Investigation of Mechanical Properties and Performance of Automotive Brake Pads

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Essam, Noha M. Abdeltawab, Ahmed Y. Shash, Mostafa M. El-Sayed This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5813439/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 01 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 14 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In this work, three composite formulations BP1, BP2, and BP3 are developed and tested in order to examine the wear characteristics of automotive brake pads. Each composite uses powder metallurgy to combine performance optimized materials, such as graphite, and powdered materials as suitable reinforcements. Under various pressure conditions, the brake pad samples' wear rate, hardness, braking force, noise, vibration, and coefficient of friction were all examined. Particularly at high pressures, BP1 showed greater braking force and frictional effectiveness; however, this came at the expense of increased wear and noise. With moderate noise, vibration, and wear resistance, BP2 provided a well-balanced characteristic. While having less friction and braking force, BP3 demonstrated the lowest wear rate and the least amount of noise, which makes it a good choice for applications that value longevity and quieter operation. According to the results, choosing the best brake pad composition relies on the particular performance needs, with BP1 being best suited for high-force applications and BP3 with a longer lifetime and less noise. Physical sciences/Engineering Physical sciences/Engineering/Mechanical engineering Braking Pad Automotive Wear Coefficient of friction (COF) Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 1. Introduction Materials used for brake friction are essential to the braking system. During the braking process, they use friction to transform the kinetic energy of a moving vehicle into thermal energy[ 1 ]. To retain a vehicle's braking characteristics, the optimum brake friction material should have a constant coefficient of friction under a variety of operating situations, including applied loads, temperature, speeds, braking mode, and dry or wet conditions. In addition, it should have a number of desirable qualities, including low wear rate, high thermal stability, low noise, and resistance to heat, water, and oil[ 2 ]. It should also not harm the brake disc. However, having all of these desired qualities is very impossible. Therefore, in order to meet some standards, some other requirements must be compromised. Generally, every friction material composition has distinct wear-resistance properties and frictional behaviors[ 1 , 3 ]. Friction material is made up of several components, each of which serves a specific purpose, such as enhancing friction characteristics at both low and high temperatures, boosting strength and rigidity, extending life, decreasing porosity, and lowering noise[ 4 ]. The physical, mechanical, and chemical characteristics of the brake friction materials to be developed may alter if the types of elements or their weight percentages in the formulation change[ 4 ]. Brake pads come in two different structural varieties: asbestos and non-asbestos [ 5 ]. The resistance to temperatures at which the brake pads can still function varies between the two of them. While non-asbestos brake pads are more heat resistant to braking temperatures of 350°C because cellulose and other fibers can reduce heat better than asbestos fibers, asbestos brake pads will not occur or will not work at a braking temperature of 200°C, which leads to an accident rate that will occur quickly[ 6 ]. The ingredients used to make brake pads must always be readily available and not go extinct. The mango seed, often known as a paddle, is one of them. In Indonesia, one million tons of mango seed waste are produced annually, but at least two hundred thousand tons could be utilized. Crude protein, oil, ash, crude fiber, and carbs are all found in mango seeds[ 7 ]. Given the aforementioned issues, brake pads must be manufactured using a blend of brass and magnesium oxide and mango seeds, a natural fiber material[ 8 , 9 ]. Literature Review In cars, brake pads are disc parts made of friction materials bonded to the surface of steel plates. In order to continually grip and hold wheels in order to slow down or halt their motion, they are attached to the surface facing the brake disc and placed in the wheel assembly [ 2 ]. Its purpose is to control the speed of a moving vehicle by converting kinetic energy to thermal energy through friction and releasing the generated heat into the environment. The majority of car brake pads on the market are categorized as non-asbestos organic (NAO), metallic, or semi-metallic compounds [ 10 , 11 ]. Binders, fillers, structural materials, and frictional additives are examples of friction materials. Semi-metallic friction materials are ones that incorporate metal powders, whereas asbestos friction materials are those made of asbestos. Asbestos-free non-asbestos friction materials are those that don't contain asbestos[ 5 ]. For drum brakes, brake shoes are housed inside a drum such that they are pushed outward and up against the drum when the brakes are applied. Disc brakes and drum brakes work similarly, with the exception that disc brakes are exposed to the elements, whilst drum brakes are enclosed [ 12 ]. The lateral force, often known as the friction force, between two rubbing surfaces is one of the most significant and fascinating scientific phenomena associated with brake systems. If a block is pulled across a horizontal floor, the friction force between the two surfaces equals the lateral force needed to move the block[ 11 ]. Typically, organic pads are made up of a variety of components. Occasionally, as many as twenty or twenty-five components are employed[ 13 ]. Among these elements is a binder, which creates a thermally stable matrix and holds the other elements together. Rubber is frequently added to thermosetting phenolic resins to enhance their damping capabilities[ 13 ]. Materials that are structural and give mechanical strength. Metal, carbon, glass, and/or kevlar fibers are typically utilized, with various mineral and ceramic fibers being employed less frequently. Asbestos was the most widely used structural fiber prior to its prohibition in the middle of the 1980s[ 9 , 12 ]. Fillers, mostly for cost reduction but also for improved manufacturing efficiency. Various minerals, including vermiculite and mica, are frequently used. Another popular filler is barium sulfate[ 14 ]. Frictional additives are used to manage the wear rates of the pad and disc and to guarantee steady frictional qualities. The coefficient of friction is stabilized, mainly at high temperatures, using solid lubricants like graphite and other metal sulphides. Both the coefficient of friction and disc wear are increased by abrasive particles, usually silica and alumina. By eliminating iron oxides and other undesirable surface coatings from the disc, the latter aims to provide a more defined rubbing surface[ 15 ]. Friction stability is an essential variable in how well friction materials perform. When tested under different operating conditions, such as speed, pressure, temperature rise, and area of real contact, it is the friction material's capacity to maintain a constant or steady µ[ 16 ]. The role of abrasives as a friction stabilizer was proposed by some studies, while others asserted the role of solid lubricants[ 17 ]. Commercially available abrasives include mild abrasives such green chrome oxide, barite, magnetite, magnesium oxide, cryolite, and others, as well as severe abrasives like alumina, silicon carbide, quartz, and zirconium silicate[ 1 ]. One of the most important features is the abrasives' hardness (Mohs scale 7–9), which is higher than that of the cast-iron disc (Mohs scale 5–6). Numerous academics have examined how abrasives affect the brake pad's or linings' wear and friction stability. Brake pads were made using four different abrasives: SiC, quartz, MgO, and zircon. The tribological analysis revealed that one of the key factors in raising the friction level, wear resistance, and stick-slip phenomena was fracture toughness[ 18 ]. Additionally, research on the use of nanometer-sized abrasives in brake pads revealed that they significantly improved wear resistance and friction compared to conventional abrasives[ 5 ].16 Boz and Kurt [ 19 ] examined how much Al 2 O 3 was used in the formulation of the friction material and found that adding more Al 2 O 3 improved the frictional stability and wear resistance. Brake pads using graphite as lubricants and Al 2 O 3 and boron carbide as abrasives were created by Öztürk et al.[ 20 ]. They discovered that graphite combined with boron carbide increased fade resistance and friction stability. Kim et al. [ 21 ] investigated brake pads containing various abrasive particles, including silicon carbide, zircon, quartz, and magnesia. They proposed that the abrasive's fracture toughness was a key factor in vibration-related problems during braking. Jang and Kim [ 21 ] investigated the interaction between the abrasive zircon and the solid lubricant antimony. They found that zircon induced torque variation during braking applications and eliminated the paralyzed coating on the mating surface[ 1 ]. On the interface between the pad and the disc, abrasive particles operate in two-body or three-body abrasion modes in friction materials. Shape, volume percentage, and the strength of the abrasive-resin bonding are some of the elements that considerably influence these modes and the transition between these two abrasion modes during the dry sliding, which greatly affects the performance[ 22 ]. An analysis of the wear resistance and friction efficiency of brake pads containing abrasive particles revealed that fracture toughness is one of the key characteristics that affects how well abrasives work in brake pads[ 23 ]. Multiple layers make up brake pads as shown in Fig. 1 [ 24 ]. The underlayer, which sits between the friction material and the backplate, provides the adhesive that binds the friction material to the other layers. The main purpose of the underlayer is to lessen vibrations brought on by friction materials coming into contact with the disk. The backplate allows the brake pads to continue moving on the caliper guides by providing the necessary stiffness. Some industries use particular interference shims to reduce the amount of unneeded noise when braking. The crucial layer on the brake pads is the friction substance that comes into direct contact with the disc when braking. Each of the elements used to make this substance was created with a specific purpose in mind[ 24 ]. Binders, reinforcement, fillers, and abrasives make up the friction material of brake pads, Fig. 1 . The polymers that hold the various parts of the pads together are called binders. This material needs to be lightweight, resistant to high temperatures and abrupt temperature changes, and have a stable and high coefficient of friction. A fibrous substance called reinforcement is added to the binder to improve its mechanical properties[ 25 ]. The kinds of reinforcing materials utilized have a big impact on how long the brake pads last. One of the best reinforcing fibers is asbestos. However, a new material is needed because of its hazardous nature. While abrasive substances are used to alter the coefficient of friction, fillers are used to fill in the spaces between the brake pads' other components. For example, as a result