Urban farms are biodiversity hot spots in a South African township

Urban farms are biodiversity hot spots in a South African township | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Urban farms are biodiversity hot spots in a South African township Paul Stephenson, Beverly Bulumko Nakani, Adam D. Kay This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8779600/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract With global biodiversity declining rapidly, urban areas are increasingly recognized as potential refuges for biological conservation. However, few studies informing our understanding of opportunities for increasing urban biodiversity have come from poorer areas of Global South cities, a knowledge gap potentially obscuring conservation priorities and furthering environmental inequities. Here, we present results from plant surveys on 5 urban farms and 5 vacant lots in Khayelitsha, a poor, almost exclusively Black African area near Cape Town, South Africa. We identified 197 species and found significant differences between land use types, with urban farms having on average ~ 3.5x higher plant species richness than vacant lots. Richness differences were driven by the higher numbers of both native and non-native species on urban farms. Species richness was still ~ 2.4x higher on farms than on lots after removing crop species from the analysis. In addition, community composition showed clear separation between land use types using NMDS ordination in analyses of all species, of native species only, and with crop species excluded. Multivariate dispersion also differed between land use types, with much less variation in community composition among lots than among farms. These results suggest that in poor areas of sub-Saharan African cities 1) biodiversity levels are not uniformly low, 2) urban farms can provide significant ecological benefits to complement their documented social and economic benefits, and 3) food production need not tradeoff with biodiversity protection. Investments to support urban farms in these areas could thus provide broad community benefits. Data Accessibility : All data presented in this paper has been uploaded to Dryad (DOI: 10.5061/dryad.8kprr4z2m ) Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Biodiversity loss is a primary concern for conservation efforts in a world increasingly impacted by development and global climate change (Senior et al. 2024 , Keck et al. 2025 , Shaw et al. 2025 ). One factor contributing to biodiversity loss is urbanization, considered one of the most extensive and irreversible land use impacts on natural systems (Li et al. 2022 , Hou et al. 2023 , Liu et al. 2025 ). However, collaborations are emerging to re-imagine urban spaces as areas that can support biological conservation while also benefiting residents (Frantzeskaki et al. 2024 , Gentili et al. 2024 , Finnerty et al. 2025 ). A first step in this work is to identify patterns and drivers of urban biodiversity differences in a range of ecological and social conditions. Research on urban biodiversity has focused disproportionally on wealthier areas both at global and regional scales (House et al. 2020 , Losos and Schoener 2024 , Seto et al. 2025 ). It is well documented that studies on urban ecosystems have been much more common in Global North cities than in Global South (Rega-Brodsky et al., 2022 ), potentially leading to misguided or misdirected conservation efforts (Leveau et al. 2025 ). Recent analyses have also revealed the significant extent to which poorer urban neighborhoods have been under-sampled relative to wealthier areas, potentially obscuring conservation priorities and in turn furthering environmental inequities (Ellis Soto et al. 2023 ). More studies focused on biodiversity in Global South cities, particularly in poorer neighborhoods, are needed to identify constraints and opportunities for conservation. Biodiversity sampling that has been conducted in poorer areas of Global South cities has generally revealed negative associations between biodiversity and economic wealth (Anderson et al. 2020 , Suarez et al. 2025), consistent with trends found in Global North cities (Leong et al. 2018 ). Much less is known about differences in biodiversity across landscape types within poorer areas of Global South cities (Lubbe et al. 2010 ). Identifying and quantifying the extent of any local biodiversity hotspots in poorer Global South urban neighborhoods can help to identify environmental investment opportunities to meet conservation goals and provide more nature-based services to residents. Here we present a comparison of plant biodiversity between landscape types in Khayelitsha, South Africa, a poor, almost exclusively Black African neighborhood about 30km from central Cape Town. The Cape Town region is situated within the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), one of the most unique biodiversity hot spots in the world (Rebelo et al. 2011 ). This small temperate biome contains over 9,000 vascular plant species (over 68% of which are endemic), a level of diversity and endemism equivalent to some tropical rainforest areas (Goldblatt and Manning 2002 , Holmes et al 2012 ). Significant threat to the CFR stems from the fact that Cape Town is one of the fastest growing urban areas in South Africa (Rakodi and Leduka 2023 ). Anderson et al. ( 2020 ) found that plant diversity was significantly lower in urban Cape Town areas relative to conservation areas and was particularly low in private areas of a poor, predominantly Black African neighborhood. However, more studies are needed about how biodiversity differs among landscape types within poor neighborhoods in Cape Town and other Global South cities (Ludde et al. 2010). One potential local biodiversity hotspot in poor Global South cities is urban farms. In Khayelitsha, as in other South African townships, residents increasingly use urban farming to improve nutrition, generate supplemental household income, and build community connections (Swanepoel et al. 2021 , Kanosvamhira and Shade 2024 , Kanosvamhira 2024 ). Several recent studies from the US and Europe have found that urban farms can have significantly higher plant and animal diversity than do other urban land use types (Seitz et al. 2022 , Sexton et al. 2025 ), challenging the assumption that food production leads to non-agricultural species loss (Jha et al. 2023 ). Urban farms and other food production areas in sub-Saharan cities have been recognized for their contribution to biodiversity conservation, pollination, soil fertility, and microclimate effects (Mhlanga et al. 2025 ). However, little comparative information is available about biodiversity and other ecological aspects of urban farms in poorer Global South urban neighborhoods. In this study we compare plant species diversity in urban farms to diversity levels in nearby vacant lots in Khayelitsha township. We paired a local naturalist (Bulumko) with an academic plant ecologist (Stephenson) to sample and identify species at multiple spatial scales across 10 sites. We predicted that urban farms would show significantly higher numbers of plant species, including greater numbers of native plants. Methods We conducted our survey work in Khayelitsha township from June 10–22, 2023. The climate in this region is Mediterranean style, with hot dry summers and wet winters. June is one of the coldest (mean temperature = 14.2°C) and wettest (mean rainfall = 93 cm) months of the year (WMO 2026). Average household income in Khayelitsha is less than 160 rand (~ $ 10 USD)/day (Lynge et al. 2022 ) and unemployment is likely between 50 and 70% (Webb 2021 ). We compared plant diversity between urban farms and vacant lots in Ward 94 in Khayelitsha (Fig. 1 ). With the help of a local NGO (Abalimi Bezekhaya) and local farmers, we selected five urban farms: Abalimi Garden Centre, Moya we Khaya Community Garden, Siyazama Community Allotment Garden Association, Umtha Welanga Community Garden, and NTinga Community Garden. Each of these farms is surrounded by fencing and protected by a live-in caretaker. We then selected five “vacant lots” that were nearest to, and within 500m of, each urban farm. These lots are not identical to vacant lots in Global North cities. They are embedded in the community and contain no infrastructure, but they are open to the public (no fencing) and are often crisscrossed by multiple walking paths. Although the municipality sometimes provides minor maintenance (trash collection, mowing), these spaces are highly disturbed and often contain significant amounts of trash. They are kept free of informal housing structures that have been established on other open spaces in the area. We used the modified Whittaker Method (Shmida 1984 , Stohlgren et al. 1995 , Barbour et al. 1999 ) for sampling each site. Briefly, we randomly selected a 20 m X 50 m (1000m 2 ) plot within each farm and open space, and then subsequently picked subplots within the main plot at 3 scales: a 100m² subplot in the center of the main plot, two 10m² subplots in each corner of the main plot, and ten 1m² subplots randomly placed throughout the site. We then located and identified all plant species within each plot. Plants that could not be immediately identified to species by sight were photographed and their images used in conjunction with the plant identification software Picture This – Plant Identifier App ( https://www.picturethisai.com/ ). Additionally, all species identification was confirmed using Field Guides to South African plants (Mucina and Rutherford 2006 , van Wyk and van Wyk 2013 , Manning 2018 , Manning 2019 ). We conducted all statistical analyses using R (version 4.5.2). We classified species by origin (native vs. nonnative). We used generalized linear modeling to model richness as a function of land use type (urban farm vs. vacant lot), plant origin, and their interaction. We evaluated model assumptions using residual diagnostics. We also created species area curves for both land use types using data from each sampling scale. We also used species presence-absence to compare plant community composition between land use types using non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS). We made three comparisons: one using all species data, one using native species only, and one with crop species excluded. NMDS was performed using Jaccard dissimilarity, which is appropriate for binary presence–absence data. Ordinations were run using two dimensions, and solutions were iterated until convergence to minimize stress. Stress values were used to assess the goodness of fit of the ordination. We then used permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) with the same Jaccard dissimilarity matrix to test for community composition differences. Land use type was the explanatory variable. Statistical significance was assessed using 999 permutations. We then evaluated multivariate dispersion using a test for homogeneity of dispersions (PERMDISP). Distances to group centroids were calculated based on the Jaccard dissimilarity matrix, and differences in dispersion between habitat types were assessed using ANOVA. Finally, we compared alpha plant diversity using Shannon diversity measures on percent cover data taken at each of the 10 1-m 2 plots at each site. We tested for differences in Shannon diversity between land use types using linear mixed-effects models (lme4 package), with land use type as a fixed effect and site included as a random effect. Results We recorded 197 plant species across the 10 sites, of which 64 were native and 133 were non-native (Table 1 ). We classified 44 of the non-native species as agricultural species used as food (Table 1 ). Table 1 List of all species observed at urban farms and vacant lots. Native species are indicated (Y). Locations are A: Abalimi, M: Moya We Khaya, S: Skaga, U: Umtha Welanga, N: NTinga, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5: Lots 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. A total of 188 species were identified, with urban farms having 174 species and vacant lots 36 (22 species were present at both types of site). Taxon Native Location Acacia melanoxylon (Australian Blackwood) A, L2, L5 Acanthus mollis (Bear's Breeches) S Achillea millefolium (Yarrow) A Afrocarpus falcatus (formerly: Podocarpus falcatus) Y A Agapanthus praecox ( Blue Lily) Y A Agathosma crenulata (Oval Leaf Buchu) Y L2 Agave bracteosa (Spider Agave) A Agave sp. (Maybe Agave americana?) A, U Allium ampeloprasum (Leeks) M, S, U, N Allium cepa (Onion) A, S, U Allium fistulosum (Spring Onion) M, N Aloe arborescens (Candelabra Aloe) Y A Aloe ferox (Cape Aloe) Y A, S Aloe juvenna ( Tiger tooth Aloe) Y A Aloe maculata (Sopa Aloe) Y A Aloe samson (hybrid) A Aloiampelos tenuior ( formerly Aloe tenuior) Y A, N Amaranth