Water Towers as Functional Monuments

Water Towers as Functional Monuments | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Water Towers as Functional Monuments Dávid Bozsaky, András Veöreös This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9390067/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Water towers are prominent vertical elements of both urban and rural landscapes, shaping the visual identity of residential districts, industrial areas, and village skylines. Although their primary purpose is to ensure a continuous supply of potable water, they have also served industrial, railway, and agricultural operations. While most water towers were conceived as utilitarian engineering structures, many examples demonstrate a deliberate integration of architectural and aesthetic considerations. This study examines the historical and typological evolution of water towers, focusing on structural innovation, formal development, and their role as functional and symbolic elements within the settlement fabric and landscape. By examining these aspects, the paper highlights the dual significance of water towers as technical infrastructure and as culturally and visually meaningful landmarks. The research also explores the relationship between structural innovation and architectural intention in the development of elevated water-storage buildings. Although earlier studies have documented their historical development, this paper more explicitly investigates how engineering solutions influenced architectural form and symbolic meaning. A typological–historical analytical approach was applied, combining archival research with field documentation of representative Hungarian and international examples from the 19th and 20th centuries. Integrating architectural analysis with structural-engineering perspectives provides a renewed interpretation and enables broader comparative historical evaluation of these structures. water tower structural typology architectural heritage sustainability industrial architecture reinforced concrete Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Introduction Water towers represent a distinctive typology within potable water supply infrastructure, classified as an engineering structure of fundamental utility significance. Functionally, it consists of an elevated, enclosed reservoir serving two primary purposes: to store sufficient water to ensure a continuous supply and to maintain the hydraulic pressure necessary for efficient operation of the distribution network. As an integral component of municipal and industrial systems, the water tower ensures uninterrupted water provision for both domestic and industrial demands. Typologically, water towers can be categorised by functional purpose, construction material, and structural system (Palotás 2020). Beyond their utilitarian role, water towers constitute prominent elements in settlement morphology and landscape composition (Cercleux et al. 2014). The technical requirement to elevate the water tank confers vertical prominence on the structure, which is reflected in its typological designation. As visually dominant landmarks, their form is determined by structural logic and materiality, which generate distinct morphological variants according to the underlying engineering system (Liu and Tonkin 2024). Despite their clear classification as an independent building type, water towers have received limited attention within architectural historiography. Engineering works, particularly those embedded in infrastructural networks, have traditionally fallen outside the primary scope of art historical inquiry (Popelová 2007, Krivý 2010). Construction of water towers in Hungary began on a larger scale in the mid-19th century, concurrent with railway expansion, although the majority of extant examples date to the second half of the 20th century. Only in recent decades has architectural historical research systematically addressed the heritage of the 19th and 20th centuries (Bertók et al. 2007, Heckenast et al. 2021). Of particular note is the collaborative work of Ferenc Vámossy and Lajos Kollár, who presented their investigations into the architectural articulation of engineering structures in university lectures, later published in book form (Kollár and Vámossy 1996). Their analysis examined Roman aqueducts, medieval water-lifting devices, and selected 19th–20th-century water towers from an aesthetic perspective, emphasising criteria such as order, proportion, variety, functionality, and formal coherence. Twentieth-century industrial architecture has increasingly attracted scholarly interest, especially in the context of heritage conservation (Tan and Hutter 2024, Dorado and Sanchiz 2024)).0 The XXX National Monument Protection Conference (2021) adopted the Salgótarján Appeal, which advocates for the protection of post-1945 architectural heritage (ICOMOS, 2022). Similarly, in 2025, the 55th András Román Summer School of Monument Protection dedicated its full session to issues surrounding the conservation of 20th-century built heritage (Dobosyné 2025). A comprehensive digital catalogue of Hungarian water towers is maintained at viztorony.hu, with significant contributions by Zsuzsanna Gábor-Szabó, whose research at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics has produced valuable publications on their history and contemporary status (Gábor-Szabó 2009a, Gábor-Szabó 2009b). Vertical architectural elements have historically served as defining components of settlement identity and orientation. In medieval contexts, fortress towers dominated; in the 18th century, baroque church spires prevailed. With 19th-century industrialisation, factory chimneys and water towers (Fig. 1 ) emerged as the principal vertical markers of the urban and rural landscape. Methods The objective of this research is to summarize the historical development of water towers as engineering structures and to analyse them from both structural and architectural-aesthetic perspectives. This innovative approach, which combines technical and aesthetic considerations, is relatively unexplored in the field. To trace the historical evolution of water towers, the existing literature and other sources (including archive plans and site visits) were reviewed and compared with the structural typologies identified therein with various architectural style periods. Additionally, the characteristics of historical architecture were analysed in relation to water towers as a distinct building type. Recognizing that architecture, as a spatial art form, is best understood through individual impressions, and that comprehending buildings and their relationship with the environment arises from personal experiences, the research method involved visiting a multitude of water towers. This approach aimed to directly experience the first-hand impact of these structures on the observer in real life. Following the presentation of the functional elements of water towers and their structural classifications, this study further explores their significance within settlements and landscapes, ultimately establishing a typological system rooted in their historical development. Results - The water tower as an engineering structure The classification of water towers Water towers are classified by function into several categories: municipal water towers, supplying potable water to settlements; industrial towers, providing process water for factories; firefighting towers, maintaining reserves for fire suppression; agricultural towers, meeting irrigation and livestock demands; and multi-purpose towers, which combine two or more of these functions, most commonly potable, firefighting, and industrial supply (Palotás 1985). In some settlements with favourable topography, water storage does not require a tower. Water tanks are located at elevated sites, either on the surface or underground (Shammas and Wang 2015). Given that these installations differ substantially from true towers both structurally and formally, they fall outside the scope of the present study. Water towers can be classified by structural appearance. Column-supported towers consist of a water tank supported on freestanding columns or piers of wood, steel, or reinforced concrete. In contrast, solid-body towers support cylindrical, conical, or polygonal tanks on a massive, enclosed substructure of stone, brick, or reinforced concrete. Another variant is the spherical tower (hydroglobe), comprising a large steel or plastic sphere mounted on a slender supporting structure. Other forms include plate-structured (disc-shaped) towers (Fig. 2 ) and custom-designed towers, the latter of which proliferated in the late 20th century due to the versatility of monolithic reinforced concrete. Notably, the hyperboloid form became a characteristic and widely applied type during this period (Németh 1962, Bándy 1976, Ratnayaka et al. 2009, Shammas and Wang 2015). Construction materials have evolved with technological progress. 19th-century towers predominantly used traditional masonry and timber. Steel-frame construction became widespread at the turn of the 20th century, followed by the adoption of reinforced concrete in the 1930s, which dominated by the 1960s, particularly in monolithic forms. Later decades saw the increasing use of modern techniques and prefabrication. Each material offers individual advantages. Steel structures are economical to build, lightweight, and quick to erect, but are strongly exposed to corrosion, leading to high maintenance costs and often lower aesthetic quality. Reinforced concrete affords high load-bearing capacity, durability, long service life, low maintenance, and greater formal and aesthetic versatility. Masonry towers are valued for their durability and distinguished appearance, but require long construction times and entail high maintenance and modernisation costs (Németh 1962, Bánfy 1976, Palotás 1985). Water towers thus reflect both functional demands and the technical and aesthetic possibilities of their era, embodying a diverse range of structural, material, and formal solutions. Parts of water towers Water towers consist of three principal parts: the water tank, which serves for storing water and maintaining hydraulic pressure within the distribution system; the supporting structure, which ensures that the water tank is held at the proper height; and the foundation, which provides the stability and proper support of the entire water tower. In addition to these primary elements, water towers usually include auxiliary components: an inspection room generally beside or above the water tank, facilitating operational monitoring; a piping network for the controlled inflow, outflow, and distribution of water; vents designed to prevent vacuum formation and to provide appropriate air circulation; overflow pipes to regulate the water level; protective coatings and insulation to avoid corrosion and to ensure water quality; as well as maintenance stairways and walkways (Ratnayaka et al. 2009, Shammas and Wang 2015). The social significance of water towers The tower, as an architectural structure distinct from its surroundings, has always carried a symbolic content. Vertical elements constitute defining features of both urban and rural landscapes, serving as dominant visual landmarks that can be perceived from great distances and functioning as essential points of orientation. Owing to its high visibility, both the external appearance and architectural design of a tower have major importance (Drėmaitė 2019). In historical architecture, towers have most frequently been associated with sacred buildings. Church towers, in particular, have served dual purposes: they not only designate the sacred locus but also elevate bells to a height that maximizes the transmission of sound, thereby fulfilling a communicative role. Functionally, church towers have maintained their purpose across centuries, while their formal expression has evolved in accordance with the stylistic tendencies of successive architectural periods. Since antiquity, towers have also embodied functions of defence, power, and authority. They once symbolized strength and served protective purposes; however, with the advent of modern military technologies and the invention of the cannon in the late Middle Ages, traditional fortification systems underwent profound transformation, and towers gradually lost their defensive character. The 19th century witnessed the emergence of new vertical elements within the cityscapes, most notably the factory chimney. Contemporary descriptions often depict industrial cities as being encircled by forests of chimneys. This period also saw the spread of water towers, which soon became essential infrastructural and visual components of modern settlements. By the end of the century, a notable type of tower that had emerged was the one constructed for town halls. These towers were intended to demonstrate the economic strength of bourgeois society. In many cases, the town hall towers evolved into symbols of their respective communities. Analogous to their historical predecessors, water towers, too, could acquire a symbolic dimension, representing the collective identity of a community. Constructed primarily during the second half of the twentieth century, water towers served as key orientation points within newly developed residential areas. In rural contexts, village hydroglobes transcended their purely utilitarian function, becoming emblematic not only of the cooperative enterprises that managed them but of the entire local community as well. Like many other historical structures, water towers face challenges related to their loss of function. With the cessation of steam locomotive operations, railway water towers became functionless, and the closure of factories rendered industrial water reservoirs similarly purposeless. As demand for public water