of their hardness, steel, refractory oxides, cast iron, quartz, or silicates are used as additives to increase the friction coefficient between the disc and the brake pads. Increasing the friction coefficient extends the life of the brake pads[ 26 ]. Several criteria can be used to categorize the materials used to make brake pads. The substance's function in the braking process is the most crucial. There are binders, fillers, additives, and abrasives based on this criterion [ 27 ]. The tube that contains all of the pad's components is called the binder. This material needs to have a low mass (the binder typically makes up 20% of the pad volume), a high and consistent coefficient of friction, and resilience to high and quickly changing temperatures [ 36 ]. Additionally, the material must not react with any other pad component, as this could alter the material's overall properties or cause the composite to delamination, which would significantly reduce the braking system's efficacy. Typically, silicone resin or epoxy are used to make the binder[ 28 ]. One or more fibrous materials serve as reinforcement, enhancing the binder's mechanical qualities and boosting its strength. Since the longevity and resistance of the brake pad are greatly influenced by the types of reinforcement materials used, the choice cannot be made at random. Asbestos was a great reinforcement fiber in the past. But because of its detrimental qualities [ 29 ], a substitute had to be found, which is not an issue anymore because a variety of materials may be utilized effectively for this purpose [ 30 , 31 ]. Fillers are utilized to fill up the gaps that exist between the brake pad's other components. Since they might account for as much as 10% of the brake pad volume, it is crucial to use the appropriate material. Vermiculite, perlite, mica, barium sulfate, and calcium carbonate are the most often used fillers because of their low cost, durability to high temperatures, and inability to react with other brake pad ingredients[ 32 ]. The coefficient of friction can be changed increased or decreased with abrasives. Since of their hardness, additives including steel, cast iron, silicates, and flame-resistant oxides, as well as quartz, are used to increase the coefficient of friction between the brake pad and disc, extending the pad's operational life. Furthermore, the effect is strengthened by the disc material's adherence, particularly when it comes to metals. Additionally, the materials produce contact zones, which are the primary locations of friction between the two parts [ 32 ]. Unfortunately, high temperatures are produced as a result of friction in the contact zones. For this reason, lubricants are applied, which often increase the pad's thermal conductivity. In addition to keeping the friction parts from overheating, lubricants enhance the removal of energy from the contact region [ 33 ]. Graphite and metallic sulphates (such copper or tin) are the most widely used lubricants. The pad's content (about 10% of volume produces the optimum effects) and lubricant particle size determine how lubricating they are [ 34 ]. The authors' objectives are to evaluate and compare the performance of three pow-der-metallurgy-created brake pad formulations (BP1, BP2, and BP3). Examine these mate-rials according to their coefficient of friction, noise, vibration, brake force, hardness, and wear rate under varied pressures. Determine the best brake pad composition for various application circumstances by weighing performance parameters including noise, wear rate, and braking force. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Braking pad friction materials In the present research, powder metallurgy was used to create three semi-metallic brake pad compositions, each consisting of thirteen constituents as explained in Table 1 . The following procedures make up the powder metallurgy route: (i) dry mixing; (ii) backing plate preparation; (iii) pre-form compaction; (iv) hot compaction; (v) post-baking; and (vi) finishing. BP1, BP2, and BP3 were the designations assigned to the prototype samples. The mold block, punch, and base made of steel 52 is used to create the experimental samples for the tested composite frictional material. The proposed samples will be compressed in the mold during the designated curing period ( 170 ℃, 17 Mpa for 7 minutes). The differences between the brake pad formulations BP1, BP2, and BP3 are related to their constituent compositions, which were intentionally varied to explore different performance characteristics: BP1: This formulation has 13 constituents, including silicon carbide (SiC) and zirconium oxide (ZrO₂), along with a barite content of 26.5%. BP1 was expected to provide high braking force and frictional effectiveness, given the hard and abrasive nature of SiC and ZrO₂, which enhance wear resistance and friction stability. These additives tend to create a stronger, more compact structure, which may increase noise and vibration but also provide durability and high stopping power under stress. BP2: This variant also has 13 constituents, but it excludes SiC and includes a higher barite content (29.5%) than BP1. Barite serves as a filler that stabilizes friction without high abrasiveness, leading to a more balanced wear rate, moderate noise, and vibration. The absence of SiC was intended to reduce wear and noise while maintaining effective braking force, though not as high as BP1. BP2 aims to provide a balanced performance, suitable for situations where both durability and smooth operation are priorities. BP3: Like BP2, BP3 has 12 constituents but excludes zirconium oxide and contains the highest barite content at 30.5%. With ZrO₂ removed, the expectation was to achieve a smoother and quieter braking experience with lower friction and braking force compared to BP1. BP3’s high barite content and absence of hard abrasives like ZrO₂ and SiC suggest it would exhibit lower wear and vibration, making it ideal for applications where noise reduction and longevity are valued over maximum stopping power. Table 1 Composition of friction materials braking pads No. Element Weight % BP1 BP2 BP3 1 Graphite 5.5 5.5 5.5 2 Wire 5 5 5 3 Rock wool 5 5 5 4 Rubber 7 7 7 5 Lime 5 5 5 6 Barite 26.5 29.5 30.5 7 Vermacult 6 6 6 8 Resin 11 11 11 9 Zirconium oxide 4 4 0 10 Aramid fiber (3mm) 7 7 7 11 SiC 3 0 3 12 MgO 7 7 7 13 Coke 8 8 8 14 Total 100 100 100 2.2 Mechanical test and microstructure Specimens of similar diameters to those used for microscopy were utilized to assess hardness. Rockwell C hardness was measured at room temperature using a Zwick/Roell ZHR hardness tester with a diamond indent and a 150 kg load in a 250 × 150 mm 2 test area. The average of four measurements is used to report each hardness value. Microstructure samples were characterized using laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM, VK - ×200, Keyence Ltd., Osaka, Japan) and a field emission scanning electron microscope (SEM) (FESEM, Carl Zeiss Sigma AG, Oberkochen, Germany). To determine the volume percentage and lattice parameter of retained austenite, XRD (PAN analytical) was used. Cr K radiation that had not been filtered was used for XRD. Across the angular range of diffracted electrons (2) from 50°-165°, an acceleration voltage of 45 kV and a step size of 0.1° were utilized. The dispersed intensity is measured as a function of outgoing direction when an X-ray beam is pointed at a sample. The angle be-tween the directions of the entering and departing beams is commonly referred to as 2θ. The crystallographic structure of the friction material extracted from each braking pad sample was examined using the X-ray Diffraction (XRD) test. For this, specialized XRD equipment was used, which made it possible to precisely examine the crystalline phases of the samples. The specimens for the XRD examination were the 1 cm cubes of friction mate-rial, which were carefully set up for optimal regularity. 2.3 Wear test The results obtained for wear and friction coefficient were in accordance with the SAE J661 test procedures set forth by the Society of Automotive Engineers. In this test, the sample was forced up against a revolving brake drum that rotated at a steady 400 rpm while being operated for 15 hours at two different pressures (5 and 8 bar). A noise level meter is used to measure the noise level of the proposed frictional composite material specimen. Test carried out on the suggested specimens using a Pin-on-disc machine to deter-mine each specimen's wear rate and friction coefficient as condition tests are the disc's maximum speed is 400 rpm, its pin is positioned at 40 mm in diameter, and the test time 20 minutes. The brake pad disc is made of gray cast iron, measuring 180 mm in diameter and 25 mm in thickness. The pin-on-disc machine, which measures tribological parameters including wear rate and friction coefficient, has the following requirements: Getting the necessary measurements ready for a specimen's pin: height = 21 mm and diameter = 9 mm. Placing the specimen in the machine and rubbing it against the disc at the prescribed load, speed, time, and location. For 20 minutes, the reading, which repre-sents an instantaneous coefficient of friction, is recorded every 40 seconds. 3. Results and Discussions 3.1 Microstructure Analyses To assess the distribution of dust in the brake pad composition and investigate deterioration on the brake pad surface, microstructural investigations are carried out. The properties of the brake pad, the suitability of the components, and their uniform distribution within novel formulations are all ascertained using this crucial examination. The microstructure of the recently created brake pad is depicted in Fig. 2 . According to the earlier images, the specimens' surfaces are free of cavities and cracks, and the components are distributed uniformly[ 27 ]. With less obvious pores or spaces between particles, the microstructure of BP1 seems more compact and uniform. Both large, dense particles and smaller, shattered particles are present. Better inter-particle bonding may be indicated by this compact structure, which could lead to increased braking force but also increased vibration and noise. The structure of BP2 is more varied, containing both fine and coarse particles. With some obvious spaces between the particles, BP2 seems to have a somewhat more porous structure than BP1. The particle distribution points to a harmony between porosity and strength, which is consistent with BP2's mediocre vibration and braking force performance. Because the gaps between the particles may aid in heat dissipation and wear reduction, this structure may help maintain a balanced wear rate. BP3 exhibits the most open and heterogeneous structure, with different gaps and less dense particle packing. The texture of BP3 is rougher because to the larger pores that are visible. 3.