cruentus Morogo (red amaranth) M, S Anethum graveolens (Dill) U Anredera cordifolia (Madeira Vine) A Apium sp. (Celery) M, S Aptenia cordifolia Y A, N Arctotheca calendula (Cape Dandelion) Y L4, L5 Artemisia afra (Wild Wormwood) Y M Asparagus densiflorus (Asparagus Fern) A Bauhinia galpinii Y A Beta vulgaris (Yellow Beet Root) M, U, N Borago officinalis (Borage) A, U, L4 Bougainvillea sp. A Brachylaena discolor (Silver Oak) Y A, M, S, N Brassica oleracea (Purple Kale) A, M, S, U, N Brassica rapa (Turnip Rape) S, N Bromus diandrus (Ripgut Brome) M Buddleja salvifolia Y A, M, S Bulbine frutescens (Orange Bulbine) Y A, U Callistemon citrinus (Bottle Brush tree) A Capsicum annuum (Chili Pepper) A, M, S, U, N Carissa macrocarpa (Natal Plum) Y A Carpobrotus edulis (Sour Fig) Y A, U, N, L4 Casuarina cunninghamiana A Casuarina cunninghamiana S Catha edulis (Khat) A Cenchrus clandestinus (Kikuyu Grass) A, M, S, U, N, L1, L2, L3, L5 Ceratonia siliqua (Carob) A Chenopodiastrum murale (Nettle Leaved Goosefoot) A, M, L1, L3, L5 Chenopodium robertianum (syn: Rhagodia hastata) (Salt Bush) A Chlorophytum comosum ( Hen and Chicken) Y A Citrillus lanatus (Watermelon) Y N Citrus limon (Lemon) A, S Coleonema pulchellum (Confetti Bush) Y A, M Coleus madagascariensis A Coleus neochilus (formerly: Plectranthus neochilus ) Y U Commelina benghalensis (Tropical Day Flower) A Coriandrum sativum (Coriander/Cilantro) M, U Cotula coronopifolia (Brass Buttons) Y A Cotyledon orbiculata (Round-leafed Navel-wort) Y A, S, U, N Crassula multicava Y U Crassula ovata (Jade Plant) Y A, N Crotalaria juncea (Deccan Hemp) U Cymbopogon citratus (Lemon Grass) M Cyperus alternifolius (Umbrella sedge) A, M, S, L3 Daucus carota (Carrot) M, S, U Dietes grandiflora ( African Iris) Y A Diplotaxis muralis (syn: S isymbrium murale ) (Wall Rocket) M, N, L1, L2, L5 Diplotaxis tenuifolia (Wild Rocket) L2 Dracaena trifasciata ( Sanseveria) A Ehrharta erecta (Buffalo Grass) Y A, S, U, N, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 Eleusine indica ( Goose Grass) M, S Erica tragulifera Y L2, L3, L5 Eriocephalus africanus (Wild Rosemary) Y S Erodium moschatum (Musky Stork's Bill) M, U, N, L1, L2, L4, L5 Euphorbia nutans (formerly Chamaesyce nutans) (Nodding spurge) M Euphorbia peplus (Petty Spurge) U, N, A, L1, L3, L4, L5 Euphorbia tirucalli A Euryops pectinatus ( Golden Shrub Daisy) A, S Felicia amelloides (Blue Felicia) Y A, S Ficus carica U, N Ficus microcarpa (Chinese Banyan) A Ficus pumila (Climbing Fig) A Ficus rubiginosa M Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel) A, M, S, U, L5 Fragaria sp. (Strawberry) M, U, N Fumaria capreolata (White Ramping-Fumitory) A, U, L1, L3, L5 Galinsoga quadriradiata (Shaggy Soldier) M, S Gazania krebsiana (Common Gazania) Y A Gazania rigens Y U Genista monspessulana (French Broom) L2, L5 Geranium incanum (Carpet geranium) Y L2 Geranium sp. A Glebionis coronaria (Chrysanthemum) M, U, L1, L2, L3, L4 Grewia occidentalis (Cross Berry) Y A Hedera helix (English Ivy) A Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Chinese Hibiscus) A Ipomoea batatus (Sweet Potato) M, S, U, N Ipomoea purpurea (Wild Morning Glory) A Kali turgidum (Prickly Saltwort) L4 Kiggelaria africana A Lachnospermum imbricatum Y L2 Lactuca sativa (Lettuce) M, S Lampranthus aureus A Lavendula angustifolia (English Lavendar) M Lavendula dentata (French Lavendar) A, S, U Lavendula stoechas (Spanish Lavendar) N Leonotis leonurus (Lion's Tail) Y M, S, N Leucadendron galpinii (Protea) Y S Liriope muscari A Malva parvifolia (Cheeseweed) M, S, N, L2, L4, L5 Manilkara zapota (Sapodilla Tree) N Melianthus major (Honey Flower) Y S Mentha arvensis (Mint) A Mentha spicata (Spearmint) M, U, N Metalasia muricata Y L2, L3, L4 Mirabilis jalapa (Four O'Clock) A, U Myoporum laetum (Ngaio) A Nasturtium officinale (Nasturtium) S Nerium oleander (Oleander) N Nuxia floribunda Y A, U Olea europaea subsp. Africana Y S Origanum marjoranum (Marjorum) M Origanum sp. (Oregano) A Osteospermum incanum (formerly Chrysanthemoides incana ) (Grey Leaved Tickberry) Y A Osteospermum moniliferum (formerly: Chrysanthemoides moniliferum ) (Tickberry) Y M, S, U, N, L2 Oxalis pes-caprae Y A, M, S, U, N, L1, L3, L4, L5 Oxalis purpurea Y S Panicum miliaceum (Millet) U Pelargonium graveolens Y L3 Persea americana (Avocado) U Petroselinum crispum (Parsley) A, M, S, U Phaseolus vulgaris (Bush Bean) M, U Phoenix canariensis (Canary Island Date) A Physalis peruviana (Cape Gooseberry) M, U, N Pinus pinaster (Maritime Pine) A Pisum sativum (Peas) U Plantago lanceolata (Ribwort Plantain) A, M, S, U, N, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 Plectranthus verticillatus A Plumbago auriculata (Blue Plumbago) Y S Populus simonii A, S Portulaca oleracea (Common Purslane) M Portulacaria afra (Elephant Bush) Y A, S, U Prunus armeniaca (Apricot Tree) S Punica granatum (Pomegranate) S, N Pyrus communis (Pear) U Rafnea angulata Y A Rheum (hyb) (Rhubarb) M Ricinus communis (Castor Bean) S Rumex crispus (Wild Daca) A Rumex obtusifolius (Bitter Dock) M Ruta graveolens (Rue) A, M Salvia africana-lutea (Golden Sage) Y M Salvia aurea Y A Salvia fruticosa (Greek Sage) M Salvia rosmarinus (Rosemary) M, S, N Schinus terebinthifolius ( Brazilian Pepper) A Schoenus nigricans (Black Bog Rush) Y N, L1, L2, L3, L5 Searsia crenata (formerly Rhus crenata ) Boxwood/Dune Crow-Berry Y M, S Sedum sp. A Senecio aloides Y L2, L3, L5 Senecio mandraliscae Y A Sisymbrium irio L4 Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) U Solanum melongena (Eggplant) S, U, N Solanum nigrum (Black Nightshade) A, N Solanum tuberosum (Potato) A, M, S, U Solenostemon scutellarioides (Frogs Foot) S Sonchus oleraceus (Common Sow Thistle) M, S Spinacea oleracea (Spinach) A, S, U, N Stellaria media (Chickweed) M, S Streilitzia regina A Strelitzia nicolai ( Giant White Bird of Paradise) Y A Symphytum officinale (Comfrey) A, M, S, N Syzygium guineense Y L4 Taraxacum officinale (Dandelion) A, M, S, U, N, L1, L3, L4, L5 Tarchonanthus camphoratus (Camphor Bush) Y A, M Tecomaria capensis (Cape Honeysuckle) Y A, M Tetradenia riparia (Natal Ginger) Y A Tetragonia decumbens (Dune Spinach) Y M, L1, L4 Thymus vulgaris (Thyme) A, M Trichillia emitica (Natal Mahogany) Y A Trifolium pratense (Red Clover) M Trifolium repens (Clover) S, U, L2, L3, L4, L5 Tulbaghia capensis (Wild Garlic) Y M, S Urtica urens (Stinging Nettle) A, M, S, U, N, L5 Veronica persica (Birdeye Speedwell) S Vicia faba (Broadbean) S Vitus vinifera (Grape) A Yucca gloriosa (Spanish Dagger) A Zantedeschia aethiopica A Vicia sativa (Wild Vetch) L5 Land use types (urban farm vs vacant lot) differed significantly in diversity (Fig. 2 ). Overall species richness was ~ 3.5x higher in urban farms than in vacant lots (F 1,16 = 32.22, p < 0.0001) and non-native species richness was significantly higher than native species richness (F 1,16 = 16.99, p = 0.0008). There was also a significant location-by-plant origin interaction (F 1,16 = 9.40, p = 0.0074), as mean difference in non-native richness between urban farms and vacant lots (45.8 vs 11) was higher than mean difference in native richness (17.2 vs. 6.8). When crop plants were removed from the analysis, urban farms still had ~ 2.4x higher richness than vacant lots (F 1,16 = 7.76, p = 0.0132), and there was no longer significant differences in plant origin (F 1,16 = 1.82, p = 0.197) nor a significant location-by-plant origin interaction (F 1,16 = 0.02, p = 0.659). Species area curves generated using the data from our 1m 2 -, 10m 2 -, 100m 2 -, and 1000m 2 -survey plots indicate thorough assessment of species diversity at these sites (Fig. 3 ). Using percent cover estimates taken at 1-m2 plots at each site, we found that Shannon diversity was lower in vacant lots than in urban farms (β = −0.26 ± 0.15 SE), although this difference was marginal and not statistically significant (z = -1.75, p = 0.08). Plant community composition also differed significantly between land use types (Fig. 4 ). In analyses of all plant species data, we found clear separation between urban farms and vacant lots (stress < 0.0001) using NMDS ordination. PERMANOVA showed that community composition using all species differed significantly between land use types (r² = 0.34, p = 0.012). Similarly, analyses of native species only and communities with crop species excluded also showed clear separation between land use types using NMDS ordination (stress < 0.0001 for both analyses) and significant differences between land use types (native only: r² = 0.33, p = 0.007; no crops: r² = 0.33, p = 0.008). Multivariate dispersion also differed between land use types for each analysis (PERMDISP: all species: p = 0.039; native only: p = 0.044; no crops: p = 0.044), indicating significant differences in within-land use variability in species composition. These differences appear to be driven by the fact that community composition was nearly identical across vacant lot sites (Fig. 4 ). We found 16 non-native species common to both sites (Table 1 ). Most of these non-natives are herbaceous fast-growing, such as Cenchrus clandestinus , Erodium moschatum , and Osteospermum moniliferum . Discussion We found substantial differences in plant diversity between urban farms and vacant lots in Khayelitsha, a former marginalized black-only residential areas near Cape Town, South Africa. Urban farms had ~ 3.5x more species than vacant lots due to the higher numbers of native species (site means per land use type = 17.2 vs 6.8), non-native, non-crop species (25.2 vs. 10.8), and crop species (20.6 vs 0.2). Species richness and community composition also differed significantly between land use types even when crop species were excluded from analyses. It is well-documented that urban farms in Khayelitsha and similar poor, Black-dominated areas near Cape Town provide broad social and economic benefits to communities (Kanosvamhira 2024 ). Our results suggest that these farms are also significant biodiversity hotspots relative to other land use types and may serve as important sources of conservation in the biologically distinctive and threatened Cape Floristic Region. Previous studies in other regions have found relatively high levels of plant diversity in urban farms (Seitz et al. 2022 , Sexton et al. 2025 ). For example, Seitz et al. ( 2022 ) sampled 18 urban farms in Berlin and found high numbers of both cultivated and wild plant species, suggesting that urban farms can be important sites for plant conservation within cities and illustrate the potential for avoiding the tradeoff between wild species conservation and crop production documented in conventional agricultural systems. Our results show that urban farms in a poor region of a South African city show similar increases in wild plant species diversity, suggesting that conservation benefits from urban farming also occurs in poor neighborhoods in Global South cities. Our findings also provide additional context to studies documenting biological deficits in poor urban areas (often referred to as the “luxury effect”; Leong et al. 2018 ). Although positive associations between community socioeconomic status and biodiversity have been found in many cases, the relationship may differ from city to city and among taxonomic groups (Kuras et al. 2020 ). Several studies have found similar patterns of plant diversity across steep socioeconomic gradients in South African cities (Lubbe et al. 2010 , Anderson et al. 2020 ). Our results are consistent with findings by Lubbe et al. ( 2010 ), which found significant variation in plant diversity among land use types within neighborhoods. These results suggest that generalizations about relationships between socioeconomic conditions and diversity are complex, and that pockets of high diversity may exist even in very poor areas as a result of human management and other cultural factors. Several potential mechanisms could account for increased plant diversity on urban farms in this region. First, land managers on urban farms may plant ornamental plants in addition to crop species for aesthetic and functional purposes. Second, resources invested in crop production, such as manure application and irrigation, may create abiotic conditions that facilitate establishment of non-cultivated species. Although some local flora are adapted to the sandy soils and long dry periods characteristic of Khayelitsha, increased soil organic matter and moisture will likely increase establishment of many native and non-native species. These factors may also attract more seed dispersers to urban farms. Finally, fencing and presence of a caretaker on farms limit public access and in turn reduce the high level of human disturbance visibly apparent on vacant lots. Given that richness and community composition differed among farms (Fig. 4 ), additional research could