supply has grown, these historic installations have frequently proved insufficient, leading to the construction of newer, larger-capacity water towers. Maintaining elements of our built heritage that have lost their functional significance poses considerable challenges for decision-makers. Obsolete water towers seldom find new, permanent uses, resulting in neglect and deterioration. Nevertheless, preserving existing buildings is crucial for sustainability. Disused water towers can be repurposed for a variety of cultural activities, serve as observation points, function as restaurants, or, in rare cases, be transformed into residential spaces. Furthermore, many tall structures, including water towers, are often utilized by mobile communication service providers for antenna placements. A notable example of the revitalization of disused water towers in Hungary is situated in Brenner Park (Szombathely). This impressive structure stands at 55 meters tall and was constructed between 1926 and 1929, remaining in operation until it was decommissioned in 1978. In 2022, the tower underwent rehabilitation, which transformed its interior into a virtual exhibition space, a panoramic observation deck, and a restaurant (Fig. 3 ). In instances where buildings of architectural and historical significance cannot be preserved and demolition becomes necessary, it is essential to document the site. This can be accomplished through traditional survey methods or modern digital technologies. For example, a spatial virtual model (Building Information Modelling, or BIM) created from a point cloud can effectively capture the geometry of the structure, highlighting its architectural value, as well as documenting findings from technical condition assessments. Discussion - Typology of water towers based on historical development The Early Type of Water Towers Water towers, as essential elements of water supply infrastructure, were already utilised in antiquity. The ancient Roman engineers pioneered the development of urban water systems to meet the growing demands of densely populated cities (Canepa and Ghafar 2020). By the 4th century BCE, the water demand of Rome exceeded the capacity of private and public wells and rainwater collection. Consequently, engineers devised a method to convey water from surrounding springs into the urban centre via aqueducts. These systems transported water by gravity through lead pipes, masonry channels, or ceramic conduits coated with cement mortar to minimise leakage. Depending on topography, aqueducts were constructed above ground, underground, or across valleys on monumental, multi-tiered arcades (Fasolo 2014, Deming 2019). The first aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, was constructed in 312 BCE, followed over the next five centuries by numerous similar systems across the Empire (Fig. 4 ). Aqueducts often discharged into settling basins (piscina limaria), where suspended solid contaminants settled out, ensuring higher water quality. Initially, aqueduct construction and maintenance were administered by censors and aediles. Under Emperor Augustus (14 BCE–31 CE), a dedicated water authority was established, led by the curator aquarum, responsible for monitoring, maintaining, and regulating water consumption. Within cities, aqueducts typically terminated at elevated distribution water tanks (castellum divisorium), from which water was delivered through a pipeline system made from lead, terracotta, or wood, to various urban districts. In larger cities, water was first stored in secondary water tanks (castella) to smooth out daily fluctuations, then conveyed under pressure to water towers (Castella Privati), which supplied both public fountains and private consumers. These water towers consisted of lead tanks supported by six-metre-high brick piers. Private users paid fees for access, while public fountains were often established next to the towers. Functionally, the lead tanks acted as pressure equalisers, mediating between the main high-pressure system fed from the elevated castella and the lower-pressure local distribution pipes. Water arriving from the city’s highest points was regulated and its pressure reduced within these tanks. Individual connections were made via narrow bronze pipes, joined at the base of the lead tanks and routed through cavities embedded in the brickwork (Hodge 2002, Monteleone et al. 2007, Kovács 2015). Water towers in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance era In densely built-up medieval cities, water supply became indispensable. Water was needed partly for the supply of the population, partly for firefighting, and partly for industrial use. From the 13th to 14th centuries, we have data on the development of water supply systems from almost all areas of Europe. The central element of the system was a tank erected high (in a tower), from which water was delivered by gravity to the places of use (van Craenenbroeck 1990). South of the Alps, ancient water supply technologies continued to exist in the Middle Ages, and the technical solutions for water transport and storage also occupied Renaissance theorists. At the same time, novel solutions were also developed in the North German areas. Water was lifted from streams and rivers into high-altitude reservoirs with increasingly efficient solutions, in which we can actually see the ancestors of water towers. A record from 1294 has survived from the city of Lübeck, one of the centers of the Hanseatic League, about the water supply system of the brewing guild. A water wheel equipped with buckets, driven by the Wakenitz River, lifted the water from the river into a high-altitude tank, from where it was led to its place of use through channels made of wooden pipes. In 1533, a 20-meter-high water tower building with Renaissance-style features was built to supply the population with water. The water was collected in a tank of 15 cubic meters in the tower, which was also pumped up using pumps powered by the Wakenitz River (Shulman 2019, Arndt 2020). In Augsburg, the fountain master Leopold Karg built a waterworks in 1412 to supply the population with water. Piston pumps operated by a water wheel were also used to transport clean water to different parts of the city. The Oberwasserturm, part of the waterworks, was completed in 1416 and transported water to the city's seven public wells through wooden pipes. The wooden waterworks burned down in 1464, and a stone water tower was built in its place. In 1470, a second tower, the Unterwasserturm, was built in the Mauerberg district. At the beginning of the 16th century, the city developed another innovative water supply system. The water storage cistern was located in the former defensive tower of the inner city wall, and its water supply was provided by the water lifting device called the "Machina Augustama" consisting of pumps built in 1538. The water was extracted from the Brunnenbach River and distributed throughout the city via a pipeline system (Grewe 2000, Douet 2019, Mair and Weber 2019, Shulman 2019). There are written records of a public water supply system in Prague's Old Town from 1431. The water was supplied by the Vltava River, which was pumped up to a 30-meter-high water tower near Charles Bridge by piston pumps and supplied the eastern part of the city with fresh water. The water supply network here was also made of wooden pipes. The tower fell victim to fires several times, but was renovated each time. The cause of the disaster was that several times, a fire lit inside the tower to prevent the water from freezing (Ruhland 2007, Shulman 2019). In Berlin, the water supply system built in 1572 is attributed to Johann von Blankenfelde. Here, too, a 30-meter-high tower of the existing fortification system was used to house the water tank, which contained a tank with a capacity of nearly 50 cubic meters. The water was extracted from the Spree River, lifted with a water wheel, and driven by pumps that pumped it into the tank. Interestingly, the tower was not built directly on the riverbank, but was supplied with water via an open canal. The water intake points were wells located in the streets and in the courtyards of wealthy citizens, which were also equipped with taps. The network was supervised by the “Wasserkunstmeister” (water master), who received a salary from the city for this (Grewe 2000, Douet 2019, Shulman 2019). In areas where distant water conveyance was impossible or security concerns necessitated internal sources, wells remained vital. The Pozzo di San Patrizio in Orvieto, Italy, designed by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger in 1527, exemplifies such ingenuity (Fig. 5 ). This 54-meter-deep well features two interwoven helical staircases, allowing pack animals to descend and ascend efficiently, creating a striking spatial experience within its interior (Sciarre et al. 2022). During the 17th and 18th centuries, water towers were increasingly constructed to supply castles and mansions.13 The formal gardens of these complexes, often designed in the French geometric style, featured ornamental fountains supplied with high-pressure water from such towers. Notably, the Hellbrunn Palace park near Salzburg, Austria, showcases water power animating mechanical figures, raising a crown, producing birdsong, and delighting visitors with fountains (Fig. 6 ) (Hajós 2017). In Hungary, the Esterházy Palace park in Fertőd is exemplary; in the early 2000s, its previously destroyed octagonal brick water tower was reconstructed (Fig. 7 ). Architecturally integrated with the marionette theatre and palm house, the restored tower continues to house mechanical equipment for the water infrastructure. Water Towers in the Industrial Era In the 19th century, as society began to embrace historical influences, there was a notable increase in the use of classical forms in architecture. Classicism drew inspiration from ancient Greco-Roman structures, while Romanticism looked to medieval and Eastern architectural styles for reference. By the late 19th century, Historicism evolved to encompass a wide range of these previous architectural expressions. The abandonment of historical architectural forms was one of the earliest developments in practical industrial architecture. Water towers, as examples of industrial structures, often showcase simplified designs. However, there are also instances of buildings that boast representative facades and possess the quality of urban public architecture. In the early centuries of the modern age, the design and construction of water towers were not significantly different from other architectural works. It was only with the onset of industrialisation in the 18th and 19th centuries that notable changes occurred in the aesthetic and functional character of engineering structures. This era brought important aesthetic and cultural transformations, along with advancements in water supply technology and its applications in urban settings (Pohlar 2010). The economic and demographic landscape of cities underwent dramatic changes. Increased production and a rising urban population created a need for new water infrastructure. Industrial sites attracted labour forces, leading to rapid urban growth, particularly in America and Europe. This diversification of architectural tasks accelerated, necessitating the construction of increasingly specialised buildings (Canepa and Ghafar 2020). The expansion of railways, industrial activity, and urban populations made modern water supply and sewer networks essential. Early 19th-century industrial architecture often emphasised representation, but as functionality became a priority, decorative elements gradually disappeared (Pilsitz 2017). Water towers exemplified this trend, constructed with common industrial materials. Their brick façades became dominant, while historic ornaments declined. This functionalist approach positioned 19th-century industrial architecture as a direct precursor to modernism (Pilsitz 2023). One of the most remarkable examples of the evolution of modern water supply is the Lochside Cistern in Montrose (UK), designed in 1841 by William Middleton. Its castle-like appearance diverged significantly from typical industrial water towers. With its massive stone walls and bastion-like structures, it evoked a medieval fortress while achieving both functional and aesthetic significance. The arrival of railways in the 19th century had a significant impact on the development of water towers. Steam locomotives required large amounts of water for continuous operation at stations and along railway lines. To ensure a reliable supply, railway companies constructed water towers at regular intervals. The earliest examples were simple elevated tanks without architectural features (Fig. 8 ). One of the first railway water towers was designed in 1839 by Robert Stephenson along the London-Birmingham line at Blisworth (demolished in the 1970s) (Gould and Barton 1999–2000). Railway companies soon standardised the size, capacity, and piping systems of their towers. Large tanks were filled from wells, rivers, or municipal networks and supplied water by gravity or pumps. Towers were spaced approximately 50 to 100 kilometres apart, allowing for uninterrupted locomotive operation. Beyond functionality, some towers were designed to harmonise with the architectural appearance of the station (Gábor-Szabó 2009c). Typical 19th-century water towers featured circular or polygonal plans, with a slender shaft supporting a wider upper tank. Brick façades often incorporated larger windows on the shaft and smaller openings at the tank level. In some instances, timber framing and cladding enclosed the tank to reduce weight. The roofs, which could be steeply pitched or low conical/pyramidal, enhanced the tower's vertical emphasis and prominence (Fig. 9 ). The development of railway water towers also influenced