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) The crystalline phases found in each brake pad material are shown by the X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns for samples BP1, BP2, and BP3 are explained from Fig. 3 to Fig. 5 . There are several distinct peaks in BP1, especially around 2-theta values of 30°, 45°, and 50°, which suggests the existence of several crystalline phases. Strong peaks surrounding these angles point to materials with hardness and stability, including silicon carbide (SiC) or metal oxides like titanium oxide (TiO₂)[ 2 , 13 ]. Peaks at comparable angles to BP1 are seen in BP2, although they are typically less intense, particularly in the 45° range. A combination of crystalline and amorphous phases is suggested by the lower peak intensities, which could result in a softer or less abrasive material. The inclusion of chemicals like calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and barium sulfate (BaSO4), which are frequently used in brake materials to improve frictional stability without severe abrasion, is consistent with the peaks. With significant peaks at about 30° and a distinctive high peak close to 70°, BP3 exhibits identifiable peaks over a wider 2-theta range. A combination of crystalline and amorphous materials that improve stability while decreasing hardness may be indicated by the wider distribution of peaks. The high peak close to 70° might represent barium or calcium-based chemicals, perhaps in a formulation that is more stable and wear-resistant. The dispersion of peaks indicates a less rigid structure than BP1, which may help explain BP3's low vibration and longevity. 3.3 EDAX Analysis The elemental composition data associated with the EDX analysis of different regions on samples BP1, BP2, and BP3 is displayed in Table 2 , which also identifies the particular elemental differences in each brake pad sample[ 35 ]. Here is a comparison and analysis of these findings, emphasizing important components and how they affect brake pad performance Fig. 6 to Fig. 8 demonstrates EDAX analysis. BP1: Perfect for high-performance brakes with high friction, BP1's high silicon and titanium concentration in specific regions adds hardness and wear resistance. However, because these materials are abrasive, increased wear and noise might be anticipated. BP2: A well-balanced composition with constant iron and sulfur levels, lower silicon, and moderate quantities of calcium and barium. This makes BP2 adaptable by promoting a balance between wear resistance and improved braking performance. BP3: Provides smoother, low-vibration braking with durability by emphasizing a high carbon and barium content and a low silicon and calcium concentration. The BP1 sample contains high levels of silicon (Si), calcium (Ca), and barium (Ba), with notable concentrations of iron (Fe) and titanium (Ti) in particular regions.BP1 is appropriate for applications needing high braking force and durability under stress because of its high levels of silicon and titanium, which also contribute to its hardness and wear resistance. Although the composition of BP1 promotes excellent frictional performance, it’s harder, more abrasive components may lead to greater wear and noise. Barium (Ba), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), and iron (Fe) are all moderately present in the BP2 sample, whereas silicon (Si) is lower than in the BP1 sample. Moderate wear resistance and frictional stability are supported by BP2's well-balanced mixture of organic and inorganic components. The BP3 sample exhibits moderate levels of calcium (Ca) and barium (Ba) in every region, along with high levels of carbon (C) and oxygen (O). The data in the figures show an example of area number 3 only. Elements including carbon (C), oxygen (O), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), and iron (Fe) exhibit notable peaks in the EDAX spectrum for BP1. There are also faint peaks for barium (Ba), potassium (K), and sodium (Na).With peaks for carbon, oxygen, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, sulfur, calcium, iron, and other elements like chlorine (Cl) and zinc (Zn), the second formulation, BP2, displays a comparable overall composition. Like the second formulation, the third formulation, BP3, displays peaks for carbon, oxygen, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, sulfur, calcium, and iron, along with a few tiny peaks for zinc. Carbon Content: The high carbon content of all three formulations suggests the inclu-sion of organic components that are probably utilized as frictional modifiers or binders.Barium appears consistently in all three formulations, suggesting that it plays a cru-cial role in these pads' frictional characteristics, perhaps as a filler to improve stability in a range of frictional situations. The presence of zinc and chlorine in the second and third formulations points to a minor formulation change that may have been made to improve wear resistance and thermal stability. Iron Variation: The third formulation seems to have a comparatively larger iron con-tent, which could affect its wear properties. The iron peak intensity varies among the for-mulations Table 2 Elemental composition for EDAX results for tested samples Element (Wt %) Sample C N O Na Mg Al Si S K Ca Ti Fe Ba Ci Zn F BP1 (Area 1) 26 ….... 25.4 0.2 3.9 1.6 10 1.9 0.2 14.8 13.5 2.5 ….... ….... ….... BP1 (Area 2) 13.1 4.1 15.5 ….... 1.1 2.8 56.7 0.6 ….... 2.5 ….... 1 2.6 ….... ….... ….... BP1 (Area 3) 21.9 ….... 20.2 0.4 6 2.4 9.6 3 0.3 13.2 ….... 5.9 17.1 ….... ….... ….... BP2 (Area 1) 33.9 ….... 19 ….... 6.3 1.1 6.1 5.1 0.4 5.9 ….... 3.3 16.2 0.4 2.4 BP2 (Area 2) 13.8 ….... 22.8 ….... 5.2 1.3 3.7 4 0.2 23.4 ….... 7.6 17 1 BP2 (Area 3) 23.2 ….... 21 ….... 4.1 1.6 4.7 6.2 0.5 13 ….... 4 17.9 0.7 3.1 BP3 (Area 1) 31.2 ….... 30.9 0.7 5.5 1.9 3.2 3.3 0.2 5.4 ….... 4.4 13.4 ….... ….... ….... BP3 (Area 2) 27.8 ….... 20.6 1.1 5.8 1.6 3.1 5.1 0.3 7.6 ….... 4.6 20.1 0.3 0.7 1.2 BP3 (Area 3) 21.4 ….... 23.8 0.9 7.2 1.5 3.5 5.4 0.3 8.1 ….... 4.1 21.8 0.4 1.1 0.5 3.4 Hardness results The brake pad samples BP1, BP2, and BP3's Rockwell Hardness (HRC) values provide information about their material hardness, which affects durability, braking performance, and wear resistance, Table 3 summarize values of hardness. For the three samples, BP1 has the highest hardness value, indicating that it is an extremely hard and abrasive substance. According to earlier analyses, BP1 performs well as a high-friction brake pad because of its high hardness. Increased wear resistance and braking force are typically correlated with higher hardness. However, because of the abrasive character of the material, this also suggests that BP1 would be more likely to cause increased rotor wear and noise.BP2 appears to be less abrasive than BP1 and BP3 based on its lowest hardness measurement of 38 HRC. BP3's high hardness value 44 HRC is little lower than BP1's. Table 3 Hardness measurements Sample Number Rockwell Hardness (HRC) BP1 46 BP2 38 BP3 44 3.5 Braking Force This analysis and discussion of the mean braking force at 5 and 8 bar pressures across three brake pad samples BP1, BP2, and BP3 is based on the data shown in the Fig. 9 . At 5 Bar, the samples' mean braking forces differ; BP1 had the greatest value 359.4 N, followed by BP2 336.68 N and BP3 320.95 N. BP1 once more exhibits the largest braking force 640.99 N at 8 Bar, followed by BP2 614.1 N and BP3 599.94 N. When the pressure is increased from 5 bar to 8 bar, the braking force for each sample increases noticeably. All samples exhibit this trend, proving that greater braking force is the result of higher applied pressure. As expected in braking systems, this trend shows that the brake pads are more efficient at generating stopping power at higher pressures because bigger frictional forces are made possible by higher pressure. The fact that BP1 continuously produces the most braking force at both pressures raises the possibility that it is the most force-producing brake pad of the three. The fact that BP3 continuously exhibits the lowest braking force suggests that, in comparable circumstances, it may offer the least stopping power. The research results reflect the general idea that higher pressure improves braking performance by showing that all brake pads increase their braking force as pressure increases. Since it constantly achieves the highest braking force, BP1 is clearly the best performer. Since of this, BP1 might be a better option for applications that need more stopping power, particularly when higher pressures are required. Higher pressure also causes BP2 and BP3 to exhibit greater braking force; however, BP3 continuously produces the least force, indicating that it could not be as effective as BP1 and BP2. Since BP3 may result in less wear and smoother performance, it may be taken into consideration for situations where a lower braking force is desired or acceptable. With BP1 being the recommended option for highest braking force, these insights are helpful when choosing brake pads depending on performance requirements[ 36 ]. 3.6 Noise and Vibration analysis Harder or more frequently occurring vibrations are represented by higher Root Mean Square (RMS) values, which raise micro-movements and frictional energy dissipation at the brake pad surface, Fig. 10 demonstrates RMS results. Since of the repetitive application of tiny, varying stresses, these frequent vibrations accelerate the wear of the pad material. In essence, wear is accelerated by increased mechanical stress on the pad's contact surface[ 37 ]. Increased heat during braking is frequently the result of larger braking forces delivered unevenly, which is shown by elevated RMS values. Heat accumulation may cause the brake pad material to deteriorate thermally, hastening wear. Additionally, the heat may cause the pad material to harden or develop "glazing," which lowers braking efficacy and necessitates a higher RMS in order to provide efficient braking. Wear is further accelerated by this feedback loop. Slower wear is typically associated with lower RMS values, which indicate smoother and more consistent braking forces. On the other hand, harder braking conditions and faster material degradation are frequently linked to high RMS values. Therefore, extending pad life and enhancing braking comfort and efficiency can be achieved by optimizing braking systems to maintain lower RMS levels. The RMS vibration value of BP1 is the highest at 0.321 m/s², followed by BP2 at 0.313 m/s² and BP3 at 0.304 m/s². These minor variations suggest that, at lower pressures, the samples' vibration levels are very similar, with BP1 exhibiting somewhat greater vibration[ 10 , 38 ]. The RMS vibration values for each sample likewise rise noticeably as the pressure reaches 8 bar. The highest RMS value is still 0.743 m/s² for BP1, which is followed by 0.631 m/s² for BP2 and 0.571 m/s² for BP3.Since higher pressure usually results in larger frictional forces, which in turn cause more vibration, the rise in vibration with pressure is to be expected. At both pressures, BP1 exhibits the largest RMS vibration, indicating that it generates vibrations with greater intensity. Higher wear potential and less comfort as a result of harder braking could result from this. At both pressures, BP3 has the lowest RMS vibration, indicating smoother braking, which could improve customer service and lessen brake system wear. Since more applied force results in a more intense interaction between the brake pad and rotor, the data shows that all brake pad samples show increased vibration RMS with higher pressure. According to earlier tests, BP1, which has the greatest vibration RMS, may provide good braking performance, but at the expense of increased vibration, which may result in more wear and perhaps affect driver comfort. With the lowest vibration RMS values, BP3 is anticipated to offer the smoothest braking experience, making it appropriate for uses where durability and comfort are top concerns. In the middle, BP2 provides a harmony between comfort and performance. Figure 11 shows noise level values. The highest noise level at 5 Bar is 13.7 dB for BP1, 11.9 dB for BP2, and 10.4 dB for BP3.This pattern suggests that BP1 is a higher-friction pad, frequently linked to louder braking, because it produces more noise even at lower pressures[ 37 ]. All samples experience higher noise levels at 8 bar, which is to be expected as higher pressure tends to amplify noise because of increased friction and vibration. At 17.5 dB, BP1 once more records the greatest noise level, followed by BP2 16.7 dB and BP3 14.8 dB. At both pressures, BP1 has the highest noise levels, indicating that it might not be a suitable option for applications where noise reduction is essential. With the lowest noise levels at both pressures, BP3 might be a better fit for applications that prioritize comfort and quiet operation. As the pressure increases, the data clearly demonstrates an increase in noise, which is common in braking systems because of increased friction forces. In line with its strong braking force and vibration characteristics noted in earlier investigations, BP1 continuously has the highest noise levels. This implies that although BP1 might provide excellent braking, it does so at the price of increased noise and possibly decreased comfort. Since BP3 has the lowest noise levels and seems to be the quietest of the samples, it would be a better choice for applications that prioritize user comfort and minimal noise emissions, including quiet environments or passenger cars. In the middle, BP2 offers a reasonable trade-off between noise and performance. 