identify the factors and management practices that most enhance plant diversity in these unique ecosystems. Our results provide additional empirical support for the value of urban farms in poor areas of sub-Saharan African cities. Several studies have shown that urban farming can improve farmer nutrition, generate supplemental household income, and build community connections (Swanepoel et al. 2021 , Kanosvamhira 2024 ). There is also evidence that urban farms can also provide ecological benefits through opportunities for environmental education and the promotion of agro-ecological practices (Kanosvamhira and Shade 2024 ). Our results and similar studies (Lubbe et al. 2010 ) suggest that urban farms in poor, Black-dominated communities in South Africa can also support significant plant diversity, including diversity of native species. Targeted efforts to expand and support biological diversity in poorer urban areas may provide important conservation benefits (Chamberlain et al. 2019 ) but face significant challenges (Kuras et al. 2020 ) and appear to rarely happen at least in some sub-Saharan African cities (Roy et al. 2018 ). Challenges arise because residents and municipalities may see no immediate value from increased biodiversity. Our results showing substantially higher plant diversity on urban farms suggest that biodiversity in poor sub-Saharan communities can be promoted through targeted investments in urban agriculture projects that also provide well-documented social and economic benefits to residents (Cilliers et al. 2018 ). They also show that food production co-occurs with biodiversity protection in this community, consistent with results from organic agriculture sites elsewhere (Ramankutty et al. 2019 ). Municipal and external investments in these urban farms could therefore provide broad community benefits. Declarations Author Contribution All authors contributed to the conception and design of the project, helped draft or revise the manuscript, and approved of the submitted version. Acknowledgement We thank Abalimi Bezekhaya and site leaders at each of the sampled urban farms for permission to conduct this study. Data Availability All data presented in this paper has been uploaded to Dryad (DOI: 10.5061/dryad.8kprr4z2m) References Anderson P, Charles-Dominique T, Ernstson H, Andersson E, Goodness J, Elmqvist T (2020) Post-apartheid ecologies in the City of Cape Town: An examination of plant functional traits in relation to urban gradients. Landsc Urban Plan 193:103662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103662 Barbour MG, Burk JH, Pitts WD, Gilliam FS, Schwartz MW (1999) Terrestrial Plant Ecology, 3 edn. Benjamin Cummings, Boston Chamberlain DE, Henry DAW, Reynolds C, Caprio E, Amar A (2019) The relationship between wealth and biodiversity: A test of the Luxury Effect on bird species richness in the developing world. Glob Chang Biol 25:3045–3055 Cilliers SS, Siebert SJ, Du Toit MJ, Barthel S, Mishra S, Cornelius SF et al (2018) Garden ecosystem services of Sub-Saharan Africa and the role of health clinic gardens as social-ecological systems. Lands Urb Plan 180:294–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.01.011 Ellis Soto D, Chapman M, Locke D (2023) Historical redlining is associated with increasing geographical disparities in bird biodiversity sampling in the United States. Nat Hum Behav 7. 10.1038/s41562-023-01688-5 Engemann et al (2024) Transdisciplinary approaches assessing unmanaged urban green spaces reveal benefits for biodiversity and people. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-024-00184- . Socio-Ecological Practice Research Finnerty PB, Carthey AJR, Banks PB, Brewster R, Grueber CE, Houston D, Martin JM, McManus P, Roncolato F, van Eeden LM, Wauchope M, Newsome TM (2025) Urban rewilding to combat global biodiversity decline. Bioscience 75. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biuXXXX Frantzeskaki N, Childers DL, Pickett S, Hoover FA, Anderson P, Barau A, Ginsberg J, Grove M, Lodder M, Lugo AE, McPhearson T, Muñoz-Erickson TA, Quartier M, Schepers S, Sharifi A, van de Sijpe K (2024) A transformative shift in urban ecology toward a more active and relevant future for the field and for cities. Ambio 53:871–889. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-024-01992-y Gentili R, Quaglini LA, Galasso G, Montagnani C, Caronni S, Cardarelli E, Citterio S (2024) Urban refugia sheltering biodiversity across world cities. Urban Ecosyst 27:219–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-023-01432-x Goldblatt P, Manning JC (2002) Plant diversity of the Cape Region of Southern Africa. Ann Missouri Bot Gard 89:281–302 Holmes PM, Rebelo AG, Dorse C, Wood J (2012) Can Cape Town’s unique biodiversity be saved? Balancing conservation imperatives and development needs. Ecol Soc 17:28 Hou Y, Li J, Li G, Qi W (2023) Negative effects of urbanization on plants: A global meta-analysis. Ecol Evol 13:e9894. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10065982/ House SC, Sutton PC, Anderson S (2020) A meta-analysis of socioeconomic drivers of urban plant and bird diversity. Landsc Urban Plan 194:103690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103690 Jha S, Egerer M, Bichier P, Cohen H, Liere H, Lin BB, Lucatero A, Philpott SM (2023) Multiple ecosystem service synergies and landscape mediation of biodiversity within urban agroecosystems. Ecol Lett 26:369–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14146 Kanosvamhira TP (2024) Exploring urban community gardens as ‘third places’: fostering social interaction in distressed neighbourhoods of Cape Town, South Africa. Leis Stud 1–18. doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2024.2383481) Kanosvamhira TP, Shade MD (2024) Urban agriculture for environmentally just cities: the case of urban community gardens in Cape Town, South Africa. Loc Environ 30:133–149 Keck F, Peller T, Alther R, Barouillet C, Blackman R, Capo E, Chonova T, Couton M, Fehlinger L, Kirschner D, Knüsel M, Muneret L, Oester R, Tapolczai K, Zhang H, Altermatt F (2025) The global human impact on biodiversity. Nature 641:395–400. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08752-2 Kuras ER, Warren PS, Zinda JA et al (2020) Urban socioeconomic inequality and biodiversity often converge, but not always: A global meta-analysis. Landsc Urban Plan 198:19103799 Leong M, Dunn RR, Trautwein MD (2018) Biodiversity and socioeconomics in the city: a review of the luxury effect. Biol Lett 14:20180082 Leveau LM, Pereyra LC, Ortega-A´lvarez R (2025) Editorial: Urban biodiversity in the Global South. Front Ecol Evol 13:1591037. 10.3389/fevo.2025.1591037 Li G, Fang C, Li Y, Wang Z, Sun S, He S, Qi W, Bao C, Ma H, Fan Y, Feng Y, Liu X (2022) Global impacts of future urban expansion on terrestrial biodiversity. Nat Commun 13:5203. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-29324-2 Liu N, Liu Z, Wu Y (2025) Direct and indirect impacts of urbanization on biodiversity across the world’s cities. Remote Sens 17:956. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17060956 Losos ME, Schoener TW (2024) Socioeconomic determinants of biodiversity observations in cities: Evidence from citizen science. Ecol Soc 29:16. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-XXXX-XXXX Lubbe CS, Siebert SJ, Cilliers SS (2010) Political legacy of South Africa affects the plant diversity patterns of urban domestic gardens along a socio-economic gradient. Sci Res Essays 5:2900–2910 Lynge H, Visagie J, Scheba A, Turok I, Everatt D, Abrahams C (2022) Developing neighbourhood typologies and understanding urban inequality: a data-driven approach. Reg Stud Reg Sci 9:618–640 Manning J (2018) Field Guide to Fynbos 2 ed, Struik Nature, South Africa, pp. 1-507 Manning J (2019) Field Guide to Wild Flowers of South Africa 2 ed, Struik Nature, South Africa, pp. 1-487 Mhlanga PF, Wesch NS, Moseri ME, Neumann FH, Ngobese NZ (2025) Greening African cities for sustainability: A systematic review of urban gardening’s role in biodiversity and socio-economic resilience. Plants 14:3187. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14203187 Mucina L, Rutherford MC (2006) The Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho, and Swaziland. SANBI, Pretoria Rakodi C, Leduka R (2023) The trajectories of urbanisation in Southern Africa: A comparative analysis. Habitat Int 132:102747 Ramankutty N, Ricciardi V, Mehrabi Z, Seufert V (2019) Trade-offs in the performance of alternative farming systems. Agric Econ 50:97–105 Rebelo AG, Holmes PM, Dorse C, Wood J (2011) Impacts of urbanization in a biodiversity hotspot: Conservation challenges in Metropolitan Cape Town. S Afr J Bot 77:20–35 Rega-Brodsky CC, Aronson MFJ, Piana MR et al (2022) Urban biodiversity: State of the science and future directions. Urban Ecosyst 25: 1083–1096 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-022-01207-w Roy M, Shemdoe R, Hulme D, Mwageni N, Gough A (2018) Climate change and declining levels of green structures: Life in informal settlements of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Landsc Urban Plan 180:282–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.11.011 Senior RA, Bagwyn R, Leng D, Killion AK, Jetz W, Wilcove DS (2024) Global shortfalls in documented actions to conserve biodiversity. Nature 630:387–391. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07498-7 Seto KC, Güneralp B, Hutyra LR (2025) Geographical bias in urban biodiversity research: The Global North dominance and gaps in the Global South. Front Ecol Evol 13:1591037. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2025.1591037 Seitz B, Buchholz S, Kowarik I, Herrmann J, Neuerburg L, Wendler J, Winker L, Egerer M (2022) Land sharing between cultivated and wild plants Urban gardens as hotspots for plant diversity in cities. Urban Ecosyst 25: 927–939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-021-01198-0 Sexton AN, Conitz F, Sturm U, Egerer M (2025) Wild plants drive biotic differentiation across urban gardens. Ecol Evol 15:e71527 Shaw RE, Farquharson KA, Bruford MW et al (2025) Global meta-analysis shows action is needed to halt genetic diversity loss. Nature 638:704–710. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08458-x Shmida A (1984) Whittaker’s Plant Diversity Sampling Method. Isr J Bot 33:41–46 Stohlgren TJ, Falkner MB, Schell LD (1995) A modified-Whittaker nested vegetation sampling method. Vegetatio 117:113–121 Suárez T et al (2025) Drivers of woody plant phylogenetic and taxonomic beta diversity across an urban density gradient. Urban Ecosyst 28:129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-025-01742-2 Swanepoel JW, Van Niekerk JA, Tirivanhu P (2021) Analysing the contribution of urban agriculture towards urban household food security in informal settlement areas. Dev South Afr 38:785–798 van Wyk B, van Wyk P (2013) Field Guide to Trees of Southern Africa, 2nd edn. Struik Nature. Cape Town Webb C (2021) These aren’t the jobs we want: youth unemployment and anti-work politics in Khayelitsha. Cape Town Soc Dyn 47:372–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/02533952.2021.1906148 World Meteorological Organization & Hong Kong Observatory (2026) World Weather Information Service. Retrieved January 24, 2026, from https://worldweather.wmo.int/ Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8779600","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":588054128,"identity":"8a9a02c6-5bd6-4377-8a03-6d5106e3db17","order_by":0,"name":"Paul Stephenson","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLACxgYI9YCBwUKGDcxmw6eeGa6F2YCBQYKHJC1sEiAtDIS0mPOfP/i4cIdNnnx777HqigoJHj7p9gcMH8oO49RiOSOZ2XjmmbRigzPn0m6eOQN0mMwZA8YZ53BrMbjBzCbN23Y4cYNEjtnNxjagFokcBmagCG4t5w+z/+Zt+584f0aOWSFES/oD5r/4tBxIZgOaeSCx4UaOGSNES4IBMyMeLUC/GEvPbEtO3HDmjLFkwxmwwwwO9pxLx6nFnP/gw8+FbXaJ89t7DD82VNjIyc9If/jgR5k1bocxgGMGDRzAqR6nllEwCkbBKBgFyAAAy49QIV2PSNUAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Rollins College","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Paul","middleName":"","lastName":"Stephenson","suffix":""},{"id":588054129,"identity":"67781de8-4f94-46c0-8768-092a54d67695","order_by":1,"name":"Beverly Bulumko Nakani","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Vineyard Hotel","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Beverly","middleName":"Bulumko","lastName":"Nakani","suffix":""},{"id":588054130,"identity":"6bf26f7b-7090-4b73-a3a1-26f397435971","order_by":2,"name":"Adam D. Kay","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of St. Thomas","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adam","middleName":"D.","lastName":"Kay","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-03 