urban water systems. Innovations such as more efficient pumps and larger water tanks were later adopted in municipal infrastructures. In the early 19th century, water towers were primarily constructed using traditional masonry techniques, mainly involving stone and brick. However, along railway lines, timber towers also became a common choice. The tanks were typically waterproofed with metal sheeting or bitumen. The second half of the 19th century marked a significant advancement in construction with the patent of reinforced concrete by Joseph Monier in 1849. In 1867, François Hennebique founded the first enterprise specialising in reinforced concrete construction. Following this, patents for various reinforced concrete systems and reinforcement methods proliferated. Monier patented a reinforced concrete pipeline in 1868, a façade panel in 1869, a bridge structure in 1873, and beams in 1878. Hennebique patented the first reinforcement system using stirrups in 1879 and a comprehensive construction system in 1892. In the same year, Edmond Coignet designed the first prefabricated frame-structured building (Balázs 1994, Stark and Wicht 1998). Reinforced concrete proved to be highly suitable for engineering structures, offering faster, more productive, and technically simpler solutions than masonry, while providing superior strength and durability. Water tower construction benefited from these advances. Monier is credited with designing the first reinforced concrete water tower, built in the 1870s for the owners of Villa Bailleul in Pontorson, France. This tower featured a cylindrical tank supported on six reinforced concrete columns shaped like tree trunks and topped by a hexagonal roof. The first reinforced concrete water tower for public supply is the still-existing 21.9-meter-high Addington Water Tower in Christchurch, New Zealand, designed in 1883 by Peter Ellis (Gould and Barton 1999–2000). A significant advancement in reinforced concrete water tower design came from German hydraulic engineer Otto Intze, who patented two water tank designs, known as Intze tanks, in 1877 and 1883. Earlier tanks were typically rectangular or cylindrical, with flat or slightly curved bottoms, which produced substantial horizontal hydrostatic forces that required massive supports. Intze developed a doubly curved tank bottom, supported by an intermediate ring positioned between the centre and perimeter walls. This design allowed the dome to rise inward and outward from the ring, minimising horizontal forces and transferring primarily vertical loads to the supporting structure, enabling taller and slender towers (Fig. 10 ) (Gould and Barton 1999–2000). A notable example of this innovation is the heritage-protected water tower in Salbke, constructed between 1893 and 1895 for the Royal Railway Directorate of Berlin (Despland-Lichtert 2024). Steel became a key construction material in the latter half of the 19th century, alongside reinforced concrete. While metal tanks were used for water storage earlier, they were typically supported by masonry structures. The first documented example of a fully metallic support system is the water tower at Portsmouth docks, constructed in the 1840s. This structure featured a cast-iron tank elevated about 10 meters and supported by a series of cast-iron columns, which were horizontally braced by curved struts along the lower third of the height. The potential of metal-framed towers gained wider recognition following the relocation of Joseph Paxton's Crystal Palace in 1854 to Sydenham, London. Two 60-meter-high masonry towers were built to supply water to the palace’s fountains. Notably, these towers were encircled by a staircase supported not by masonry but by an independent steel framework designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Although the slenderness of the towers was controversial at the time, they remained standing until the palace was destroyed by fire in 1936. This design influenced later developments, such as the Great Western Railway water tower at Swindon, United Kingdom (1870), which featured a central masonry core supporting the tank and a secondary system of circular steel columns braced with beams, solid along one axis and lattice along the other. Diagonal tie bars in both directions added resistance to movement. From the 1880s, rectangular tanks were gradually replaced by cylindrical forms – horizontal at first, then vertical – allowing for the use of central supports. The earliest recorded fully metallic water tower was built in Lymington in 1883. It featured a cylindrical wrought-iron tank, 9 meters in diameter and 5 meters tall, supported by a riveted steel framework. Early steel towers typically rested on four angle-iron legs, cross-braced for stability. Taller examples incorporated intermediate horizontal bracing, dividing the structure into two cross-braced tiers. Although lattice-trussed supports were developed, these remained relatively uncommon. A more widely adopted solution involved a large central core surrounded by four, six, or more perimeter columns, an approach later used extensively in reinforced concrete designs (Gould 2001). The construction of the Eiffel Tower significantly advanced the use of steel in tall structures. At 330 meters tall, it was the tallest building in the world at the time (Hevré 2003). Its rapid construction, lightweight yet strong prefabricated steel structure, and superior efficiency compared to masonry or concrete underscore the advantages of steel in engineering. This, in turn, contributed to the increasing adoption of steel water towers in the early 20th century. Several notable steel water towers from this period illustrate the evolution of this type. The Portsmouth Water Company’s tower, built in 1900 in Selsey (United Kingdom), featured a cylindrical tank (5.5 meters in diameter and 5.5 meters tall) elevated 12.65 meters on six inclined angle-iron legs, braced by transverse rods and a peripheral beam at the upper third of the height. A more ambitious example was Thomas Rodd’s 1903 design for Westinghouse Electric at Trafford Park, Manchester, United Kingdom. This 64-meter-high structure was inspired by the Eiffel Tower and featured an open steel framework supporting an octagonal, dome-capped tank with a capacity of 250 cubic meters. A record-setting steel tower was constructed in 1905 for the Rumford Chemical Works in East Providence, USA. At 62 meters tall, with a tank of 3,800 cubic meters it far surpassed contemporary water towers. The tank measured 15 meters in diameter and 21 meters tall, resting on four long vertical legs and eight inclined legs to withstand wind loads. Its striking design became an emblem for the company and was later featured on its product packaging. The tower’s ornamental roof is preserved in a local museum following its demolition. The oldest known steel water tower still in operation was erected in 1906 in Aldershot (United Kingdom) for the Mid Southern Water Company. Its cylindrical steel tank is supported by a hexagonal arrangement of cast-iron columns, which are horizontally braced at multiple levels. Despite these advancements, the adoption of steel as a structural material for water towers occurred more slowly than that of reinforced concrete. Several factors contributed to this. Reinforced concrete allowed for monolithic, joint-free construction, making it easier to waterproof. In contrast, the manufacture of large, thin-walled steel plates was not feasible in the late 19th century. Tanks were typically made of heavy cast or wrought iron, which limited their storage capacity. Larger tanks required segmented construction, which made sealing joints reliably difficult. Early sealing methods, such as using organic materials like wood shavings, yarn, or hemp, swelled when wet but also encouraged microbial growth, making them unsuitable for potable water. While riveted and welded joints, common in boilers and small tanks, were gradually applied to water towers, high wall thicknesses remained a concern due to deformation. Innovations such as flanged joints patented by Horseley Bridge and Thomas Piggot Ltd. (1878, 1886) and G. H. Lloyd’s 1901 reinforced thin-plate patent improved the situation, but challenges persisted (Gould 2001). In Hungary, one of the most common types of steel water towers is the ‘hydroglobe,’ which is based on the 1956 patent by engineer Szabolcs Harsányi. The first hydroglobe was constructed in 1957 at the Mezőhék State Farm in Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok County. Its quick and cost-effective construction led to widespread adoption both domestically and internationally, with standard designs developed for capacities of 50, 100, 200, and 500 cubic meters (Gábor-Szabó 2009d). The simplest version features a spherical tank atop a cylindrical steel column, although there are also variants with cylindrical or mace-shaped tanks. Taller versions utilise steel guy wires to withstand wind loads. These towers have become characteristic features of the Hungarian landscape, appearing in nearly every rural settlement, cooperative farm, and industrial site. They also serve as landmarks that contribute to the local identity and orientation (Fig. 11). Figue 11. Hydroglobe in Szalafő Early reinforced concrete structures Early reinforced concrete towers employed free-standing columns or braced piers. As heights increased, improvements were made to reduce slenderness and enhance stiffness. By the early 20th century, triangular cross-bracing and central cores – often housing staircases – became standard for added rigidity (Gould and Barton, 1999–2000). In Hungary, the first reinforced concrete water tower was designed by Szilárd Zielinski, a pioneer in reinforced concrete construction, and built in 1903 by the Grünwald and Schiffer Company in Ihász Street, Kőbánya. This structure stood 33.3 meters high with a capacity of 350 cubic meters but was demolished in 1968 due to urban redevelopment. The oldest surviving and operational reinforced concrete water tower in Hungary is also attributed to Zielinski: the so-called “Old Lady” on Szent István Square in Szeged, constructed between 1903 and 1904 by Freund Henrik & Sons. This tower stands 54 meters high with a capacity of 1,000 cubic meters (Hajós 2004). From the 1930s onward, industrialised formwork technologies complemented traditional shuttering. Modified Intze tanks with upward-tapering conical or truncated conical domes became widely adopted. Interwar towers were typically supported by a ring of piers beneath the tank perimeter, combined with a central shaft housing the access core. The piers were reinforced by horizontal beams or diaphragms to reduce effective buckling lengths (Fig. 12 ) (Gould and Barton, 1999–2000). Monolithic reinforced concrete structures after World War II Initially, monolithic reinforced concrete structures were cast in place using conventional formwork. After World War II, the slipform technique gained prominence, although construction using prefabricated elements was also utilised. In the post-war era, monolithic reinforced concrete assumed a more significant role in both architecture and engineering. In water towers, cylindrical, conical, or structurally efficient shell forms became prevalent due to their ease of construction with straight planks. Hyperboloid forms enabled designs that were both structurally sound and aesthetically pleasing (Fig. 13 ). As labour costs rose in the final quarter of the century, individually shuttered monolithic construction became less economical, leading to the widespread adoption of modern slipform techniques. This technological evolution also influenced the formal design and articulation of water towers (Fig. 14 ). This structural and formal development of water towers is summarized in Table 1 . Table 1 The structural and formal development of water towers Era Date Materials and structures Architecture Function Example Supporting structure Water tank Ancient, Medieval, and Renaissance 300 BC – 1600s masonry (brick, stone) wrought iron lead insulated masonry antique, medieval, renaissance residential, mixed Castella Privati (Rome), Lübeck, Augsburg, Prague, Berlin Baroque and Early Industrial 1600s – 1750s masonry (brick, stone) wrought iron lead insulated masonry baroque mansions, castles Fertőd (Esterházy Castle) Late Industrial 1750s – 1880s masonry (brick, stone) wood cast iron lead historicism, industrial industrial complexes, railways Győr (Árkád), Lochside Cistern Late 19th and early 20th century 1880s – 1945 masonry (brick, stone) cast iron steel industrial railways San Giovanni d'Asso reinforced concrete reinforced concrete modern (without decoration), industrial industrial, residential Győr (Révfalu), Szombathely, Szeged, Szolnok steel steel industrial industrial complexes, railways Trafford Park, Rumford Chemical Works Post-World War II 1945–1970s reinforced concrete reinforced concrete dynamic geometrical form (hyperboloid) residential Oroszlány plate-structured (dish-shaped) residential Szarvas steel steel industrial agriculture, residential Szalafő Late 20th century 1970s – reinforced concrete reinforced concrete unique designed form residential, mixed Győr (Marcalváros) Table 1 . The structural and formal development of water towers Conclusions Water towers have become symbols of modern engineering and industrial technology. Each tower functions not only as a vital infrastructure component but also reflects the technological sophistication and artistic trends of its era. Local architectural regulations and community expectations played an essential role in their construction. Municipal authorities often required that water towers meet specific functional criteria while also achieving a high standard of architectural and aesthetic quality. As a result, engineers and architects frequently collaborated to create designs that balanced