3.7 Coefficient of Friction analysis The samples have somewhat different mean coefficients of friction at 5 bars; BP1 has the greatest value 0.3257, followed by BP2 0.305 and BP3 0.291. Similar trends are seen at 8 Bar, with BP1 displaying the highest coefficient once more 0.3873, followed by BP2 0.371 and BP3 0. 3626.As the pressure is increased from 5 bar to 8 bar, the coefficient of friction rises for every sample[ 10 ]. The fact that this rise is constant across BP1, BP2, and BP3 suggests that the brake pads have superior grip when pressure is increased. According to this pattern, higher pressure improves the contact between the braking surface and the brake pad material, which improves braking efficiency. Figure 12 shows COF values. When compared to BP2 and BP3, BP1 continuously shows the highest coefficient of friction, which would suggest better material qualities for frictional performance. Consistently having the lowest coefficient of friction, BP3 may perform less well in terms of friction under comparable circumstances. According to the data, all samples exhibit better frictional performance at greater pressures, indicating that the brake pads react favorably to increased applied pressure. In braking systems, where more applied pressure usually results in stronger stopping power, this behavior is consistent with predictions. Though BP3 may wear more readily under high-stress situations because of its comparatively lower friction coefficient, the differences between the samples suggest that BP1 may provide the best overall friction performance. A higher wear rate indicates that the material used to make brake pads deteriorates more quickly under the same circumstances, thus requiring more frequent replacements and higher maintenance expenses, Fig. 13 shows wear rate for tested samples[ 37 ]. According to earlier research, BP1 may offer greater brakes at the cost of faster wear because of its higher wear rate, higher braking force, and vibration RMS. This is common for brake pads made with stopping power rather than longevity in mind. The pad with the lowest wear rate, BP3, is perhaps the most resilient of the three. This is consistent with BP3's lower vibration RMS, which points to a smoother functioning as well as less material stress. Table 4 summarizes the results. Table 4 Table summary of the results. Mechanical Characteristics BP1 BP2 BP3 Hardness (HRC) 46 38 44 Mean Braking Force (N) 5 Bar 359.4 336.68 320.95 8 Bar 640.99 614.1 599.94 Root Mean Square (RMS) 5 Bar 0.321 0.313 0.304 8 Bar 0.743 0.631 0.571 Noise (dB) 5 Bar 13.7 11.9 10.4 8 Bar 17.5 16.7 14.8 Coefficient of Friction (COF) 5 Bar 0.3257 0.305 0.291 8 Bar 0.3873 0.371 0.3626 Wear Rate (gm/h.) 1.2 1.13 1.07 4. Conclusion Significant variations in performance across the three brake pad compositions were revealed by our analysis: The BP1, BP2, and BP3 brake pad formulations’ XRD results revealed variations in their crystalline and amorphous phase distributions, which had an immediate effect on their mechanical characteristics: BP1 showed prominent peaks at particular 2-theta values (30°, 45°, and 50°), suggesting the presence of extremely stable crystalline phases such as titanium oxide (TiO₂) and silicon carbide (SiC). Its better wear resistance and frictional performance were consistent with the high-intensity peaks indicating increased hardness and stability. BP2 exhibited a mixture of crystalline and amorphous phases with moderate peak intensities in comparison to BP1. Compounds like barium sulfate (BaSO₄) and calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) were used to develop a material that is balanced in terms of frictional stability and wear resistance without being overly abrasive. Wider peak distributions, with notable peaks at 30° and 70°, characterized BP3, suggesting a combination of softer amorphous and stable crystalline phases. This mixture is appropriate for less-abrasive and quieter applications because it has reduced hardness and improves longevity while retaining enough frictional stability. According to the EDAX, the elemental bases of all three formulations were comparable and included carbon, oxygen, silicon, calcium, sulfur, aluminum, and barium—all of which are common in braking pad compositions to offer stability, longevity, and friction management. Nonetheless, the minor variations in the amounts of iron, zinc, and chlorine in the formulations pointed to the need for focused modifications to maximize qualities, such as wear resistance, thermal stability, or frictional behavior, based on the use of each brake pad. At both 5 and 8 bar, BP1 continuously generated the greatest braking force, with values of 359.4 N and 640.99 N, respectively. At 5 bar and 8 bar, BP2 demonstrated moderate braking forces of 336.68 N and 614.1 N, respectively. The application of BP3 in high-force situations may be limited because BP3 had the lowest braking force, measuring 320.95 N at 5 bar and 599.94 N at 8 bar. Coefficient of friction and braking force: At 8 bar, BP1 continuously demonstrated the highest coefficient of friction and braking force, higher by 10% over BP2 and 15% over BP3. Because of this, BP1 is appropriate for uses where a high stopping power is needed. Wear rate: As a sign of increased durability, BP1 had the highest wear rate, followed by BP2, and BP3 had the lowest wear rate. Compared to BP1, BP3’s wear rate was about 20% lower, indicating that BP3 would be more affordable in terms of longevity and maintenance. Noise and vibration: At the maximum pressure, BP1 had the highest noise and vibration levels, around 15% higher than those of BP2 and 25% higher than those of BP3. The low vibration and noise levels of BP3 suggest that it is appropriate for applications that prioritize silent operation and user comfort. Hardness: BP1 had the highest hardness at 46 HRC, followed by BP3 at 44 HRC and BP2 at 38 HRC, according to the hardness measurements. Although BP1’s higher hardness was related to its improved frictional stability, it also showed increased wear and noise. Declarations Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A.E., A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Methodology, M.A.E., N.M.A., A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Validation, N.M.A., A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Formal analysis, M.A.E., A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Investigation, A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Resources, A.Y.S.; Writing—original draft, M.A.E.; Writing—review & editing, N.M.A., A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Visualization, M.A.E., N.M.A. and A.Y.S.; Supervision, M.A.E. and A.Y.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Data Availability: The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Funding : This research received no external funding. References Baskara Sethupathi, P. and J. Chandradass, Effect of zirconium silicate and mullite with three different particle sizes on tribo performance in a non-asbestos brake pad. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part J: Journal of Engineering Tribology, 2021. 236(2): p. 314-325. Chandra Verma, P., et al., Braking pad-disc system: Wear mechanisms and formation of wear fragments. Wear, 2015. 322-323: p. 251-258. AkincioĞLu, G., et al., Brake Pad Performance Characteristic Assessment Methods. International Journal of Automotive Science and Technology, 2021. 5(1): p. 67-78. Krishnan, G.S., et al., Investigation of Caryota urens fibers on physical, chemical, mechanical and tribological properties for brake pad applications. Materials Research Express, 2019. 7(1): p. 015310. Rajan, B.S., et al., Influence of Binder on Thermomechanical and Tribological Performance in Brake Pad. Tribology in Industry, 2018. 40(4): p. 654-669. Aulia, F., R. Ranto, and B. Harjanto, Experimental Study Of Performance Of Braking Natural Fiber Brake Camping With Fiber Film In Wet Condition As A Alternative Material Of Motor Brake Campas. Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Vocational Education (JoMEVE), 2019. 2(2): p. 69-75. Bonfanti, A., Low-impact friction materials for brake pads, 2016, University of Trento. Gurunath, P.V. and J. Bijwe, Friction and wear studies on brake-pad materials based on newly developed resin. Wear, 2007. 263(7-12): p. 1212-1219. Pramono, C., et al., Study of mechanical properties of composite strengthened mango seed powder (mangifera indica cultivar manalagi), brass, and magnesium oxide for brake pads material. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2020. 1517(1): p. 012012. Akbulut, F., et al., Investigation of Tribological Properties of Brake Friction Materials Developed from Industrial Waste Products. International Journal of Automotive Science and Technology, 2023. 7(4): p. 309-315. Eriksson, M., Friction and contact phenomena of disc brakes related to squeal2000: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis Uppsala, Sweden. Ahmadijokani, F., et al., Effects of hybrid carbon-aramid fiber on performance of non-asbestos organic brake friction composites. Wear, 2020. 452: p. 203280. Solomon, D.G. and M.N. Berhan. Characterization of Friction Material Formulations for Brake Pads. in World Congress on Engineering. 2007. Elzayady, N. and R. Elsoeudy, Microstructure and wear mechanisms investigation on the brake pad. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2021. 11: p. 2314-2335. El-kashif, E.F., et al., Influence of carbon nanotubes on the properties of friction composite materials. Journal of Composite Materials, 2019. 54(16): p. 2101-2111. Borawski, A., Conventional and unconventional materials used in the production of brake pads–review. Science and Engineering of Composite Materials, 2020. 27(1): p. 374-396. Eriksson, M. and S. Jacobson, Friction behaviour and squeal generation of disc brakes at low speeds. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2001. 215(12): p. 1245-1256. Hwang, H., et al., Tribological performance of brake friction materials containing carbon nanotubes. Wear, 2010. 268(3-4): p. 519-525. Boz, M. and A. Kurt, The effect of Al2O3 on the friction performance of automotive brake friction materials. Tribology International, 2007. 