19:54:35","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8779600/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8779600/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102325815,"identity":"80f3f8c7-b16b-4b0a-8ade-cea0586f1e21","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 14:27:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":892136,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eExamples of land use types from this study: A, C) urban farms, B, D) vacant lots\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8779600/v1/3add1c032d2ccfef7320128a.jpeg"},{"id":102325808,"identity":"6c55c696-e946-4fd0-8e10-693291f1abb0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 14:27:14","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":76521,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBox plots illustrating differences in plant species richness in urban farms vs. vacant lots in Khayelitsha, South Africa. A) Data for all species, B) Data with crop species excluded from the analysis\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8779600/v1/fdcd99177b1845bc371c3747.png"},{"id":102325810,"identity":"d0e3da9b-c319-4a58-93c8-01886644e62b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 14:27:15","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":124608,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpecies richness (mean ± 1 SE) vs sampling area for urban farms and vacant lots in Khayelitsha, South Africa\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8779600/v1/9ca3b8e0e1f25959b49f6c87.jpeg"},{"id":102325805,"identity":"0b984e04-f5f9-4c1f-9849-439ddadd3b80","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 14:27:14","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43553,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResults for non-metric dimensional scaling analysis comparing urban farms (red) vs. vacant lots (blue) in Khayelitsha, South Africa. Results are from analyses A) including all species, B) including native species only, and C) with crop species excluded.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8779600/v1/939ccfe026b175c851744292.png"},{"id":105032765,"identity":"84b20efd-cb9d-4074-99f6-1837a5af4a8c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-20 07:04:53","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1922586,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8779600/v1/65f14f86-97bb-4f34-841b-a9f098f1f06a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Urban farms are biodiversity hot spots in a South African township","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eBiodiversity loss is a primary concern for conservation efforts in a world increasingly impacted by development and global climate change (Senior et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e, Keck et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e, Shaw et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). One factor contributing to biodiversity loss is urbanization, considered one of the most extensive and irreversible land use impacts on natural systems (Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e, Hou et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, Liu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). However, collaborations are emerging to re-imagine urban spaces as areas that can support biological conservation while also benefiting residents (Frantzeskaki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e, Gentili et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e, Finnerty et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). A first step in this work is to identify patterns and drivers of urban biodiversity differences in a range of ecological and social conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on urban biodiversity has focused disproportionally on wealthier areas both at global and regional scales (House et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Losos and Schoener \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e, Seto et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). It is well documented that studies on urban ecosystems have been much more common in Global North cities than in Global South (Rega-Brodsky et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), potentially leading to misguided or misdirected conservation efforts (Leveau et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Recent analyses have also revealed the significant extent to which poorer urban neighborhoods have been under-sampled relative to wealthier areas, potentially obscuring conservation priorities and in turn furthering environmental inequities (Ellis Soto et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). More studies focused on biodiversity in Global South cities, particularly in poorer neighborhoods, are needed to identify constraints and opportunities for conservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiodiversity sampling that has been conducted in poorer areas of Global South cities has generally revealed negative associations between biodiversity and economic wealth (Anderson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Suarez et al. 2025), consistent with trends found in Global North cities (Leong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Much less is known about differences in biodiversity across landscape types within poorer areas of Global South cities (Lubbe et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Identifying and quantifying the extent of any local biodiversity hotspots in poorer Global South urban neighborhoods can help to identify environmental investment opportunities to meet conservation goals and provide more nature-based services to residents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHere we present a comparison of plant biodiversity between landscape types in Khayelitsha, South Africa, a poor, almost exclusively Black African neighborhood about 30km from central Cape Town. The Cape Town region is situated within the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), one of the most unique biodiversity hot spots in the world (Rebelo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This small temperate biome contains over 9,000 vascular plant species (over 68% of which are endemic), a level of diversity and endemism equivalent to some tropical rainforest areas (Goldblatt and Manning \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e, Holmes et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Significant threat to the CFR stems from the fact that Cape Town is one of the fastest growing urban areas in South Africa (Rakodi and Leduka \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Anderson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) found that plant diversity was significantly lower in urban Cape Town areas relative to conservation areas and was particularly low in private areas of a poor, predominantly Black African neighborhood. However, more studies are needed about how biodiversity differs among landscape types within poor neighborhoods in Cape Town and other Global South cities (Ludde et al. 2010).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne potential local biodiversity hotspot in poor Global South cities is urban farms. In Khayelitsha, as in other South African townships, residents increasingly use urban farming to improve nutrition, generate supplemental household income, and build community connections (Swanepoel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, Kanosvamhira and Shade \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e, Kanosvamhira \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Several recent studies from the US and Europe have found that urban farms can have significantly higher plant and animal diversity than do other urban land use types (Seitz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e, Sexton et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), challenging the assumption that food production leads to non-agricultural species loss (Jha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Urban farms and other food production areas in sub-Saharan cities have been recognized for their contribution to biodiversity conservation, pollination, soil fertility, and microclimate effects (Mhlanga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). However, little comparative information is available about biodiversity and other ecological aspects of urban farms in poorer Global South urban neighborhoods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study we compare plant species diversity in urban farms to diversity levels in nearby vacant lots in Khayelitsha township. We paired a local naturalist (Bulumko) with an academic plant ecologist (Stephenson) to sample and identify species at multiple spatial scales across 10 sites. We predicted that urban farms would show significantly higher numbers of plant species, including greater numbers of native plants.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe conducted our survey work in Khayelitsha township from June 10\u0026ndash;22, 2023. The climate in this region is Mediterranean style, with hot dry summers and wet winters. June is one of the coldest (mean temperature\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.2\u0026deg;C) and wettest (mean rainfall\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;93 cm) months of the year (WMO 2026). Average household income in Khayelitsha is less than 160 rand (~\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e10 USD)/day (Lynge et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and unemployment is likely between 50 and 70% (Webb \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe compared plant diversity between urban farms and vacant lots in Ward 94 in Khayelitsha (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). With the help of a local NGO (Abalimi Bezekhaya) and local farmers, we selected five urban farms: Abalimi Garden Centre, Moya we Khaya Community Garden, Siyazama Community Allotment Garden Association, Umtha Welanga Community Garden, and NTinga Community Garden. Each of these farms is surrounded by fencing and protected by a live-in caretaker. We then selected five \u0026ldquo;vacant lots\u0026rdquo; that were nearest to, and within 500m of, each urban farm. These lots are not identical to vacant lots in Global North cities. They are embedded in the community and contain no infrastructure, but they are open to the public (no fencing) and are often crisscrossed by multiple walking paths. Although the municipality sometimes provides minor maintenance (trash collection, mowing), these spaces are highly disturbed and often contain significant amounts of trash. They are kept free of informal housing structures that have been established on other open spaces in the area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used the modified Whittaker Method (Shmida \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e, Stohlgren et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e, Barbour et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) for sampling each site. Briefly, we randomly selected a 20 m X 50 m (1000m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) plot within each farm and open space, and then subsequently picked subplots within the main plot at 3 scales: a 100m\u0026sup2; subplot in the center of the main plot, two 10m\u0026sup2; subplots in each corner of the main plot, and ten 1m\u0026sup2; subplots randomly placed throughout the site. We then located and identified all plant species within each plot. Plants that could not be immediately identified to species by sight were photographed and their images used in conjunction with the plant identification software Picture This \u0026ndash; Plant Identifier App (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.picturethisai.com/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.picturethisai.com/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, all species identification was confirmed using Field Guides to South African plants (Mucina and Rutherford \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, van Wyk and van Wyk \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, Manning \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, Manning \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted all statistical analyses using R (version 4.5.2). We classified species by origin (native vs. nonnative). We used generalized linear modeling to model richness as a function of land use type (urban farm vs. vacant lot), plant origin, and their interaction. We evaluated model assumptions using residual diagnostics. We also created species area curves for both land use types using data from each sampling scale. We also used species presence-absence to compare plant community composition between land use types using non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS). We made three comparisons: one using all species data, one using native species only, and one with crop species excluded. NMDS was performed using Jaccard dissimilarity, which is appropriate for binary presence\u0026ndash;absence data. Ordinations were run using two dimensions, and solutions were iterated until convergence to minimize stress. Stress values were used to assess the goodness of fit of the ordination. We then used permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) with the same Jaccard dissimilarity matrix to test for community composition differences. Land use type was the explanatory variable. Statistical significance was assessed using 999 permutations. We then evaluated multivariate dispersion using a test for homogeneity of dispersions (PERMDISP). Distances to group centroids were calculated based on the Jaccard dissimilarity matrix, and differences in dispersion between habitat types were assessed using ANOVA. Finally, we compared alpha plant diversity using Shannon diversity measures on percent cover data taken at each of the 10 1-m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e plots at each site. We tested for differences in Shannon diversity between land use types using linear mixed-effects models (lme4 package), with land use type as a fixed effect and site included as a random effect.