technical efficiency with visual appeal. The nomenclature of these towers was typically tailored to align with local architectural styles, incorporating elements characteristic of the prevailing aesthetic. Consequently, water towers served not only as facilities for storing potable water but also as significant parts of the identity of the communities they supported. Many residents took pride in their water towers, which, in some cases, became venues for local events and celebrations. During the 20th century, various standardised types and construction methods emerged. However, due to their size and prominent locations within the built environment, water towers often became iconic landmarks and important points of orientation. In their collaborative efforts, architects and structural engineers consistently aimed to achieve a high degree of harmony between engineering and architecture. In addition to standardised designs, many uniquely crafted water towers were built, greatly enhancing the aesthetic quality of the environment. This research established a typological framework linking materials, structural systems, and aesthetic evolution from antiquity to the twentieth century, integrating historiographical and technical perspectives. The study also found significant variability in how material innovation shaped architectural form, such as the shift from masonry to steel and reinforced concrete. This confirms that structural systems directly influenced the visual language of water towers over time. These findings reinforce existing literature and highlight underrepresented cases, especially in Hungary, where engineering intent and architectural expression were intentionally unified. Furthermore, the architectural articulation of water towers has consistently reflected prevailing societal values: monumentality characterized the nineteenth century, functional efficiency defined the industrial age, and sculptural modernity emerged in the post-war period. In contemporary practice, these insights underscore the importance of recognising water towers not as obsolete infrastructural relics but as valuable cultural and architectural resources. Historical research on water towers enriches architectural history with new results, helps to establish architectural typology, and the architectural analysis of water towers can provide new aspects for shaping future engineering works. These structures – due to their size and scale – are defining elements of our environment, and aesthetics, the impact on the settlement or landscape, is increasingly emphasized during their design. The examination of existing examples helps to formulate architectural expectations related to engineering facilities. Field observations confirmed that the spatial impact and symbolic meaning of these structures transcend what can be represented only with a single technical documentation. Future research should pursue comparative international typologies, quantitative analysis of structural performance, and the use of digital heritage technologies for documentation and reinterpretation. By reframing water towers as functional monuments, this work contributes to broader discussions on sustainable conservation and the aesthetic potential of infrastructure. The water supply systems of historical cities consisted of a water intake point (river, water wheel), a raised tank (tower), a water pipe network (wooden or clay pipes), and water intake points (well). Industrial facilities have only survived since the 19th century, and research into earlier systems also contributes to the results of the science of settlement history. Declarations Funding statement The authors state that no funding or sponsorship was received for this research. Author Contribution Both authors contributed equally to the content of the paper, including all its chapters. 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Pohlar C (2010) The Water Tower – A New Image in the Urban Landscape. M.S. thesis, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, University of Cincinnati Popelová L (2007) The Symbolic-Aesthetic Dimension of Industrial Architecture as a Method of Classification and Evaluation: The Example of Bridge Structures in the Czech Republic. Acta Polytechnica 47(1):23–31, doi: 10.14311/912. Ratnayaka DD, Brandt MJ, Johnson KM (2009) Twort’s Water Supply (6th ed). Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford & Burlington. Ruhland F (2007) Power, pleasure, and pollution: Water use in preindustrial Nuremberg and Prague. Klaudyán: Internet Journal of Historical Geography and Environmental History 7(2):5–18. Sciarra M, Lattanzi C, La Rosa MG (2022) Il pozzo di San Patrizio e della Cava. Intermedia Edizioni, Orvieto. Shammas NK, Wang LK (2015) Water Engineering: Hydraulics, Distribution and Treatment. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken (NJ, USA). Shulman C (2019) The Groundbreaking Water Supply Systems of Central and Eastern European Cities (1300–1580). Technology and Culture 60(3):726–769, doi: 10.1353/tech.2019.0071. Stark J, Wicht B (1998) Geschichte der Baustoffe. Vieweg & Teubner Verlag, Wiesbaden. doi: 10.1007/978-3-322-32983-4. Tan J, Hutter Á (2024) A case study on renewal strategies for industrial communities in urban fringe area. Pollack Periodica 19(3):137–142, doi: 10.1556/606.2024.00994. van Craenenbroeck WJ (1990) Examen d'un chainon important de l'alimentation en eau – Historie de construction des châteaux d’eau Belges. Tribune de l’eau 42(542):37–46. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9390067","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":633942830,"identity":"07991eab-bde9-4b17-95e1-4b5718a334bb","order_by":0,"name":"Dávid 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18:38:43","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9390067/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9390067/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108809906,"identity":"58ac189e-f660-409f-bde9-a92cb8f42e99","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:56:12","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2394356,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eÁrkád water tower in Győr\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1Arkadwatertower.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/ea12aab45785ab00421dafc7.jpg"},{"id":108808057,"identity":"d313b3d8-7b66-42c7-9921-e88e4a3b80c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:39:34","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8655927,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe disc-shaped water tower in Szarvas\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig2Szarvaswatertower.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/f217adf63cabdacbc68aea0c.jpg"},{"id":108808079,"identity":"5afa33a2-66de-4d9d-8088-24696a6eaa4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:39:42","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":7002213,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe revitalised water tower in Szombathely\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig3Szombathelywatertower.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/0a32dca4b8d22a14d6e062ed.jpg"},{"id":108808080,"identity":"1e8cf887-fddb-4c1e-a169-37af8050d235","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:39:43","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2909502,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRuins of an ancient Roman aqueduct along the Via Appia\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig4Romanaqueduct.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/855bdba8bbe0fad501931bd2.jpg"},{"id":108807945,"identity":"3a28e881-3c40-4c3e-a34e-ba2579f3e4e1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:38:03","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5210355,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInterior view of the well in Orvieto (Italy): natural light barely penetrates the depths of the spindle space between the two spiral staircases that twist into each other\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig5Orvieto.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/94fae05e764ba8773ee0eee9.jpg"},{"id":108808035,"identity":"3c73f50b-69cd-4a21-8c6e-cd71fc5ddfff","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:39:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1955929,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRuins of a Baroque pipeline made of a drilled tree trunk, discovered by archaeological methods\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig6Baroquepipeline.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/7d0fc3aec3a1a409dbf6ce32.jpg"},{"id":108808081,"identity":"da355c3e-88d1-4243-a0ff-04a673636e5d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:39:43","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2572861,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe reconstructed Baroque water tower in Eszterháza, Hungary\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig7Fertod.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/426419e7ab62e12af0296807.jpg"},{"id":108808036,"identity":"9897ee6a-6773-4a79-80f2-161a42dfcf42","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:39:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":6287951,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe reconstructed Baroque water tower in Eszterháza, Hungary\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig8SanGiovannidAsso.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/f08c6c008819d58b5c1b150c.jpg"},{"id":108808008,"identity":"4db82119-396a-465f-bc12-8119225f7a6e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:38:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1464762,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUrban water tower from 1903 in Torgau, Saxony\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig9Torgau.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/b3e4fc462008d6b9a2f3820c.jpg"},{"id":108807947,"identity":"b44b9132-95d1-4694-a150-14b6c3d21838","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:38:05","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":272312,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic cross-section of an Intze tank\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig10Intzetank.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/9b4485f3959d1897b598d262.png"},{"id":108809915,"identity":"6d1588d6-54c3-4586-bf10-e911561eeb20","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:56:16","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":698468,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHydroglobe in Szalafő\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig11Hydroglobe.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/1b7f7b3aa43f73e94aecd1fe.jpg"},{"id":108808058,"identity":"135d6d8e-b6f5-4873-9937-225d7e722103","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:39:34","extension":"jpg","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8691645,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe water tower in Szolnok, Hungary\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig12Szolnok.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/24c03d76f678f541cb6ed680.jpg"},{"id":108808010,"identity":"17d7812b-b3b4-432e-b78c-1b854d64c957","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:38:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3573614,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHyperboloid from water tower in Oroszlány, Hungary\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig13Oroszlany.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/1653220c3e7bcfc454405582.jpg"},{"id":108809914,"identity":"d57b9987-7940-4701-a9f5-6784714a6e23","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:56:15","extension":"jpg","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2440333,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWater tower in Marcalváros, Győr, Hungary\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig14Marcalvaros.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/c9562d44ea0dab0221afb8d7.jpg"},{"id":108814924,"identity":"bce69f99-f76d-4d73-a3ab-a37bb5f8374e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 16:20:52","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":54454595,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9390067/v1/7394ea12-aa41-41cd-a038-635a277f5118.