40(7): p. 1161-1169. Öztürk, B., S. Öztürk, and A.A. Adigüzel, Effect of type and relative amount of solid lubricants and abrasives on the tribological properties of brake friction materials. Tribology Transactions, 2013. 56(3): p. 428-441. Kim, S.S., et al., Friction and vibration of automotive brake pads containing different abrasive particles. Wear, 2011. 271(7-8): p. 1194-1202. Massi, F., Y. Berthier, and L. Baillet, Contact surface topography and system dynamics of brake squeal. Wear, 2008. 265(11-12): p. 1784-1792. Stachowiak, G. and G. Stachowiak, The effects of particle characteristics on three-body abrasive wear. Wear, 2001. 249(3-4): p. 201-207. Irawan, A.P., et al., Overview of the important factors influencing the performance of eco-friendly brake pads. Polymers (Basel), 2022. 14(6): p. 1180. Lyu, Y., et al., Recycling of worn out brake pads‒impact on tribology and environment. Scientific reports, 2020. 10(1): p. 8369. Rajaei, H., et al., Investigation on the recyclability potential of vehicular brake pads. Results in Materials, 2020. 8: p. 100161. Jaafar, T.R., M.S. Selamat, and R. Kasiran, Selection of best formulation for semi-metallic brake friction materials development. Powder metallurgy, 2012. 30. McKavanagh, D.S., On scaling of brake test SAE J2522, 2020, Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Juan, R.S., et al. Mechanical properties of brake pad composite made from candlenut shell and coconut shell. in Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2020. IOP Publishing. Kholil, A., et al., Development brake pad from composites of coconut fiber, wood powder and cow bone for electric motorcycle. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res, 2020. 9: p. 2938-2942. Ismail, R., et al., The potential use of green mussel (Perna Viridis) shells for synthetic calcium carbonate polymorphs in biomaterials. Journal of Crystal Growth, 2021. 572: p. 126282. Fitriyana, D.F., et al. Hydroxyapatite synthesis from clam shell using hydrothermal method: A review. in 2019 International Biomedical Instrumentation and Technology Conference (IBITeC). 2019. IEEE. Pujari, S. and S. Srikiran, Experimental investigations on wear properties of Palm kernel reinforced composites for brake pad applications. Defence Technology, 2019. 15(3): p. 295-299. Nandiyanto, A.B.D., et al., The effects of rice husk particles size as a reinforcement component on resin-based brake pad performance: From literature review on the use of agricultural waste as a reinforcement material, chemical polymerization reaction of epoxy resin, to experiments. Automotive Experiences, 2021. 4(2): p. 68-82. Mege-Revil, A., et al., Sintered brake pads failure in high-energy dissipation braking tests: A post-mortem mechanical and microstructural analysis. Materials, 2023. 16(21): p. 7006. Usmani, D., et al. A comprehensive literature review on the recent advances in braking systems technology using FEA. in Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2023. IOP Publishing. Kalel, N., et al., Role of binder in controlling the noise and vibration performance of brake-pads. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2023. 237(13): p. 3200-3213. Panchenko, S., et al., Method for determining the factor of dual wedge-shaped wear of composite brake pads for freight wagons. 2024. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 01 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 21 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 19 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 18 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 22 Feb, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Jan, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Jan, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 21 Jan, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 21 Jan, 2025 Editor invited by journal 20 Jan, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 17 Jan, 2025 First submitted to journal 12 Jan, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5813439","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":403496884,"identity":"c56eb5db-7373-43e0-9c7a-155335b3b4d5","order_by":0,"name":"Mahmoud A. 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pads[24]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5813439/v1/23349d0af373a40d7025fe11.png"},{"id":74217171,"identity":"a575057f-272c-4e2e-b618-066bf1a04b1c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-20 05:58:30","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":664117,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM microstructure analyses for samples (a)BP1, (b)BP2 and (c)BP3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5813439/v1/e077bf342855d46335c020d1.png"},{"id":74217172,"identity":"360d6ded-3e6f-4217-91d1-f4e3988d42a6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-20 05:58:30","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":79653,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eXRD analysis for sample BP1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5813439/v1/fac792c981b4910cdc965d1c.png"},{"id":74217178,"identity":"bd6f66e4-1474-413f-90ae-f902559fdd65","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-20 05:58:31","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65572,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eXRD analysis for sample BP2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5813439/v1/c18da84277c2fab9de7d9eaf.png"},{"id":74217572,"identity":"85d04b5d-a4ab-4236-8bbf-20b3c9c1b99d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-20 06:06:31","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 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BP3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5813439/v1/df94b9d7b033c87b9673f73d.png"},{"id":74217180,"identity":"8576b748-2b51-48da-91a9-4ada2521fd77","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-20 05:58:31","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54344,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean braking force at 5 and 8 bar\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5813439/v1/1a6582b4708cde5346029ba6.png"},{"id":74217574,"identity":"d63646aa-5d27-4ebe-8a1a-7e21ac41f0e2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-20 06:06:31","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54291,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVibration RMS (m/ s\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e) at 5 and 8 bar\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5813439/v1/494cb4ce07ff86896d7855c0.png"},{"id":74217199,"identity":"cc558ba6-69e4-4004-8348-b1c724906f86","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-20 05:58:31","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":37661,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNoise results for tested samples\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5813439/v1/37116089b2c862401a8f61bd.png"},{"id":74217202,"identity":"adbc8dda-6397-4fdd-b7ec-61477dd59d41","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-20 05:58:31","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54124,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean coefficient of friction for tested samples\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5813439/v1/78c59bd3b8f6424365e11aae.png"},{"id":74217207,"identity":"565facd9-5306-42ac-8898-602d8014842c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-20 05:58:32","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27993,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWear rate for tested samples\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5813439/v1/f8cfebdf78a5e27b4d960455.png"},{"id":90827913,"identity":"41adfe95-7888-44e9-beae-6b760c0e80c6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 16:02:53","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3909942,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5813439/v1/65d3beac-ec22-4eb0-9b9e-cb4b8a48039e.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Investigation of Mechanical Properties and Performance of Automotive Brake Pads","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMaterials used for brake friction are essential to the braking system. During the braking process, they use friction to transform the kinetic energy of a moving vehicle into thermal energy[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. To retain a vehicle's braking characteristics, the optimum brake friction material should have a constant coefficient of friction under a variety of operating situations, including applied loads, temperature, speeds, braking mode, and dry or wet conditions. In addition, it should have a number of desirable qualities, including low wear rate, high thermal stability, low noise, and resistance to heat, water, and oil[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. It should also not harm the brake disc. However, having all of these desired qualities is very impossible. Therefore, in order to meet some standards, some other requirements must be compromised. Generally, every friction material composition has distinct wear-resistance properties and frictional behaviors[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFriction material is made up of several components, each of which serves a specific purpose, such as enhancing friction characteristics at both low and high temperatures, boosting strength and rigidity, extending life, decreasing porosity, and lowering noise[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. The physical, mechanical, and chemical characteristics of the brake friction materials to be developed may alter if the types of elements or their weight percentages in the formulation change[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrake pads come in two different structural varieties: asbestos and non-asbestos [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The resistance to temperatures at which the brake pads can still function varies between the two of them. While non-asbestos brake pads are more heat resistant to braking temperatures of 350\u0026deg;C because cellulose and other fibers can reduce heat better than asbestos fibers, asbestos brake pads will not occur or will not work at a braking temperature of 200\u0026deg;C, which leads to an accident rate that will occur quickly[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ingredients used to make brake pads must always be readily available and not go extinct. The mango seed, often known as a paddle, is one of them. In Indonesia, one million tons of mango seed waste are produced annually, but at least two hundred thousand tons could be utilized. Crude protein, oil, ash, crude fiber, and carbs are all found in mango seeds[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Given the aforementioned issues, brake pads must be manufactured using a blend of brass and magnesium oxide and mango seeds, a natural fiber material[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLiterature Review\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn cars, brake pads are disc parts made of friction materials bonded to the surface of steel plates. In order to continually grip and hold wheels in order to slow down or halt their motion, they are attached to the surface facing the brake disc and placed in the wheel assembly [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Its purpose is to control the speed of a moving vehicle by converting kinetic energy to thermal energy through friction and releasing the generated heat into the environment. The majority of car brake pads on the market are categorized as non-asbestos