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe recorded 197 plant species across the 10 sites, of which 64 were native and 133 were non-native (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). We classified 44 of the non-native species as agricultural species used as food (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eList of all species observed at urban farms and vacant lots. Native species are indicated (Y). Locations are A: Abalimi, M: Moya We Khaya, S: Skaga, U: Umtha Welanga, N: NTinga, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5: Lots 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. A total of 188 species were identified, with urban farms having 174 species and vacant lots 36 (22 species were present at both types of site).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaxon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcacia melanoxylon\u003c/em\u003e (Australian Blackwood)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, L2, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcanthus mollis\u003c/em\u003e (Bear's Breeches)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAchillea millefolium\u003c/em\u003e (Yarrow)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAfrocarpus falcatus (formerly: Podocarpus falcatus)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAgapanthus praecox (\u003c/em\u003eBlue Lily)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAgathosma crenulata\u003c/em\u003e (Oval Leaf Buchu)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAgave bracteosa\u003c/em\u003e (Spider Agave)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAgave sp. (Maybe Agave americana?)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAllium ampeloprasum\u003c/em\u003e (Leeks)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S, U, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAllium cepa\u003c/em\u003e (Onion)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, S, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAllium fistulosum\u003c/em\u003e (Spring Onion)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe arborescens\u003c/em\u003e (Candelabra Aloe)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe ferox\u003c/em\u003e (Cape Aloe)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe juvenna (\u003c/em\u003eTiger tooth Aloe)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe maculata\u003c/em\u003e (Sopa Aloe)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe samson (hybrid)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloiampelos tenuior (\u003c/em\u003eformerly \u003cem\u003eAloe tenuior)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAmaranth cruentus\u003c/em\u003e Morogo (red amaranth)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnethum graveolens\u003c/em\u003e (Dill)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnredera cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e (Madeira Vine)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eApium sp.\u003c/em\u003e (Celery)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAptenia cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eArctotheca calendula\u003c/em\u003e (Cape Dandelion)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL4, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eArtemisia afra\u003c/em\u003e (Wild Wormwood)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAsparagus densiflorus\u003c/em\u003e (Asparagus Fern)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBauhinia galpinii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBeta vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e (Yellow Beet Root)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, U, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBorago officinalis\u003c/em\u003e (Borage)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, U, L4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBougainvillea\u003c/em\u003e sp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBrachylaena discolor\u003c/em\u003e (Silver Oak)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBrassica oleracea\u003c/em\u003e (Purple Kale)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, U, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBrassica rapa\u003c/em\u003e (Turnip Rape)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBromus diandrus\u003c/em\u003e (Ripgut Brome)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBuddleja salvifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBulbine frutescens\u003c/em\u003e (Orange Bulbine)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCallistemon citrinus\u003c/em\u003e (Bottle Brush tree)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCapsicum annuum\u003c/em\u003e (Chili Pepper)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, U, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarissa macrocarpa\u003c/em\u003e (Natal Plum)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarpobrotus edulis\u003c/em\u003e (Sour Fig)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, U, N, L4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCasuarina cunninghamiana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCasuarina cunninghamiana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCatha edulis\u003c/em\u003e (Khat)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCenchrus clandestinus\u003c/em\u003e (Kikuyu Grass)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, U, N, L1, L2, L3, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCeratonia siliqua\u003c/em\u003e (Carob)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChenopodiastrum murale\u003c/em\u003e (Nettle Leaved Goosefoot)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, L1, L3, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChenopodium robertianum (syn: Rhagodia hastata)\u003c/em\u003e (Salt Bush)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChlorophytum comosum (\u003c/em\u003eHen and Chicken)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrillus lanatus\u003c/em\u003e (Watermelon)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrus limon\u003c/em\u003e (Lemon)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColeonema pulchellum\u003c/em\u003e (Confetti Bush)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColeus madagascariensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColeus neochilus\u003c/em\u003e (formerly: \u003cem\u003ePlectranthus neochilus\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCommelina benghalensis\u003c/em\u003e (Tropical Day Flower)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e (Coriander/Cilantro)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCotula coronopifolia\u003c/em\u003e (Brass Buttons)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCotyledon orbiculata\u003c/em\u003e (Round-leafed Navel-wort)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, S, U, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCrassula multicava\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCrassula ovata\u003c/em\u003e (Jade Plant)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCrotalaria juncea\u003c/em\u003e (Deccan Hemp)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCymbopogon citratus\u003c/em\u003e (Lemon Grass)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCyperus alternifolius\u003c/em\u003e (Umbrella sedge)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, L3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDaucus carota\u003c/em\u003e (Carrot)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDietes grandiflora (\u003c/em\u003eAfrican Iris)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDiplotaxis muralis\u003c/em\u003e (syn: S\u003cem\u003eisymbrium murale\u003c/em\u003e) (Wall Rocket)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, N, L1, L2, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDiplotaxis tenuifolia\u003c/em\u003e (Wild Rocket)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDracaena trifasciata (\u003c/em\u003eSanseveria)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEhrharta erecta\u003c/em\u003e (Buffalo Grass)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, S, U, N, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEleusine indica (\u003c/em\u003eGoose Grass)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErica tragulifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL2, L3, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEriocephalus africanus\u003c/em\u003e (Wild Rosemary)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErodium moschatum\u003c/em\u003e (Musky Stork's Bill)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, U, N, L1, L2, L4, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuphorbia nutans\u003c/em\u003e (formerly \u003cem\u003eChamaesyce nutans)\u003c/em\u003e (Nodding spurge)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuphorbia peplus\u003c/em\u003e (Petty Spurge)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU, N, A, L1, L3, L4, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuphorbia tirucalli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuryops pectinatus (\u003c/em\u003eGolden Shrub Daisy)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFelicia amelloides\u003c/em\u003e (Blue Felicia)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus carica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus microcarpa\u003c/em\u003e (Chinese Banyan)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus pumila\u003c/em\u003e (Climbing Fig)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus rubiginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFoeniculum vulgare\u003c/em\u003e (Fennel)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, U, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFragaria\u003c/em\u003e sp. (Strawberry)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, U, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFumaria capreolata\u003c/em\u003e (White Ramping-Fumitory)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, U, L1, L3, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGalinsoga quadriradiata\u003c/em\u003e (Shaggy Soldier)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGazania krebsiana\u003c/em\u003e (Common Gazania)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGazania rigens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGenista monspessulana\u003c/em\u003e (French Broom)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL2, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGeranium incanum\u003c/em\u003e (Carpet geranium)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeranium sp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGlebionis coronaria\u003c/em\u003e (Chrysanthemum)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, U, L1, L2, L3, L4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGrewia occidentalis\u003c/em\u003e (Cross Berry)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHedera helix\u003c/em\u003e (English Ivy)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHibiscus rosa-sinensis\u003c/em\u003e (Chinese Hibiscus)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIpomoea batatus\u003c/em\u003e (Sweet