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Water Towers as Functional Monuments","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater towers represent a distinctive typology within potable water supply infrastructure, classified as an engineering structure of fundamental utility significance. Functionally, it consists of an elevated, enclosed reservoir serving two primary purposes: to store sufficient water to ensure a continuous supply and to maintain the hydraulic pressure necessary for efficient operation of the distribution network. As an integral component of municipal and industrial systems, the water tower ensures uninterrupted water provision for both domestic and industrial demands. Typologically, water towers can be categorised by functional purpose, construction material, and structural system (Palot\u0026aacute;s 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond their utilitarian role, water towers constitute prominent elements in settlement morphology and landscape composition (Cercleux et al. 2014). The technical requirement to elevate the water tank confers vertical prominence on the structure, which is reflected in its typological designation. As visually dominant landmarks, their form is determined by structural logic and materiality, which generate distinct morphological variants according to the underlying engineering system (Liu and Tonkin 2024). Despite their clear classification as an independent building type, water towers have received limited attention within architectural historiography. Engineering works, particularly those embedded in infrastructural networks, have traditionally fallen outside the primary scope of art historical inquiry (Popelov\u0026aacute; 2007, Kriv\u0026yacute; 2010). Construction of water towers in Hungary began on a larger scale in the mid-19th century, concurrent with railway expansion, although the majority of extant examples date to the second half of the 20th century. Only in recent decades has architectural historical research systematically addressed the heritage of the 19th and 20th centuries (Bert\u0026oacute;k et al. 2007, Heckenast et al. 2021). Of particular note is the collaborative work of Ferenc V\u0026aacute;mossy and Lajos Koll\u0026aacute;r, who presented their investigations into the architectural articulation of engineering structures in university lectures, later published in book form (Koll\u0026aacute;r and V\u0026aacute;mossy 1996). Their analysis examined Roman aqueducts, medieval water-lifting devices, and selected 19th\u0026ndash;20th-century water towers from an aesthetic perspective, emphasising criteria such as order, proportion, variety, functionality, and formal coherence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwentieth-century industrial architecture has increasingly attracted scholarly interest, especially in the context of heritage conservation (Tan and Hutter 2024, Dorado and Sanchiz 2024)).0 The XXX National Monument Protection Conference (2021) adopted the Salg\u0026oacute;tarj\u0026aacute;n Appeal, which advocates for the protection of post-1945 architectural heritage (ICOMOS, 2022). Similarly, in 2025, the 55th Andr\u0026aacute;s Rom\u0026aacute;n Summer School of Monument Protection dedicated its full session to issues surrounding the conservation of 20th-century built heritage (Dobosyn\u0026eacute; 2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA comprehensive digital catalogue of Hungarian water towers is maintained at viztorony.hu, with significant contributions by Zsuzsanna G\u0026aacute;bor-Szab\u0026oacute;, whose research at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics has produced valuable publications on their history and contemporary status (G\u0026aacute;bor-Szab\u0026oacute; 2009a, G\u0026aacute;bor-Szab\u0026oacute; 2009b).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVertical architectural elements have historically served as defining components of settlement identity and orientation. In medieval contexts, fortress towers dominated; in the 18th century, baroque church spires prevailed. With 19th-century industrialisation, factory chimneys and water towers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) emerged as the principal vertical markers of the urban and rural landscape.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe objective of this research is to summarize the historical development of water towers as engineering structures and to analyse them from both structural and architectural-aesthetic perspectives. This innovative approach, which combines technical and aesthetic considerations, is relatively unexplored in the field.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo trace the historical evolution of water towers, the existing literature and other sources (including archive plans and site visits) were reviewed and compared with the structural typologies identified therein with various architectural style periods. Additionally, the characteristics of historical architecture were analysed in relation to water towers as a distinct building type.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognizing that architecture, as a spatial art form, is best understood through individual impressions, and that comprehending buildings and their relationship with the environment arises from personal experiences, the research method involved visiting a multitude of water towers. This approach aimed to directly experience the first-hand impact of these structures on the observer in real life.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing the presentation of the functional elements of water towers and their structural classifications, this study further explores their significance within settlements and landscapes, ultimately establishing a typological system rooted in their historical development.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results - The water tower as an engineering structure","content":" \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe classification of water towers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater towers are classified by function into several categories: municipal water towers, supplying potable water to settlements; industrial towers, providing process water for factories; firefighting towers, maintaining reserves for fire suppression; agricultural towers, meeting irrigation and livestock demands; and multi-purpose towers, which combine two or more of these functions, most commonly potable, firefighting, and industrial supply (Palot\u0026aacute;s 1985).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn some settlements with favourable topography, water storage does not require a tower. Water tanks are located at elevated sites, either on the surface or underground (Shammas and Wang 2015). Given that these installations differ substantially from true towers both structurally and formally, they fall outside the scope of the present study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater towers can be classified by structural appearance. Column-supported towers consist of a water tank supported on freestanding columns or piers of wood, steel, or reinforced concrete. In contrast, solid-body towers support cylindrical, conical, or polygonal tanks on a massive, enclosed substructure of stone, brick, or reinforced concrete. Another variant is the spherical tower (hydroglobe), comprising a large steel or plastic sphere mounted on a slender supporting structure. Other forms include plate-structured (disc-shaped) towers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) and custom-designed towers, the latter of which proliferated in the late 20th century due to the versatility of monolithic reinforced concrete. Notably, the hyperboloid form became a characteristic and widely applied type during this period (N\u0026eacute;meth 1962, B\u0026aacute;ndy 1976, Ratnayaka et al. 2009, Shammas and Wang 2015).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstruction materials have evolved with technological progress. 19th-century towers predominantly used traditional masonry and timber. Steel-frame construction became widespread at the turn of the 20th century, followed by the adoption of reinforced concrete in the 1930s, which dominated by the 1960s, particularly in monolithic forms. Later decades saw the increasing use of modern techniques and prefabrication.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach material offers individual advantages. Steel structures are economical to build, lightweight, and quick to erect, but are strongly exposed to corrosion, leading to high maintenance costs and often lower aesthetic quality. Reinforced concrete affords high load-bearing capacity, durability, long service life, low maintenance, and greater formal and aesthetic versatility. Masonry towers are valued for their durability and distinguished appearance, but require long construction times and entail high maintenance and modernisation costs (N\u0026eacute;meth 1962, B\u0026aacute;nfy 1976, Palot\u0026aacute;s 1985). Water towers thus reflect both functional demands and the technical and aesthetic possibilities of their era, embodying a diverse range of structural, material, and formal solutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParts of water towers\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWater towers consist of three principal parts: the water tank, which serves for storing water and maintaining hydraulic pressure within the distribution system; the supporting structure, which ensures that the water tank is held at the proper height; and the foundation, which provides the stability and proper support of the entire water tower.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to these primary elements, water towers usually include auxiliary components: an inspection room generally beside or above the water tank, facilitating operational monitoring; a piping network for the controlled inflow, outflow, and distribution of water; vents designed to prevent vacuum formation and to provide appropriate air circulation; overflow pipes to regulate the water level; protective coatings and insulation to avoid corrosion and to ensure water quality; as well as maintenance stairways and walkways (Ratnayaka et al. 2009, Shammas and Wang 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe social significance of water towers\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe tower, as an architectural structure distinct from its surroundings, has always carried a symbolic content. Vertical elements constitute defining features of both urban and rural landscapes, serving as dominant visual landmarks that can be perceived from great distances and functioning as essential points of orientation. Owing to its high visibility, both the external appearance and architectural design of a tower have major importance (Drėmaitė 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn historical architecture, towers have most frequently been associated with sacred buildings. Church towers, in particular, have served dual purposes: they not only designate the sacred locus but also elevate bells to a height that maximizes the transmission of sound, thereby fulfilling a communicative role. Functionally, church towers have maintained their purpose across centuries, while their formal expression has evolved in accordance with the stylistic tendencies of successive architectural periods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince antiquity, towers have also embodied functions of defence, power, and authority. They once symbolized strength and served protective purposes; however, with the advent of modern military technologies and the invention of the cannon in the late Middle Ages, traditional fortification systems underwent profound transformation, and towers gradually lost their defensive character.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 19th century witnessed the emergence of new vertical elements within the cityscapes, most notably the factory chimney. Contemporary descriptions often depict industrial cities as being encircled by forests of chimneys. This period also saw the spread of water towers, which soon became essential infrastructural and visual components of modern settlements. By the end of the century, a notable type of tower that had emerged was the one constructed for town halls. These towers were intended to demonstrate the economic strength of bourgeois society. In many cases, the town hall towers evolved into symbols of their respective communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalogous to their historical predecessors, water towers, too, could acquire a symbolic dimension, representing the collective identity of a community. Constructed primarily during the second half of the twentieth century, water towers served as key orientation points within newly developed residential areas. In rural contexts, village hydroglobes transcended their purely utilitarian function, becoming emblematic not only of the cooperative enterprises that managed them but of the entire local community as well.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLike many other historical structures, water towers face challenges related to their loss of function. With the cessation of steam locomotive operations, railway water towers became functionless, and the closure of factories rendered industrial water reservoirs similarly purposeless. As demand for public water supply has grown, these historic installations have frequently proved insufficient, leading to the construction of newer, larger-capacity water towers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaintaining elements of our built heritage that have lost their functional significance poses considerable challenges for decision-makers. Obsolete water towers seldom find new, permanent uses, resulting in neglect and deterioration. Nevertheless, preserving existing buildings is crucial for sustainability. Disused water towers can be repurposed for a variety of cultural activities, serve as observation points, function as restaurants, or, in rare cases, be transformed into residential spaces. Furthermore, many tall structures, including water towers, are often utilized by mobile communication service providers for antenna placements. A notable example of the revitalization of disused water towers in Hungary is situated in Brenner Park (Szombathely). This impressive structure stands at 55 meters tall and was constructed between 1926 and 1929, remaining in operation until it was decommissioned in 1978. In 2022, the tower underwent rehabilitation, which transformed its interior into a virtual exhibition space, a panoramic observation deck, and a restaurant (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn instances where buildings of architectural and historical significance cannot be preserved and demolition becomes necessary, it is essential to document the site. This can be accomplished through traditional survey methods or modern digital technologies. For example, a spatial virtual model (Building Information Modelling, or BIM) created from a point cloud can effectively capture the geometry of the structure, highlighting its architectural value, as well as documenting findings from technical condition assessments.