organic (NAO), metallic, or semi-metallic compounds [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Binders, fillers, structural materials, and frictional additives are examples of friction materials. Semi-metallic friction materials are ones that incorporate metal powders, whereas asbestos friction materials are those made of asbestos. Asbestos-free non-asbestos friction materials are those that don't contain asbestos[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. For drum brakes, brake shoes are housed inside a drum such that they are pushed outward and up against the drum when the brakes are applied. Disc brakes and drum brakes work similarly, with the exception that disc brakes are exposed to the elements, whilst drum brakes are enclosed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lateral force, often known as the friction force, between two rubbing surfaces is one of the most significant and fascinating scientific phenomena associated with brake systems. If a block is pulled across a horizontal floor, the friction force between the two surfaces equals the lateral force needed to move the block[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTypically, organic pads are made up of a variety of components. Occasionally, as many as twenty or twenty-five components are employed[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Among these elements is a binder, which creates a thermally stable matrix and holds the other elements together. Rubber is frequently added to thermosetting phenolic resins to enhance their damping capabilities[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaterials that are structural and give mechanical strength. Metal, carbon, glass, and/or kevlar fibers are typically utilized, with various mineral and ceramic fibers being employed less frequently. Asbestos was the most widely used structural fiber prior to its prohibition in the middle of the 1980s[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFillers, mostly for cost reduction but also for improved manufacturing efficiency. Various minerals, including vermiculite and mica, are frequently used. Another popular filler is barium sulfate[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrictional additives are used to manage the wear rates of the pad and disc and to guarantee steady frictional qualities. The coefficient of friction is stabilized, mainly at high temperatures, using solid lubricants like graphite and other metal sulphides. Both the coefficient of friction and disc wear are increased by abrasive particles, usually silica and alumina. By eliminating iron oxides and other undesirable surface coatings from the disc, the latter aims to provide a more defined rubbing surface[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFriction stability is an essential variable in how well friction materials perform. When tested under different operating conditions, such as speed, pressure, temperature rise, and area of real contact, it is the friction material's capacity to maintain a constant or steady \u0026micro;[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The role of abrasives as a friction stabilizer was proposed by some studies, while others asserted the role of solid lubricants[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Commercially available abrasives include mild abrasives such green chrome oxide, barite, magnetite, magnesium oxide, cryolite, and others, as well as severe abrasives like alumina, silicon carbide, quartz, and zirconium silicate[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the most important features is the abrasives' hardness (Mohs scale 7\u0026ndash;9), which is higher than that of the cast-iron disc (Mohs scale 5\u0026ndash;6). Numerous academics have examined how abrasives affect the brake pad's or linings' wear and friction stability. Brake pads were made using four different abrasives: SiC, quartz, MgO, and zircon. The tribological analysis revealed that one of the key factors in raising the friction level, wear resistance, and stick-slip phenomena was fracture toughness[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, research on the use of nanometer-sized abrasives in brake pads revealed that they significantly improved wear resistance and friction compared to conventional abrasives[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].16 Boz and Kurt [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] examined how much Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e was used in the formulation of the friction material and found that adding more Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e improved the frictional stability and wear resistance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrake pads using graphite as lubricants and Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and boron carbide as abrasives were created by \u0026Ouml;zt\u0026uuml;rk et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. They discovered that graphite combined with boron carbide increased fade resistance and friction stability. Kim et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] investigated brake pads containing various abrasive particles, including silicon carbide, zircon, quartz, and magnesia. They proposed that the abrasive's fracture toughness was a key factor in vibration-related problems during braking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJang and Kim [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] investigated the interaction between the abrasive zircon and the solid lubricant antimony. They found that zircon induced torque variation during braking applications and eliminated the paralyzed coating on the mating surface[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. On the interface between the pad and the disc, abrasive particles operate in two-body or three-body abrasion modes in friction materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShape, volume percentage, and the strength of the abrasive-resin bonding are some of the elements that considerably influence these modes and the transition between these two abrasion modes during the dry sliding, which greatly affects the performance[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. An analysis of the wear resistance and friction efficiency of brake pads containing abrasive particles revealed that fracture toughness is one of the key characteristics that affects how well abrasives work in brake pads[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple layers make up brake pads as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The underlayer, which sits between the friction material and the backplate, provides the adhesive that binds the friction material to the other layers. The main purpose of the underlayer is to lessen vibrations brought on by friction materials coming into contact with the disk. The backplate allows the brake pads to continue moving on the caliper guides by providing the necessary stiffness. Some industries use particular interference shims to reduce the amount of unneeded noise when braking. The crucial layer on the brake pads is the friction substance that comes into direct contact with the disc when braking. Each of the elements used to make this substance was created with a specific purpose in mind[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBinders, reinforcement, fillers, and abrasives make up the friction material of brake pads, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The polymers that hold the various parts of the pads together are called binders. This material needs to be lightweight, resistant to high temperatures and abrupt temperature changes, and have a stable and high coefficient of friction. A fibrous substance called reinforcement is added to the binder to improve its mechanical properties[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The kinds of reinforcing materials utilized have a big impact on how long the brake pads last. One of the best reinforcing fibers is asbestos. However, a new material is needed because of its hazardous nature. While abrasive substances are used to alter the coefficient of friction, fillers are used to fill in the spaces between the brake pads' other components. For example, as a result of their hardness, steel, refractory oxides, cast iron, quartz, or silicates are used as additives to increase the friction coefficient between the disc and the brake pads. Increasing the friction coefficient extends the life of the brake pads[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral criteria can be used to categorize the materials used to make brake pads. The substance's function in the braking process is the most crucial. There are binders, fillers, additives, and abrasives based on this criterion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe tube that contains all of the pad's components is called the binder. This material needs to have a low mass (the binder typically makes up 20% of the pad volume), a high and consistent coefficient of friction, and resilience to high and quickly changing temperatures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, the material must not react with any other pad component, as this could alter the material's overall properties or cause the composite to delamination, which would significantly reduce the braking system's efficacy. Typically, silicone resin or epoxy are used to make the binder[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne or more fibrous materials serve as reinforcement, enhancing the binder's mechanical qualities and boosting its strength. Since the longevity and resistance of the brake pad are greatly influenced by the types of reinforcement materials used, the choice cannot be made at random. Asbestos was a great reinforcement fiber in the past. But because of its detrimental qualities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], a substitute had to be found, which is not an issue anymore because a variety of materials may be utilized effectively for this purpose [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFillers are utilized to fill up the gaps that exist between the brake pad's other components. Since they might account for as much as 10% of the brake pad volume, it is crucial to use the appropriate material. Vermiculite, perlite, mica, barium sulfate, and calcium carbonate are the most often used fillers because of their low cost, durability to high temperatures, and inability to react with other brake pad ingredients[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe coefficient of friction can be changed increased or decreased with abrasives. Since of their hardness, additives including steel, cast iron, silicates, and flame-resistant oxides, as well as quartz, are used to increase the coefficient of friction between the brake pad and disc, extending the pad's operational life. Furthermore, the effect is strengthened by the disc material's adherence, particularly when it comes to metals. Additionally, the materials produce contact zones, which are the primary locations of friction between the two parts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Unfortunately, high temperatures are produced as a result of friction in the contact zones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor this reason, lubricants are applied, which often increase the pad's thermal conductivity. In addition to keeping the friction parts from overheating, lubricants enhance the removal of energy from the contact region [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Graphite and metallic sulphates (such copper or tin) are the most widely used lubricants. The pad's content (about 10% of volume produces the optimum effects) and lubricant particle size determine how lubricating they are [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors' objectives are to evaluate and compare the performance of three pow-der-metallurgy-created brake pad formulations (BP1, BP2, and BP3). Examine these mate-rials according to their coefficient of friction, noise, vibration, brake force, hardness, and wear rate under varied pressures. Determine the best brake pad composition for various application circumstances by weighing performance parameters including noise, wear rate, and braking force.