0026rsquo;s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program under the Graphene Flagship Core 3 (881603), by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, BMBF, within the GIMMIK project (03XP0210), and by the German Research Foundation (INST 221/96-1).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eM.C.L. and H.D.B.G. conceived the experiments. A.E. fabricated the devices. A.E., C.G., and J.A. performed the optoelectronic measurements and material characterization. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the preparation of the manuscript. A.E. and C.G. wrote the initial manuscript and prepared the figures. All authors revised the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe thank Dr. Dirck Sowada and Anika K\u0026uuml;hnle for their technical support with the optical characterizations, and Michael Baumann for his assistance with packaging the GSSDs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMorozov, S. V.; Novoselov, K. S.; Katsnelson, M. I.; Schedin, F.; Elias, D. C.; Jaszczak, J. A.; Geim, A. K. Giant Intrinsic Carrier Mobilities in Graphene and Its Bilayer. \u003cem\u003ePhys. Rev. 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UV Enhanced Series. https://www.osioptoelectronics.com/media/pages/products/photodetectors/uv-enhanced-100-qe/uv-005/a6e223e35a-1675100383/uv-enhanced-inversion-layer-photodiodes.pdf.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-2d-materials-and-applications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"npj2dmaterials","sideBox":"Learn more about [npj 2D Materials and Applications](http://www.nature.com/npj2dmaterials/)","snPcode":"41699","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41699/3","title":"npj 2D Materials and Applications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"NPJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7851174/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7851174/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eGraphene is of great scientific and commercial interest due to its unique physical properties, including exceptionally high carrier mobility and light transparency over a wide wavelength range. Graphene forms a heterojunction with silicon, which can result in a Schottky barrier diode with a depletion region that extends into the silicon. These diodes can act as photodetectors because photons entering the depletion region generate electron-hole pairs, which are separated and contribute to a photocurrent. Although graphene-silicon Schottky photodiodes (GSSDs) have been investigated for over a decade, their maturity for commercial application has yet to be demonstrated. Here, we applied industry-standard semiconductor encapsulation techniques to our GSSDs and investigated devices in commercially available packages. Our GSSDs show significantly higher responsivities in the ultraviolet spectrum than commercially available silicon photodetectors before and after packaging. Moreover, packaged GSSDs greatly outperform commercial gallium nitride photodetectors and match the responsivities of silicon carbide photodiodes in the UV range. The packaged devices additionally underwent three industrial lifetime stress tests. They showed stable dark- and photocurrents for over 900 hours, passing the harsh conditions of industrial stress tests. Overall, our results demonstrate the potential of GSSDs as promising alternatives to conventional photodiodes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"High UV Sensitivity in Graphene-Silicon Schottky Photodiodes in Industry Standard Packaging","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-25 12:58:25","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7851174/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-17T07:59:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-04T13:23:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"102639626003376434673935662654813599145","date":"2025-11-27T10:38:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"256756103708809064403476883581471458604","date":"2025-11-27T08:15:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-06T08:52:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"315137525186432314940046002902633659024","date":"2025-11-05T06:40:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-04T03:08:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-22T16:19:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-20T16:16:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"npj 2D Materials and Applications","date":"2025-10-13T16:51:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-2d-materials-and-applications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"npj2dmaterials","sideBox":"Learn more about [npj 2D Materials and Applications](http://www.nature.com/npj2dmaterials/)","snPcode":"41699","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41699/3","title":"npj 2D Materials and Applications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"NPJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5335d4a1-94d3-4fc4-8266-ee1cc2d61cd9","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 25th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":58110933,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science"},{"id":58110934,"name":"Physical sciences/Nanoscience and technology"},{"id":58110935,"name":"Physical sciences/Optics and photonics"},{"id":58110936,"name":"Physical sciences/Physics"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-23T16:03:50+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7851174","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41699-026-00678-1","journal":{"identity":"npj-2d-materials-and-applications","isVorOnly":false,"title":"npj 2D Materials and Applications"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-19 15:58:38","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 19th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-25 12:58:25","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41699-026-00678-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41699-026-00678-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7851174","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7851174","identity":"rs-7851174","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}