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion - Typology of water towers based on historical development","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Early Type of Water Towers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater towers, as essential elements of water supply infrastructure, were already utilised in antiquity. The ancient Roman engineers pioneered the development of urban water systems to meet the growing demands of densely populated cities (Canepa and Ghafar 2020). By the 4th century BCE, the water demand of Rome exceeded the capacity of private and public wells and rainwater collection. Consequently, engineers devised a method to convey water from surrounding springs into the urban centre via aqueducts. These systems transported water by gravity through lead pipes, masonry channels, or ceramic conduits coated with cement mortar to minimise leakage. Depending on topography, aqueducts were constructed above ground, underground, or across valleys on monumental, multi-tiered arcades (Fasolo 2014, Deming 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, was constructed in 312 BCE, followed over the next five centuries by numerous similar systems across the Empire (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Aqueducts often discharged into settling basins (piscina limaria), where suspended solid contaminants settled out, ensuring higher water quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInitially, aqueduct construction and maintenance were administered by censors and aediles. Under Emperor Augustus (14 BCE\u0026ndash;31 CE), a dedicated water authority was established, led by the curator aquarum, responsible for monitoring, maintaining, and regulating water consumption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin cities, aqueducts typically terminated at elevated distribution water tanks (castellum divisorium), from which water was delivered through a pipeline system made from lead, terracotta, or wood, to various urban districts. In larger cities, water was first stored in secondary water tanks (castella) to smooth out daily fluctuations, then conveyed under pressure to water towers (Castella Privati), which supplied both public fountains and private consumers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese water towers consisted of lead tanks supported by six-metre-high brick piers. Private users paid fees for access, while public fountains were often established next to the towers. Functionally, the lead tanks acted as pressure equalisers, mediating between the main high-pressure system fed from the elevated castella and the lower-pressure local distribution pipes. Water arriving from the city\u0026rsquo;s highest points was regulated and its pressure reduced within these tanks. Individual connections were made via narrow bronze pipes, joined at the base of the lead tanks and routed through cavities embedded in the brickwork (Hodge 2002, Monteleone et al. 2007, Kov\u0026aacute;cs 2015).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eWater towers in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance era\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn densely built-up medieval cities, water supply became indispensable. Water was needed partly for the supply of the population, partly for firefighting, and partly for industrial use. From the 13th to 14th centuries, we have data on the development of water supply systems from almost all areas of Europe. The central element of the system was a tank erected high (in a tower), from which water was delivered by gravity to the places of use (van Craenenbroeck 1990).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSouth of the Alps, ancient water supply technologies continued to exist in the Middle Ages, and the technical solutions for water transport and storage also occupied Renaissance theorists. At the same time, novel solutions were also developed in the North German areas. Water was lifted from streams and rivers into high-altitude reservoirs with increasingly efficient solutions, in which we can actually see the ancestors of water towers. A record from 1294 has survived from the city of L\u0026uuml;beck, one of the centers of the Hanseatic League, about the water supply system of the brewing guild. A water wheel equipped with buckets, driven by the Wakenitz River, lifted the water from the river into a high-altitude tank, from where it was led to its place of use through channels made of wooden pipes. In 1533, a 20-meter-high water tower building with Renaissance-style features was built to supply the population with water. The water was collected in a tank of 15 cubic meters in the tower, which was also pumped up using pumps powered by the Wakenitz River (Shulman 2019, Arndt 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Augsburg, the fountain master Leopold Karg built a waterworks in 1412 to supply the population with water. Piston pumps operated by a water wheel were also used to transport clean water to different parts of the city. The Oberwasserturm, part of the waterworks, was completed in 1416 and transported water to the city's seven public wells through wooden pipes. The wooden waterworks burned down in 1464, and a stone water tower was built in its place. In 1470, a second tower, the Unterwasserturm, was built in the Mauerberg district. At the beginning of the 16th century, the city developed another innovative water supply system. The water storage cistern was located in the former defensive tower of the inner city wall, and its water supply was provided by the water lifting device called the \"Machina Augustama\" consisting of pumps built in 1538. The water was extracted from the Brunnenbach River and distributed throughout the city via a pipeline system (Grewe 2000, Douet 2019, Mair and Weber 2019, Shulman 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are written records of a public water supply system in Prague's Old Town from 1431. The water was supplied by the Vltava River, which was pumped up to a 30-meter-high water tower near Charles Bridge by piston pumps and supplied the eastern part of the city with fresh water. The water supply network here was also made of wooden pipes. The tower fell victim to fires several times, but was renovated each time. The cause of the disaster was that several times, a fire lit inside the tower to prevent the water from freezing (Ruhland 2007, Shulman 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Berlin, the water supply system built in 1572 is attributed to Johann von Blankenfelde. Here, too, a 30-meter-high tower of the existing fortification system was used to house the water tank, which contained a tank with a capacity of nearly 50 cubic meters. The water was extracted from the Spree River, lifted with a water wheel, and driven by pumps that pumped it into the tank. Interestingly, the tower was not built directly on the riverbank, but was supplied with water via an open canal. The water intake points were wells located in the streets and in the courtyards of wealthy citizens, which were also equipped with taps. The network was supervised by the \u0026ldquo;Wasserkunstmeister\u0026rdquo; (water master), who received a salary from the city for this (Grewe 2000, Douet 2019, Shulman 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn areas where distant water conveyance was impossible or security concerns necessitated internal sources, wells remained vital. The Pozzo di San Patrizio in Orvieto, Italy, designed by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger in 1527, exemplifies such ingenuity (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This 54-meter-deep well features two interwoven helical staircases, allowing pack animals to descend and ascend efficiently, creating a striking spatial experience within its interior (Sciarre et al. 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the 17th and 18th centuries, water towers were increasingly constructed to supply castles and mansions.13 The formal gardens of these complexes, often designed in the French geometric style, featured ornamental fountains supplied with high-pressure water from such towers. Notably, the Hellbrunn Palace park near Salzburg, Austria, showcases water power animating mechanical figures, raising a crown, producing birdsong, and delighting visitors with fountains (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e) (Haj\u0026oacute;s 2017). In Hungary, the Esterh\u0026aacute;zy Palace park in Fertőd is exemplary; in the early 2000s, its previously destroyed octagonal brick water tower was reconstructed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Architecturally integrated with the marionette theatre and palm house, the restored tower continues to house mechanical equipment for the water infrastructure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eWater Towers in the Industrial Era\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the 19th century, as society began to embrace historical influences, there was a notable increase in the use of classical forms in architecture. Classicism drew inspiration from ancient Greco-Roman structures, while Romanticism looked to medieval and Eastern architectural styles for reference. By the late 19th century, Historicism evolved to encompass a wide range of these previous architectural expressions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe abandonment of historical architectural forms was one of the earliest developments in practical industrial architecture. Water towers, as examples of industrial structures, often showcase simplified designs. However, there are also instances of buildings that boast representative facades and possess the quality of urban public architecture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the early centuries of the modern age, the design and construction of water towers were not significantly different from other architectural works. It was only with the onset of industrialisation in the 18th and 19th centuries that notable changes occurred in the aesthetic and functional character of engineering structures. This era brought important aesthetic and cultural transformations, along with advancements in water supply technology and its applications in urban settings (Pohlar 2010).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe economic and demographic landscape of cities underwent dramatic changes. Increased production and a rising urban population created a need for new water infrastructure. Industrial sites attracted labour forces, leading to rapid urban growth, particularly in America and Europe. This diversification of architectural tasks accelerated, necessitating the construction of increasingly specialised buildings (Canepa and Ghafar 2020). The expansion of railways, industrial activity, and urban populations made modern water supply and sewer networks essential. Early 19th-century industrial architecture often emphasised representation, but as functionality became a priority, decorative elements gradually disappeared (Pilsitz 2017). Water towers exemplified this trend, constructed with common industrial materials. Their brick fa\u0026ccedil;ades became dominant, while historic ornaments declined. This functionalist approach positioned 19th-century industrial architecture as a direct precursor to modernism (Pilsitz 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the most remarkable examples of the evolution of modern water supply is the Lochside Cistern in Montrose (UK), designed in 1841 by William Middleton. Its castle-like appearance diverged significantly from typical industrial water towers. With its massive stone walls and bastion-like structures, it evoked a medieval fortress while achieving both functional and aesthetic significance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe arrival of railways in the 19th century had a significant impact on the development of water towers. Steam locomotives required large amounts of water for continuous operation at stations and along railway lines. To ensure a reliable supply, railway companies constructed water towers at regular intervals. The earliest examples were simple elevated tanks without architectural features (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). One of the first railway water towers was designed in 1839 by Robert Stephenson along the London-Birmingham line at Blisworth (demolished in the 1970s) (Gould and Barton 1999\u0026ndash;2000).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRailway companies soon standardised the size, capacity, and piping systems of their towers. Large tanks were filled from wells, rivers, or municipal networks and supplied water by gravity or pumps. Towers were spaced approximately 50 to 100 kilometres apart, allowing for uninterrupted locomotive operation. Beyond functionality, some towers were designed to harmonise with the architectural appearance of the station (G\u0026aacute;bor-Szab\u0026oacute; 2009c). Typical 19th-century water towers featured circular or polygonal plans, with a slender shaft supporting a wider upper tank. Brick fa\u0026ccedil;ades often incorporated larger windows on the shaft and smaller openings at the tank level. In some instances, timber framing and cladding enclosed the tank to reduce weight. The roofs, which could be steeply pitched or low conical/pyramidal, enhanced the tower's vertical emphasis and prominence (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). The development of railway water towers also influenced urban water systems. Innovations such as more efficient pumps and larger water tanks were later adopted in municipal infrastructures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the early 19th century, water towers were primarily constructed using traditional masonry techniques, mainly involving stone and brick. However, along railway lines, timber towers also became a common choice. The tanks were typically waterproofed with metal sheeting or bitumen. The second half of the 19th century marked a significant advancement in construction with the patent of reinforced concrete by Joseph Monier in 1849. In 1867, Fran\u0026ccedil;ois Hennebique founded the first enterprise specialising in reinforced concrete construction. Following this, patents for various reinforced concrete systems and reinforcement methods proliferated. Monier patented a reinforced concrete pipeline in 1868, a fa\u0026ccedil;ade panel in 1869, a bridge structure in 1873, and beams in 1878. Hennebique patented the first reinforcement system using stirrups in 1879 and a comprehensive construction system in 1892. In the same year, Edmond Coignet designed the first prefabricated frame-structured building (Bal\u0026aacute;zs 1994, Stark and Wicht 1998).