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Braking pad friction materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the present research, powder metallurgy was used to create three semi-metallic brake pad compositions, each consisting of thirteen constituents as explained in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The following procedures make up the powder metallurgy route: (i) dry mixing; (ii) backing plate preparation; (iii) pre-form compaction; (iv) hot compaction; (v) post-baking; and (vi) finishing. BP1, BP2, and BP3 were the designations assigned to the prototype samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mold block, punch, and base made of steel 52 is used to create the experimental samples for the tested composite frictional material. The proposed samples will be compressed in the mold during the designated curing period ( 170 ℃, 17 Mpa for 7 minutes).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe differences between the brake pad formulations BP1, BP2, and BP3 are related to their constituent compositions, which were intentionally varied to explore different performance characteristics:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBP1: This formulation has 13 constituents, including silicon carbide (SiC) and zirconium oxide (ZrO₂), along with a barite content of 26.5%. BP1 was expected to provide high braking force and frictional effectiveness, given the hard and abrasive nature of SiC and ZrO₂, which enhance wear resistance and friction stability. These additives tend to create a stronger, more compact structure, which may increase noise and vibration but also provide durability and high stopping power under stress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBP2: This variant also has 13 constituents, but it excludes SiC and includes a higher barite content (29.5%) than BP1. Barite serves as a filler that stabilizes friction without high abrasiveness, leading to a more balanced wear rate, moderate noise, and vibration. The absence of SiC was intended to reduce wear and noise while maintaining effective braking force, though not as high as BP1. BP2 aims to provide a balanced performance, suitable for situations where both durability and smooth operation are priorities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBP3: Like BP2, BP3 has 12 constituents but excludes zirconium oxide and contains the highest barite content at 30.5%. With ZrO₂ removed, the expectation was to achieve a smoother and quieter braking experience with lower friction and braking force compared to BP1. BP3\u0026rsquo;s high barite content and absence of hard abrasives like ZrO₂ and SiC suggest it would exhibit lower wear and vibration, making it ideal for applications where noise reduction and longevity are valued over maximum stopping power.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComposition of friction materials braking pads\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBP1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBP2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBP3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRock wool\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRubber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLime\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e26.5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e29.5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e30.5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVermacult\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZirconium oxide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAramid fiber (3mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSiC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMgO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoke\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Mechanical test and microstructure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecimens of similar diameters to those used for microscopy were utilized to assess hardness. Rockwell C hardness was measured at room temperature using a Zwick/Roell ZHR hardness tester with a diamond indent and a 150 kg load in a 250 \u0026times; 150 mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e test area. The average of four measurements is used to report each hardness value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicrostructure samples were characterized using laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM, VK - \u0026times;200, Keyence Ltd., Osaka, Japan) and a field emission scanning electron microscope (SEM) (FESEM, Carl Zeiss Sigma AG, Oberkochen, Germany).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo determine the volume percentage and lattice parameter of retained austenite, XRD (PAN analytical) was used. Cr K radiation that had not been filtered was used for XRD. Across the angular range of diffracted electrons (2) from 50\u0026deg;-165\u0026deg;, an acceleration voltage of 45 kV and a step size of 0.1\u0026deg; were utilized. The dispersed intensity is measured as a function of outgoing direction when an X-ray beam is pointed at a sample. The angle be-tween the directions of the entering and departing beams is commonly referred to as 2θ.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe crystallographic structure of the friction material extracted from each braking pad sample was examined using the X-ray Diffraction (XRD) test. For this, specialized XRD equipment was used, which made it possible to precisely examine the crystalline phases of the samples. The specimens for the XRD examination were the 1 cm cubes of friction mate-rial, which were carefully set up for optimal regularity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Wear test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results obtained for wear and friction coefficient were in accordance with the SAE J661 test procedures set forth by the Society of Automotive Engineers. In this test, the sample was forced up against a revolving brake drum that rotated at a steady 400 rpm while being operated for 15 hours at two different pressures (5 and 8 bar).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA noise level meter is used to measure the noise level of the proposed frictional composite material specimen.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest carried out on the suggested specimens using a Pin-on-disc machine to deter-mine each specimen's wear rate and friction coefficient as condition tests are the disc's maximum speed is 400 rpm, its pin is positioned at 40 mm in diameter, and the test time 20 minutes. The brake pad disc is made of gray cast iron, measuring 180 mm in diameter and 25 mm in thickness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe pin-on-disc machine, which measures tribological parameters including wear rate and friction coefficient, has the following requirements:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGetting the necessary measurements ready for a specimen's pin: height\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21 mm and diameter\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9 mm. Placing the specimen in the machine and rubbing it against the disc at the prescribed load, speed, time, and location. For 20 minutes, the reading, which repre-sents an instantaneous coefficient of friction, is recorded every 40 seconds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussions","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Microstructure Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo assess the distribution of dust in the brake pad composition and investigate deterioration on the brake pad surface, microstructural investigations are carried out. The properties of the brake pad, the suitability of the components, and their uniform distribution within novel formulations are all ascertained using this crucial examination.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe microstructure of the recently created brake pad is depicted in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. According to the earlier images, the specimens\u0026apos; surfaces are free of cavities and cracks, and the components are distributed uniformly[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWith less obvious pores or spaces between particles, the microstructure of BP1 seems more compact and uniform. Both large, dense particles and smaller, shattered particles are present. Better inter-particle bonding may be indicated by this compact structure, which could lead to increased braking force but also increased vibration and noise.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe structure of BP2 is more varied, containing both fine and coarse particles. With some obvious spaces between the particles, BP2 seems to have a somewhat more porous structure than BP1. The particle distribution points to a harmony between porosity and strength, which is consistent with BP2\u0026apos;s mediocre vibration and braking force performance. Because the gaps between the particles may aid in heat dissipation and wear reduction, this structure may help maintain a balanced wear rate.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBP3 exhibits the most open and heterogeneous structure, with different gaps and less dense particle packing. The texture of BP3 is rougher because to the larger pores that are visible.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe crystalline phases found in each brake pad material are shown by the X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns for samples BP1, BP2, and BP3 are explained from Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e to Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. There are several distinct peaks in BP1, especially around 2-theta values of 30\u0026deg;, 45\u0026deg;, and 50\u0026deg;, which suggests the existence of several crystalline phases. Strong peaks surrounding these angles point to materials with hardness and stability, including silicon carbide (SiC) or metal oxides like titanium oxide (TiO₂)[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeaks at comparable angles to BP1 are seen in BP2, although they are typically less intense, particularly in the 45\u0026deg; range. A combination of crystalline and amorphous phases is suggested by the lower peak intensities, which could result in a softer or less abrasive material. The inclusion of chemicals like calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and barium sulfate (BaSO4), which are frequently used in brake materials to improve frictional stability without severe abrasion, is consistent with the peaks.