Potato)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S, U, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIpomoea purpurea\u003c/em\u003e (Wild Morning Glory)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKali turgidum\u003c/em\u003e (Prickly Saltwort)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKiggelaria africana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLachnospermum imbricatum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLactuca sativa\u003c/em\u003e (Lettuce)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLampranthus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLavendula angustifolia\u003c/em\u003e (English Lavendar)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLavendula dentata\u003c/em\u003e (French Lavendar)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, S, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLavendula stoechas\u003c/em\u003e (Spanish Lavendar)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeonotis leonurus\u003c/em\u003e (Lion's Tail)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeucadendron galpinii\u003c/em\u003e (Protea)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLiriope muscari\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMalva parvifolia\u003c/em\u003e (Cheeseweed)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S, N, L2, L4, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eManilkara zapota\u003c/em\u003e (Sapodilla Tree)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMelianthus major\u003c/em\u003e (Honey Flower)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMentha arvensis\u003c/em\u003e (Mint)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMentha spicata\u003c/em\u003e (Spearmint)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, U, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMetalasia muricata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL2, L3, L4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMirabilis jalapa\u003c/em\u003e (Four O'Clock)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyoporum laetum\u003c/em\u003e (Ngaio)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNasturtium officinale\u003c/em\u003e (Nasturtium)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNerium oleander\u003c/em\u003e (Oleander)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNuxia floribunda\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOlea europaea\u003c/em\u003e subsp. Africana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOriganum marjoranum\u003c/em\u003e (Marjorum)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOriganum sp.\u003c/em\u003e (Oregano)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOsteospermum incanum\u003c/em\u003e (formerly \u003cem\u003eChrysanthemoides incana\u003c/em\u003e) \u003cem\u003e(Grey Leaved Tickberry)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOsteospermum moniliferum\u003c/em\u003e (formerly: \u003cem\u003eChrysanthemoides moniliferum\u003c/em\u003e) (Tickberry)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S, U, N, L2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOxalis pes-caprae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, U, N, L1, L3, L4, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOxalis purpurea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanicum miliaceum\u003c/em\u003e (Millet)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePelargonium graveolens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePersea americana\u003c/em\u003e (Avocado)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePetroselinum crispum\u003c/em\u003e (Parsley)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhaseolus vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e (Bush Bean)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhoenix canariensis\u003c/em\u003e (Canary Island Date)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhysalis peruviana\u003c/em\u003e (Cape Gooseberry)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, U, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePinus pinaster\u003c/em\u003e (Maritime Pine)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePisum sativum (Peas)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlantago lanceolata\u003c/em\u003e (Ribwort Plantain)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, U, N, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlectranthus verticillatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlumbago auriculata\u003c/em\u003e (Blue Plumbago)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePopulus simonii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePortulaca oleracea\u003c/em\u003e (Common Purslane)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePortulacaria afra (Elephant Bush)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, S, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePrunus armeniaca\u003c/em\u003e (Apricot Tree)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePunica granatum\u003c/em\u003e (Pomegranate)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePyrus communis\u003c/em\u003e (Pear)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRafnea angulata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRheum\u003c/em\u003e (hyb) (Rhubarb)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRicinus communis\u003c/em\u003e (Castor Bean)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRumex crispus\u003c/em\u003e (Wild Daca)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRumex obtusifolius\u003c/em\u003e (Bitter Dock)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRuta graveolens\u003c/em\u003e (Rue)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalvia africana-lutea\u003c/em\u003e (Golden Sage)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalvia aurea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalvia fruticosa\u003c/em\u003e (Greek Sage)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalvia rosmarinus\u003c/em\u003e (Rosemary)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchinus terebinthifolius (\u003c/em\u003eBrazilian Pepper)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchoenus nigricans\u003c/em\u003e (Black Bog Rush)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN, L1, L2, L3, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSearsia crenata\u003c/em\u003e (formerly \u003cem\u003eRhus crenata\u003c/em\u003e) Boxwood/Dune Crow-Berry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSedum sp.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSenecio aloides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL2, L3, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSenecio mandraliscae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSisymbrium irio\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanum lycopersicum\u003c/em\u003e (Tomato)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanum melongena\u003c/em\u003e (Eggplant)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS, U, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanum nigrum\u003c/em\u003e (Black Nightshade)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanum tuberosum\u003c/em\u003e (Potato)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, U\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolenostemon scutellarioides\u003c/em\u003e (Frogs Foot)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSonchus oleraceus\u003c/em\u003e (Common Sow Thistle)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpinacea oleracea\u003c/em\u003e (Spinach)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, S, U, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStellaria media\u003c/em\u003e (Chickweed)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStreilitzia regina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStrelitzia nicolai (\u003c/em\u003eGiant White Bird of Paradise)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSymphytum officinale\u003c/em\u003e (Comfrey)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSyzygium guineense\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTaraxacum officinale\u003c/em\u003e (Dandelion)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, U, N, L1, L3, L4, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTarchonanthus camphoratus\u003c/em\u003e (Camphor Bush)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTecomaria capensis\u003c/em\u003e (Cape Honeysuckle)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTetradenia riparia\u003c/em\u003e (Natal Ginger)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTetragonia decumbens\u003c/em\u003e (Dune Spinach)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, L1, L4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThymus vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e (Thyme)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichillia emitica\u003c/em\u003e (Natal Mahogany)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrifolium pratense\u003c/em\u003e (Red Clover)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrifolium repens\u003c/em\u003e (Clover)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS, U, L2, L3, L4, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTulbaghia capensis\u003c/em\u003e (Wild Garlic)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM, S\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUrtica urens\u003c/em\u003e (Stinging Nettle)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA, M, S, U, N, L5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVeronica persica\u003c/em\u003e (Birdeye Speedwell)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVicia faba\u003c/em\u003e (Broadbean)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitus vinifera\u003c/em\u003e (Grape)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eYucca gloriosa\u003c/em\u003e (Spanish Dagger)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZantedeschia aethiopica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVicia sativa\u003c/em\u003e (Wild Vetch)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand use types (urban farm vs vacant lot) differed significantly in diversity (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Overall species richness was ~\u0026thinsp;3.5x higher in urban farms than in vacant lots (F\u003csub\u003e1,16\u003c/sub\u003e = 32.22, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001) and non-native species richness was significantly higher than native species richness (F\u003csub\u003e1,16\u003c/sub\u003e = 16.99, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0008). There was also a significant location-by-plant origin interaction (F\u003csub\u003e1,16\u003c/sub\u003e = 9.40, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0074), as mean difference in non-native richness between urban farms and vacant lots (45.8 vs 11) was higher than mean difference in native richness (17.2 vs. 6.8). When crop plants were removed from the analysis, urban farms still had\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;2.4x higher richness than vacant lots (F\u003csub\u003e1,16\u003c/sub\u003e = 7.76, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0132), and there was no longer significant differences in plant origin (F\u003csub\u003e1,16\u003c/sub\u003e = 1.82, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.197) nor a significant location-by-plant origin interaction (F\u003csub\u003e1,16\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.02, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.659). Species area curves generated using the data from our 1m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e-, 10m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e-, 100m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e-, and 1000m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e-survey plots indicate thorough assessment of species diversity at these sites (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Using percent cover estimates taken at 1-m2 plots at each site, we found that Shannon diversity was lower in vacant lots than in urban farms (β = \u0026minus;0.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15 SE), although this difference was marginal and not statistically significant (z = -1.75, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.08).