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReinforced concrete proved to be highly suitable for engineering structures, offering faster, more productive, and technically simpler solutions than masonry, while providing superior strength and durability. Water tower construction benefited from these advances. Monier is credited with designing the first reinforced concrete water tower, built in the 1870s for the owners of Villa Bailleul in Pontorson, France. This tower featured a cylindrical tank supported on six reinforced concrete columns shaped like tree trunks and topped by a hexagonal roof. The first reinforced concrete water tower for public supply is the still-existing 21.9-meter-high Addington Water Tower in Christchurch, New Zealand, designed in 1883 by Peter Ellis (Gould and Barton 1999\u0026ndash;2000).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA significant advancement in reinforced concrete water tower design came from German hydraulic engineer Otto Intze, who patented two water tank designs, known as Intze tanks, in 1877 and 1883. Earlier tanks were typically rectangular or cylindrical, with flat or slightly curved bottoms, which produced substantial horizontal hydrostatic forces that required massive supports. Intze developed a doubly curved tank bottom, supported by an intermediate ring positioned between the centre and perimeter walls. This design allowed the dome to rise inward and outward from the ring, minimising horizontal forces and transferring primarily vertical loads to the supporting structure, enabling taller and slender towers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e) (Gould and Barton 1999\u0026ndash;2000). A notable example of this innovation is the heritage-protected water tower in Salbke, constructed between 1893 and 1895 for the Royal Railway Directorate of Berlin (Despland-Lichtert 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSteel became a key construction material in the latter half of the 19th century, alongside reinforced concrete. While metal tanks were used for water storage earlier, they were typically supported by masonry structures. The first documented example of a fully metallic support system is the water tower at Portsmouth docks, constructed in the 1840s. This structure featured a cast-iron tank elevated about 10 meters and supported by a series of cast-iron columns, which were horizontally braced by curved struts along the lower third of the height.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe potential of metal-framed towers gained wider recognition following the relocation of Joseph Paxton's Crystal Palace in 1854 to Sydenham, London. Two 60-meter-high masonry towers were built to supply water to the palace\u0026rsquo;s fountains. Notably, these towers were encircled by a staircase supported not by masonry but by an independent steel framework designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Although the slenderness of the towers was controversial at the time, they remained standing until the palace was destroyed by fire in 1936. This design influenced later developments, such as the Great Western Railway water tower at Swindon, United Kingdom (1870), which featured a central masonry core supporting the tank and a secondary system of circular steel columns braced with beams, solid along one axis and lattice along the other. Diagonal tie bars in both directions added resistance to movement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the 1880s, rectangular tanks were gradually replaced by cylindrical forms \u0026ndash; horizontal at first, then vertical \u0026ndash; allowing for the use of central supports. The earliest recorded fully metallic water tower was built in Lymington in 1883. It featured a cylindrical wrought-iron tank, 9 meters in diameter and 5 meters tall, supported by a riveted steel framework.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly steel towers typically rested on four angle-iron legs, cross-braced for stability. Taller examples incorporated intermediate horizontal bracing, dividing the structure into two cross-braced tiers. Although lattice-trussed supports were developed, these remained relatively uncommon. A more widely adopted solution involved a large central core surrounded by four, six, or more perimeter columns, an approach later used extensively in reinforced concrete designs (Gould 2001).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe construction of the Eiffel Tower significantly advanced the use of steel in tall structures. At 330 meters tall, it was the tallest building in the world at the time (Hevr\u0026eacute; 2003). Its rapid construction, lightweight yet strong prefabricated steel structure, and superior efficiency compared to masonry or concrete underscore the advantages of steel in engineering. This, in turn, contributed to the increasing adoption of steel water towers in the early 20th century.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral notable steel water towers from this period illustrate the evolution of this type. The Portsmouth Water Company\u0026rsquo;s tower, built in 1900 in Selsey (United Kingdom), featured a cylindrical tank (5.5 meters in diameter and 5.5 meters tall) elevated 12.65 meters on six inclined angle-iron legs, braced by transverse rods and a peripheral beam at the upper third of the height. A more ambitious example was Thomas Rodd\u0026rsquo;s 1903 design for Westinghouse Electric at Trafford Park, Manchester, United Kingdom. This 64-meter-high structure was inspired by the Eiffel Tower and featured an open steel framework supporting an octagonal, dome-capped tank with a capacity of 250 cubic meters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA record-setting steel tower was constructed in 1905 for the Rumford Chemical Works in East Providence, USA. At 62 meters tall, with a tank of 3,800 cubic meters it far surpassed contemporary water towers. The tank measured 15 meters in diameter and 21 meters tall, resting on four long vertical legs and eight inclined legs to withstand wind loads. Its striking design became an emblem for the company and was later featured on its product packaging. The tower\u0026rsquo;s ornamental roof is preserved in a local museum following its demolition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe oldest known steel water tower still in operation was erected in 1906 in Aldershot (United Kingdom) for the Mid Southern Water Company. Its cylindrical steel tank is supported by a hexagonal arrangement of cast-iron columns, which are horizontally braced at multiple levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these advancements, the adoption of steel as a structural material for water towers occurred more slowly than that of reinforced concrete. Several factors contributed to this. Reinforced concrete allowed for monolithic, joint-free construction, making it easier to waterproof. In contrast, the manufacture of large, thin-walled steel plates was not feasible in the late 19th century. Tanks were typically made of heavy cast or wrought iron, which limited their storage capacity. Larger tanks required segmented construction, which made sealing joints reliably difficult. Early sealing methods, such as using organic materials like wood shavings, yarn, or hemp, swelled when wet but also encouraged microbial growth, making them unsuitable for potable water. While riveted and welded joints, common in boilers and small tanks, were gradually applied to water towers, high wall thicknesses remained a concern due to deformation. Innovations such as flanged joints patented by Horseley Bridge and Thomas Piggot Ltd. (1878, 1886) and G. H. Lloyd\u0026rsquo;s 1901 reinforced thin-plate patent improved the situation, but challenges persisted (Gould 2001).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Hungary, one of the most common types of steel water towers is the \u0026lsquo;hydroglobe,\u0026rsquo; which is based on the 1956 patent by engineer Szabolcs Hars\u0026aacute;nyi. The first hydroglobe was constructed in 1957 at the Mezőh\u0026eacute;k State Farm in J\u0026aacute;sz-Nagykun-Szolnok County. Its quick and cost-effective construction led to widespread adoption both domestically and internationally, with standard designs developed for capacities of 50, 100, 200, and 500 cubic meters (G\u0026aacute;bor-Szab\u0026oacute; 2009d).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe simplest version features a spherical tank atop a cylindrical steel column, although there are also variants with cylindrical or mace-shaped tanks. Taller versions utilise steel guy wires to withstand wind loads. These towers have become characteristic features of the Hungarian landscape, appearing in nearly every rural settlement, cooperative farm, and industrial site. They also serve as landmarks that contribute to the local identity and orientation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;11).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigue 11. Hydroglobe in Szalafő\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEarly reinforced concrete structures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly reinforced concrete towers employed free-standing columns or braced piers. As heights increased, improvements were made to reduce slenderness and enhance stiffness. By the early 20th century, triangular cross-bracing and central cores \u0026ndash; often housing staircases \u0026ndash; became standard for added rigidity (Gould and Barton, 1999\u0026ndash;2000).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Hungary, the first reinforced concrete water tower was designed by Szil\u0026aacute;rd Zielinski, a pioneer in reinforced concrete construction, and built in 1903 by the Gr\u0026uuml;nwald and Schiffer Company in Ih\u0026aacute;sz Street, Kőb\u0026aacute;nya. This structure stood 33.3 meters high with a capacity of 350 cubic meters but was demolished in 1968 due to urban redevelopment. The oldest surviving and operational reinforced concrete water tower in Hungary is also attributed to Zielinski: the so-called \u0026ldquo;Old Lady\u0026rdquo; on Szent Istv\u0026aacute;n Square in Szeged, constructed between 1903 and 1904 by Freund Henrik \u0026amp; Sons. This tower stands 54 meters high with a capacity of 1,000 cubic meters (Haj\u0026oacute;s 2004).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the 1930s onward, industrialised formwork technologies complemented traditional shuttering. Modified Intze tanks with upward-tapering conical or truncated conical domes became widely adopted. Interwar towers were typically supported by a ring of piers beneath the tank perimeter, combined with a central shaft housing the access core. The piers were reinforced by horizontal beams or diaphragms to reduce effective buckling lengths (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e) (Gould and Barton, 1999\u0026ndash;2000).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMonolithic reinforced concrete structures after World War II\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInitially, monolithic reinforced concrete structures were cast in place using conventional formwork. After World War II, the slipform technique gained prominence, although construction using prefabricated elements was also utilised.