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant community composition also differed significantly between land use types (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). In analyses of all plant species data, we found clear separation between urban farms and vacant lots (stress\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001) using NMDS ordination. PERMANOVA showed that community composition using all species differed significantly between land use types (r\u0026sup2; = 0.34, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.012). Similarly, analyses of native species only and communities with crop species excluded also showed clear separation between land use types using NMDS ordination (stress\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001 for both analyses) and significant differences between land use types (native only: r\u0026sup2; = 0.33, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.007; no crops: r\u0026sup2; = 0.33, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.008). Multivariate dispersion also differed between land use types for each analysis (PERMDISP: all species: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.039; native only: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.044; no crops: p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.044), indicating significant differences in within-land use variability in species composition. These differences appear to be driven by the fact that community composition was nearly identical across vacant lot sites (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). We found 16 non-native species common to both sites (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Most of these non-natives are herbaceous fast-growing, such as \u003cem\u003eCenchrus clandestinus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eErodium moschatum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eOsteospermum moniliferum\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe found substantial differences in plant diversity between urban farms and vacant lots in Khayelitsha, a former marginalized black-only residential areas near Cape Town, South Africa. Urban farms had\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;3.5x more species than vacant lots due to the higher numbers of native species (site means per land use type\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;17.2 vs 6.8), non-native, non-crop species (25.2 vs. 10.8), and crop species (20.6 vs 0.2). Species richness and community composition also differed significantly between land use types even when crop species were excluded from analyses. It is well-documented that urban farms in Khayelitsha and similar poor, Black-dominated areas near Cape Town provide broad social and economic benefits to communities (Kanosvamhira \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Our results suggest that these farms are also significant biodiversity hotspots relative to other land use types and may serve as important sources of conservation in the biologically distinctive and threatened Cape Floristic Region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies in other regions have found relatively high levels of plant diversity in urban farms (Seitz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e, Sexton et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). For example, Seitz et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) sampled 18 urban farms in Berlin and found high numbers of both cultivated and wild plant species, suggesting that urban farms can be important sites for plant conservation within cities and illustrate the potential for avoiding the tradeoff between wild species conservation and crop production documented in conventional agricultural systems. Our results show that urban farms in a poor region of a South African city show similar increases in wild plant species diversity, suggesting that conservation benefits from urban farming also occurs in poor neighborhoods in Global South cities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings also provide additional context to studies documenting biological deficits in poor urban areas (often referred to as the \u0026ldquo;luxury effect\u0026rdquo;; Leong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Although positive associations between community socioeconomic status and biodiversity have been found in many cases, the relationship may differ from city to city and among taxonomic groups (Kuras et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Several studies have found similar patterns of plant diversity across steep socioeconomic gradients in South African cities (Lubbe et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, Anderson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Our results are consistent with findings by Lubbe et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), which found significant variation in plant diversity among land use types within neighborhoods. These results suggest that generalizations about relationships between socioeconomic conditions and diversity are complex, and that pockets of high diversity may exist even in very poor areas as a result of human management and other cultural factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral potential mechanisms could account for increased plant diversity on urban farms in this region. First, land managers on urban farms may plant ornamental plants in addition to crop species for aesthetic and functional purposes. Second, resources invested in crop production, such as manure application and irrigation, may create abiotic conditions that facilitate establishment of non-cultivated species. Although some local flora are adapted to the sandy soils and long dry periods characteristic of Khayelitsha, increased soil organic matter and moisture will likely increase establishment of many native and non-native species. These factors may also attract more seed dispersers to urban farms. Finally, fencing and presence of a caretaker on farms limit public access and in turn reduce the high level of human disturbance visibly apparent on vacant lots. Given that richness and community composition differed among farms (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), additional research could identify the factors and management practices that most enhance plant diversity in these unique ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur results provide additional empirical support for the value of urban farms in poor areas of sub-Saharan African cities. Several studies have shown that urban farming can improve farmer nutrition, generate supplemental household income, and build community connections (Swanepoel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, Kanosvamhira \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). There is also evidence that urban farms can also provide ecological benefits through opportunities for environmental education and the promotion of agro-ecological practices (Kanosvamhira and Shade \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Our results and similar studies (Lubbe et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) suggest that urban farms in poor, Black-dominated communities in South Africa can also support significant plant diversity, including diversity of native species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTargeted efforts to expand and support biological diversity in poorer urban areas may provide important conservation benefits (Chamberlain et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) but face significant challenges (Kuras et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and appear to rarely happen at least in some sub-Saharan African cities (Roy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Challenges arise because residents and municipalities may see no immediate value from increased biodiversity. Our results showing substantially higher plant diversity on urban farms suggest that biodiversity in poor sub-Saharan communities can be promoted through targeted investments in urban agriculture projects that also provide well-documented social and economic benefits to residents (Cilliers et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). They also show that food production co-occurs with biodiversity protection in this community, consistent with results from organic agriculture sites elsewhere (Ramankutty et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Municipal and external investments in these urban farms could therefore provide broad community benefits.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the conception and design of the project, helped draft or revise the manuscript, and approved of the submitted version.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe thank Abalimi Bezekhaya and site leaders at each of the sampled urban farms for permission to conduct this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll data presented in this paper has been uploaded to Dryad (DOI: 10.5061/dryad.8kprr4z2m)\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnderson P, Charles-Dominique T, Ernstson H, Andersson E, Goodness J, Elmqvist T (2020) Post-apartheid ecologies in the City of Cape Town: An examination of plant functional traits in relation to urban gradients. Landsc Urban Plan 193:103662. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103662\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103662\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBarbour MG, Burk JH, Pitts WD, Gilliam FS, Schwartz MW (1999) Terrestrial Plant Ecology, 3 edn. Benjamin Cummings, Boston\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChamberlain DE, Henry DAW, Reynolds C, Caprio E, Amar A (2019) The relationship between wealth and biodiversity: A test of the Luxury Effect on bird species richness in the developing world. Glob Chang Biol 25:3045\u0026ndash;3055\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCilliers SS, Siebert SJ, Du Toit MJ, Barthel S, Mishra S, Cornelius SF et al (2018) Garden ecosystem services of Sub-Saharan Africa and the role of health clinic gardens as social-ecological systems. Lands Urb Plan 180:294\u0026ndash;307. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.01.011\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.01.011\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEllis Soto D, Chapman M, Locke D (2023) Historical redlining is associated with increasing geographical disparities in bird biodiversity sampling in the United States. Nat Hum Behav 7. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1038/s41562-023-01688-5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s41562-023-01688-5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEngemann et al (2024) Transdisciplinary approaches assessing unmanaged urban green spaces reveal benefits for biodiversity and people. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-024-00184-\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s42532-024-00184-\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. Socio-Ecological Practice Research\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFinnerty PB, Carthey AJR, Banks PB, Brewster R, Grueber CE, Houston D, Martin JM, McManus P, Roncolato F, van Eeden LM, Wauchope M, Newsome TM (2025) Urban rewilding to combat global biodiversity decline. Bioscience 75. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biuXXXX\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1093/biosci/biuXXXX\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFrantzeskaki N, Childers DL, Pickett S, Hoover FA, Anderson P, Barau A, Ginsberg J, Grove M, Lodder M, Lugo AE, McPhearson T, Mu\u0026ntilde;oz-Erickson TA, Quartier M, Schepers S, Sharifi A, van de Sijpe K (2024) A transformative shift in urban ecology toward a more active and relevant future for the field and for cities. Ambio 53:871\u0026ndash;889. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-024-01992-y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s13280-024-01992-y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGentili R, Quaglini LA, Galasso G, Montagnani C, Caronni S, Cardarelli E, Citterio S (2024) Urban refugia sheltering biodiversity across world cities. Urban Ecosyst 27:219\u0026ndash;230. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-023-01432-x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11252-023-01432-x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGoldblatt P, Manning JC (2002) Plant diversity of the Cape Region of Southern Africa. Ann Missouri Bot Gard 89:281\u0026ndash;302\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHolmes PM, Rebelo AG, Dorse C, Wood J (2012) Can Cape Town\u0026rsquo;s unique biodiversity be saved? Balancing conservation imperatives and development needs. Ecol Soc 17:28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHou Y, Li J, Li G, Qi W (2023) Negative effects of urbanization on plants: A global meta-analysis. Ecol Evol 13:e9894. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10065982/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10065982/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHouse SC, Sutton PC, Anderson S (2020) A meta-analysis of socioeconomic drivers of urban plant and bird diversity. Landsc Urban Plan 194:103690. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103690\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103690\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJha S, Egerer M, Bichier P, Cohen H, Liere H, Lin BB, Lucatero A, Philpott SM (2023) Multiple ecosystem service synergies and landscape mediation of biodiversity within urban agroecosystems. Ecol Lett 26:369\u0026ndash;383. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14146\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/ele.14146\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKanosvamhira TP (2024) Exploring urban community gardens as \u0026lsquo;third places\u0026rsquo;: fostering social interaction in distressed neighbourhoods of Cape Town, South Africa. Leis Stud 1\u0026ndash;18. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003edoi.org/10.1080/02614367.2024.2383481)\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/02614367.2024.2383481)\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKanosvamhira TP, Shade MD (2024) Urban agriculture for environmentally just cities: the case of urban community gardens in Cape Town, South Africa. Loc Environ 30:133\u0026ndash;149\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKeck F, Peller T, Alther R, Barouillet C, Blackman R, Capo E, Chonova T, Couton M, Fehlinger L, Kirschner D, Kn\u0026uuml;sel M, Muneret L, Oester R, Tapolczai K, Zhang H, Altermatt F (2025) The global human impact on biodiversity. Nature 641:395\u0026ndash;400. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08752-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s41586-025-08752-2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKuras ER, Warren PS, Zinda JA et al (2020) Urban socioeconomic inequality and biodiversity often converge, but not always: A global meta-analysis. Landsc Urban Plan 198:19103799\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLeong M, Dunn RR, Trautwein MD (2018) Biodiversity and socioeconomics in the city: a review of the luxury effect. Biol Lett 14:20180082\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLeveau LM, Pereyra LC, Ortega-A\u0026acute;lvarez R (2025) Editorial: Urban biodiversity in the Global South. Front Ecol Evol 13:1591037. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3389/fevo.2025.1591037\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fevo.2025.1591037\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi G, Fang C, Li Y, Wang Z, Sun S, He S, Qi W, Bao C, Ma H, Fan Y, Feng Y, Liu X (2022) Global impacts of future urban expansion on terrestrial biodiversity. Nat Commun 13:5203. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-29324-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s41467-022-29324-2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu N, Liu Z, Wu Y (2025) Direct and indirect impacts of urbanization on biodiversity across the world\u0026rsquo;s cities. Remote Sens 17:956. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/rs17060956\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/rs17060956\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLosos ME, Schoener TW (2024) Socioeconomic determinants of biodiversity observations in cities: Evidence from citizen science. Ecol Soc 29:16. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.5751/ES-XXXX-XXXX\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5751/ES-XXXX-XXXX\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLubbe CS, Siebert SJ, Cilliers SS (2010) Political legacy of South Africa affects the plant diversity patterns of urban domestic gardens along a socio-economic gradient. Sci Res Essays 5:2900\u0026ndash;2910\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLynge H, Visagie J, Scheba A, Turok I, Everatt D, Abrahams C (2022) Developing neighbourhood typologies and understanding urban inequality: a data-driven approach. Reg Stud Reg Sci 9:618\u0026ndash;640\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eManning J (2018) Field Guide to Fynbos 2 ed, Struik Nature, South Africa, pp. 1-507\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eManning J (2019) Field Guide to Wild Flowers of South Africa 2 ed, Struik Nature, South Africa, pp. 1-487\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMhlanga PF, Wesch NS, Moseri ME, Neumann FH, Ngobese NZ (2025) Greening African cities for sustainability: A systematic review of urban gardening\u0026rsquo;s role in biodiversity and socio-economic resilience. Plants 14:3187. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/plants14203187\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/plants14203187\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMucina L, Rutherford MC (2006) The Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho, and Swaziland. SANBI, Pretoria\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRakodi C, Leduka R (2023) The trajectories of urbanisation in Southern Africa: A comparative analysis. Habitat Int 132:102747\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRamankutty N, Ricciardi V, Mehrabi Z, Seufert V (2019) Trade-offs in the performance of alternative farming systems. Agric Econ 50:97\u0026ndash;105\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRebelo AG, Holmes PM, Dorse C, Wood J (2011) Impacts of urbanization in a biodiversity hotspot: Conservation challenges in Metropolitan Cape Town. S Afr J Bot 77:20\u0026ndash;35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRega-Brodsky CC, Aronson MFJ, Piana MR et al (2022) Urban biodiversity: State of the science and future directions. Urban Ecosyst 25: 1083\u0026ndash;1096 (2022). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-022-01207-w\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11252-022-01207-w\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoy M, Shemdoe R, Hulme D, Mwageni N, Gough A (2018) Climate change and declining levels of green structures: Life in informal settlements of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Landsc Urban Plan 180:282\u0026ndash;293. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.11.011\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.11.011\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSenior RA, Bagwyn R, Leng D, Killion AK, Jetz W, Wilcove DS (2024) Global shortfalls in documented actions to conserve biodiversity. Nature 630:387\u0026ndash;391. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07498-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s41586-024-07498-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSeto KC, G\u0026uuml;neralp B, Hutyra LR (2025) Geographical bias in urban biodiversity research: The Global North dominance and gaps in the Global South. Front Ecol Evol 13:1591037. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2025.1591037\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fevo.2025.1591037\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSeitz B, Buchholz S, Kowarik I, Herrmann J, Neuerburg L, Wendler J, Winker L, Egerer M (2022)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLand sharing between cultivated and wild plants Urban gardens as hotspots for plant diversity in cities. Urban Ecosyst 25: 927\u0026ndash;939. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-021-01198-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11252-021-01198-0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSexton AN, Conitz F, Sturm U, Egerer M (2025) Wild plants drive biotic differentiation across urban gardens. Ecol Evol 15:e71527\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShaw RE, Farquharson KA, Bruford MW et al (2025) Global meta-analysis shows action is needed to halt genetic diversity loss. Nature 638:704\u0026ndash;710. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08458-x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s41586-024-08458-x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShmida A (1984) Whittaker\u0026rsquo;s Plant Diversity Sampling Method. Isr J Bot 33:41\u0026ndash;46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStohlgren TJ, Falkner MB, Schell LD (1995) A modified-Whittaker nested vegetation sampling method. Vegetatio 117:113\u0026ndash;121\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSu\u0026aacute;rez T et al (2025) Drivers of woody plant phylogenetic and taxonomic beta diversity across an urban density gradient. Urban Ecosyst 28:129. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-025-01742-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11252-025-01742-2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSwanepoel JW, Van Niekerk JA, Tirivanhu P (2021) Analysing the contribution of urban agriculture towards urban household food security in informal settlement areas. Dev South Afr 38:785\u0026ndash;798\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan Wyk B, van Wyk P (2013) Field Guide to Trees of Southern Africa, 2nd edn. Struik Nature. Cape Town\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWebb C (2021) These aren\u0026rsquo;t the jobs we want: youth unemployment and anti-work politics in Khayelitsha. Cape Town Soc Dyn 47:372\u0026ndash;388. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/02533952.2021.1906148\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/02533952.2021.1906148\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWorld Meteorological Organization \u0026amp; Hong Kong Observatory (2026) World Weather Information Service. Retrieved January 24, 2026, from \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://worldweather.wmo.int/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://worldweather.wmo.int/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8779600/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8779600/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eWith global biodiversity declining rapidly, urban areas are increasingly recognized as potential refuges for biological conservation. However, few studies informing our understanding of opportunities for increasing urban biodiversity have come from poorer areas of Global South cities, a knowledge gap potentially obscuring conservation priorities and furthering environmental inequities. Here, we present results from plant surveys on 5 urban farms and 5 vacant lots in Khayelitsha, a poor, almost exclusively Black African area near Cape Town, South Africa. We identified 197 species and found significant differences between land use types, with urban farms having on average\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;3.5x higher plant species richness than vacant lots. Richness differences were driven by the higher numbers of both native and non-native species on urban farms. Species richness was still\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;2.4x higher on farms than on lots after removing crop species from the analysis. In addition, community composition showed clear separation between land use types using NMDS ordination in analyses of all species, of native species only, and with crop species excluded. Multivariate dispersion also differed between land use types, with much less variation in community composition among lots than among farms. These results suggest that in poor areas of sub-Saharan African cities 1) biodiversity levels are not uniformly low, 2) urban farms can provide significant ecological benefits to complement their documented social and economic benefits, and 3) food production need not tradeoff with biodiversity protection. Investments to support urban farms in these areas could thus provide broad community benefits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eData Accessibility\u003c/b\u003e: All data presented in this paper has been uploaded to Dryad (DOI: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.5061/dryad.8kprr4z2m\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5061/dryad.8kprr4z2m\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Urban farms are biodiversity hot spots in a South African township","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-10 14:26:42","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8779600/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1788fcca-5423-442b-b0e1-ed23cccf2132","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 10th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-18T03:25:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-10 14:26:42","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8779600","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8779600","identity":"rs-8779600","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}