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the post-war era, monolithic reinforced concrete assumed a more significant role in both architecture and engineering. In water towers, cylindrical, conical, or structurally efficient shell forms became prevalent due to their ease of construction with straight planks. Hyperboloid forms enabled designs that were both structurally sound and aesthetically pleasing (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). As labour costs rose in the final quarter of the century, individually shuttered monolithic construction became less economical, leading to the widespread adoption of modern slipform techniques. This technological evolution also influenced the formal design and articulation of water towers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). This structural and formal development of water towers is summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe structural and formal development of water towers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEra\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaterials and structures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArchitecture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFunction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupporting structure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater tank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAncient, Medieval, and Renaissance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300 BC \u0026ndash; 1600s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emasonry (brick, stone)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ewrought iron\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003elead\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003einsulated masonry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eantique, medieval, renaissance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eresidential, mixed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCastella Privati (Rome), L\u0026uuml;beck, Augsburg, Prague, Berlin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBaroque and Early Industrial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1600s \u0026ndash; 1750s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emasonry (brick, stone)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ewrought iron\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003elead\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003einsulated masonry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ebaroque\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emansions, castles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFertőd (Esterh\u0026aacute;zy Castle)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate Industrial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1750s \u0026ndash; 1880s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emasonry (brick, stone) wood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecast iron\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003elead\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehistoricism, industrial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eindustrial complexes, railways\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGyőr (\u0026Aacute;rk\u0026aacute;d), Lochside Cistern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate 19th and early 20th century\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1880s \u0026ndash; 1945\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emasonry (brick, stone)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecast iron\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003esteel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eindustrial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003erailways\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSan Giovanni d'Asso\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ereinforced concrete\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ereinforced concrete\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emodern (without decoration), industrial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eindustrial, residential\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGyőr (R\u0026eacute;vfalu), Szombathely, Szeged, Szolnok\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esteel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esteel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eindustrial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eindustrial complexes, railways\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrafford Park, Rumford Chemical Works\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-World War II\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1945\u0026ndash;1970s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ereinforced concrete\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ereinforced concrete\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edynamic geometrical form (hyperboloid)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eresidential\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOroszl\u0026aacute;ny\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eplate-structured (dish-shaped)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eresidential\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSzarvas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esteel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esteel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eindustrial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eagriculture, residential\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSzalafő\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate 20th century\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1970s \u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ereinforced concrete\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ereinforced concrete\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eunique designed form\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eresidential, mixed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGyőr (Marcalv\u0026aacute;ros)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The structural and formal development of water towers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater towers have become symbols of modern engineering and industrial technology. Each tower functions not only as a vital infrastructure component but also reflects the technological sophistication and artistic trends of its era. Local architectural regulations and community expectations played an essential role in their construction. Municipal authorities often required that water towers meet specific functional criteria while also achieving a high standard of architectural and aesthetic quality. As a result, engineers and architects frequently collaborated to create designs that balanced technical efficiency with visual appeal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe nomenclature of these towers was typically tailored to align with local architectural styles, incorporating elements characteristic of the prevailing aesthetic. Consequently, water towers served not only as facilities for storing potable water but also as significant parts of the identity of the communities they supported. Many residents took pride in their water towers, which, in some cases, became venues for local events and celebrations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the 20th century, various standardised types and construction methods emerged. However, due to their size and prominent locations within the built environment, water towers often became iconic landmarks and important points of orientation. In their collaborative efforts, architects and structural engineers consistently aimed to achieve a high degree of harmony between engineering and architecture. In addition to standardised designs, many uniquely crafted water towers were built, greatly enhancing the aesthetic quality of the environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research established a typological framework linking materials, structural systems, and aesthetic evolution from antiquity to the twentieth century, integrating historiographical and technical perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study also found significant variability in how material innovation shaped architectural form, such as the shift from masonry to steel and reinforced concrete. This confirms that structural systems directly influenced the visual language of water towers over time. These findings reinforce existing literature and highlight underrepresented cases, especially in Hungary, where engineering intent and architectural expression were intentionally unified.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the architectural articulation of water towers has consistently reflected prevailing societal values: monumentality characterized the nineteenth century, functional efficiency defined the industrial age, and sculptural modernity emerged in the post-war period. In contemporary practice, these insights underscore the importance of recognising water towers not as obsolete infrastructural relics but as valuable cultural and architectural resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistorical research on water towers enriches architectural history with new results, helps to establish architectural typology, and the architectural analysis of water towers can provide new aspects for shaping future engineering works. These structures \u0026ndash; due to their size and scale \u0026ndash; are defining elements of our environment, and aesthetics, the impact on the settlement or landscape, is increasingly emphasized during their design. The examination of existing examples helps to formulate architectural expectations related to engineering facilities. Field observations confirmed that the spatial impact and symbolic meaning of these structures transcend what can be represented only with a single technical documentation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research should pursue comparative international typologies, quantitative analysis of structural performance, and the use of digital heritage technologies for documentation and reinterpretation. By reframing water towers as functional monuments, this work contributes to broader discussions on sustainable conservation and the aesthetic potential of infrastructure. The water supply systems of historical cities consisted of a water intake point (river, water wheel), a raised tank (tower), a water pipe network (wooden or clay pipes), and water intake points (well). Industrial facilities have only survived since the 19th century, and research into earlier systems also contributes to the results of the science of settlement history.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eFunding statement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors state that no funding or sponsorship was received for this research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth authors contributed equally to the content of the paper, including all its chapters. B.D. prepared figures No. 2, 3, and 10. A. V. prepared figures No. 1, 4-9, and 11-14. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArndt B (2020) Medieval and Post-Medieval Urban Water Supply and Sanitation. In: Chiarenza N, Haug A, M\u0026uuml;ller U (eds.) The Power of Urban Water. De Gruyter, Berlin, pp 213\u0026ndash;227. doi: 10.1515/9783110677065-013.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBal\u0026aacute;zs Gy (1994) Concrete and reinforced concrete, vol. 1 (in Hungarian). Akad\u0026eacute;miai Kiad\u0026oacute;, Budapest.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eB\u0026aacute;ndy I (1976) Hydraulic structures I \u0026ndash; Concrete and reinforced concrete structures (in Hungarian). 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Vieweg \u0026amp; Teubner Verlag, Wiesbaden. doi: 10.1007/978-3-322-32983-4.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTan J, Hutter \u0026Aacute; (2024) A case study on renewal strategies for industrial communities in urban fringe area. Pollack Periodica 19(3):137\u0026ndash;142, doi: 10.1556/606.2024.00994.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan Craenenbroeck WJ (1990) Examen d'un chainon important de l'alimentation en eau \u0026ndash; Historie de construction des ch\u0026acirc;teaux d\u0026rsquo;eau Belges. Tribune de l\u0026rsquo;eau 42(542):37\u0026ndash;46.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"water tower, structural typology, architectural heritage, sustainability, industrial architecture, reinforced concrete","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9390067/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9390067/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eWater towers are prominent vertical elements of both urban and rural landscapes, shaping the visual identity of residential districts, industrial areas, and village skylines. Although their primary purpose is to ensure a continuous supply of potable water, they have also served industrial, railway, and agricultural operations. While most water towers were conceived as utilitarian engineering structures, many examples demonstrate a deliberate integration of architectural and aesthetic considerations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examines the historical and typological evolution of water towers, focusing on structural innovation, formal development, and their role as functional and symbolic elements within the settlement fabric and landscape. By examining these aspects, the paper highlights the dual significance of water towers as technical infrastructure and as culturally and visually meaningful landmarks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research also explores the relationship between structural innovation and architectural intention in the development of elevated water-storage buildings. Although earlier studies have documented their historical development, this paper more explicitly investigates how engineering solutions influenced architectural form and symbolic meaning. A typological\u0026ndash;historical analytical approach was applied, combining archival research with field documentation of representative Hungarian and international examples from the 19th and 20th centuries. Integrating architectural analysis with structural-engineering perspectives provides a renewed interpretation and enables broader comparative historical evaluation of these structures.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Water Towers as Functional Monuments","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-05 20:59:43","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9390067/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b3146d9c-e087-4ab0-ba6c-5c40e56556d5","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 5th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-05T20:59:43+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-05 20:59:43","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9390067","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9390067","identity":"rs-9390067","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}