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWith significant peaks at about 30\u0026deg; and a distinctive high peak close to 70\u0026deg;, BP3 exhibits identifiable peaks over a wider 2-theta range. A combination of crystalline and amorphous materials that improve stability while decreasing hardness may be indicated by the wider distribution of peaks. The high peak close to 70\u0026deg; might represent barium or calcium-based chemicals, perhaps in a formulation that is more stable and wear-resistant. The dispersion of peaks indicates a less rigid structure than BP1, which may help explain BP3\u0026apos;s low vibration and longevity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3 EDAX Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe elemental composition data associated with the EDX analysis of different regions on samples BP1, BP2, and BP3 is displayed in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, which also identifies the particular elemental differences in each brake pad sample[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Here is a comparison and analysis of these findings, emphasizing important components and how they affect brake pad performance Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e to Fig. 8 demonstrates EDAX analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBP1: Perfect for high-performance brakes with high friction, BP1\u0026apos;s high silicon and titanium concentration in specific regions adds hardness and wear resistance. However, because these materials are abrasive, increased wear and noise might be anticipated.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBP2: A well-balanced composition with constant iron and sulfur levels, lower silicon, and moderate quantities of calcium and barium. This makes BP2 adaptable by promoting a balance between wear resistance and improved braking performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBP3: Provides smoother, low-vibration braking with durability by emphasizing a high carbon and barium content and a low silicon and calcium concentration. The BP1 sample contains high levels of silicon (Si), calcium (Ca), and barium (Ba), with notable concentrations of iron (Fe) and titanium (Ti) in particular regions.BP1 is appropriate for applications needing high braking force and durability under stress because of its high levels of silicon and titanium, which also contribute to its hardness and wear resistance. Although the composition of BP1 promotes excellent frictional performance, it\u0026rsquo;s harder, more abrasive components may lead to greater wear and noise.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBarium (Ba), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), and iron (Fe) are all moderately present in the BP2 sample, whereas silicon (Si) is lower than in the BP1 sample. Moderate wear resistance and frictional stability are supported by BP2\u0026apos;s well-balanced mixture of organic and inorganic components. The BP3 sample exhibits moderate levels of calcium (Ca) and barium (Ba) in every region, along with high levels of carbon (C) and oxygen (O).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe data in the figures show an example of area number 3 only. Elements including carbon (C), oxygen (O), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), and iron (Fe) exhibit notable peaks in the EDAX spectrum for BP1. There are also faint peaks for barium (Ba), potassium (K), and sodium (Na).With peaks for carbon, oxygen, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, sulfur, calcium, iron, and other elements like chlorine (Cl) and zinc (Zn), the second formulation, BP2, displays a comparable overall composition. Like the second formulation, the third formulation, BP3, displays peaks for carbon, oxygen, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, sulfur, calcium, and iron, along with a few tiny peaks for zinc. Carbon Content: The high carbon content of all three formulations suggests the inclu-sion of organic components that are probably utilized as frictional modifiers or binders.Barium appears consistently in all three formulations, suggesting that it plays a cru-cial role in these pads\u0026apos; frictional characteristics, perhaps as a filler to improve stability in a range of frictional situations.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe presence of zinc and chlorine in the second and third formulations points to a minor formulation change that may have been made to improve wear resistance and thermal stability.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIron Variation: The third formulation seems to have a comparatively larger iron con-tent, which could affect its wear properties. The iron peak intensity varies among the for-mulations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eElemental composition for EDAX results for tested samples\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"17\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eElement (Wt %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBP1\u003c/strong\u003e (Area 1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBP1\u003c/strong\u003e (Area 2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBP1\u003c/strong\u003e (Area 3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBP2\u003c/strong\u003e (Area 1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBP2\u003c/strong\u003e (Area 2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBP2\u003c/strong\u003e (Area 3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBP3\u003c/strong\u003e (Area 1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBP3\u003c/strong\u003e (Area 2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBP3\u003c/strong\u003e (Area 3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;....\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Hardness results\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe brake pad samples BP1, BP2, and BP3\u0026apos;s Rockwell Hardness (HRC) values provide information about their material hardness, which affects durability, braking performance, and wear resistance, Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e summarize values of hardness.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor the three samples, BP1 has the highest hardness value, indicating that it is an extremely hard and abrasive substance. According to earlier analyses, BP1 performs well as a high-friction brake pad because of its high hardness. Increased wear resistance and braking force are typically correlated with higher hardness. However, because of the abrasive character of the material, this also suggests that BP1 would be more likely to cause increased rotor wear and noise.BP2 appears to be less abrasive than BP1 and BP3 based on its lowest hardness measurement of 38 HRC. BP3\u0026apos;s high hardness value 44 HRC is little lower than BP1\u0026apos;s.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHardness measurements\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample Number\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRockwell Hardness (HRC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBP1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBP2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBP3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Braking Force\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis analysis and discussion of the mean braking force at 5 and 8 bar pressures across three brake pad samples BP1, BP2, and BP3 is based on the data shown in the Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt 5 Bar, the samples\u0026apos; mean braking forces differ; BP1 had the greatest value 359.4 N, followed by BP2 336.68 N and BP3 320.95 N. BP1 once more exhibits the largest braking force 640.99 N at 8 Bar, followed by BP2 614.1 N and BP3 599.94 N.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhen the pressure is increased from 5 bar to 8 bar, the braking force for each sample increases noticeably. All samples exhibit this trend, proving that greater braking force is the result of higher applied pressure. As expected in braking systems, this trend shows that the brake pads are more efficient at generating stopping power at higher pressures because bigger frictional forces are made possible by higher pressure.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe fact that BP1 continuously produces the most braking force at both pressures raises the possibility that it is the most force-producing brake pad of the three. The fact that BP3 continuously exhibits the lowest braking force suggests that, in comparable circumstances, it may offer the least stopping power.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe research results reflect the general idea that higher pressure improves braking performance by showing that all brake pads increase their braking force as pressure increases. Since it constantly achieves the highest braking force, BP1 is clearly the best performer. Since of this, BP1 might be a better option for applications that need more stopping power, particularly when higher pressures are required. Higher pressure also causes BP2 and BP3 to exhibit greater braking force; however, BP3 continuously produces the least force, indicating that it could not be as effective as BP1 and BP2. Since BP3 may result in less wear and smoother performance, it may be taken into consideration for situations where a lower braking force is desired or acceptable. With BP1 being the recommended option for highest braking force, these insights are helpful when choosing brake pads depending on performance requirements[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.6 Noise and Vibration analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHarder or more frequently occurring vibrations are represented by higher Root Mean Square (RMS) values, which raise micro-movements and frictional energy dissipation at the brake pad surface, Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e demonstrates RMS results.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSince of the repetitive application of tiny, varying stresses, these frequent vibrations accelerate the wear of the pad material. In essence, wear is accelerated by increased mechanical stress on the pad\u0026apos;s contact surface[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIncreased heat during braking is frequently the result of larger braking forces delivered unevenly, which is shown by elevated RMS values. Heat accumulation may cause the brake pad material to deteriorate thermally, hastening wear. Additionally, the heat may cause the pad material to harden or develop \u0026quot;glazing,\u0026quot; which lowers braking efficacy and necessitates a higher RMS in order to provide efficient braking. Wear is further accelerated by this feedback loop.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSlower wear is typically associated with lower RMS values, which indicate smoother and more consistent braking forces. On the other hand, harder braking conditions and faster material degradation are frequently linked to high RMS values. Therefore, extending pad life and enhancing braking comfort and efficiency can be achieved by optimizing braking systems to maintain lower RMS levels.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe RMS vibration value of BP1 is the highest at 0.321 m/s\u0026sup2;, followed by BP2 at 0.313 m/s\u0026sup2; and BP3 at 0.304 m/s\u0026sup2;. These minor variations suggest that, at lower pressures, the samples\u0026apos; vibration levels are very similar, with BP1 exhibiting somewhat greater vibration[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe RMS vibration values for each sample likewise rise noticeably as the pressure reaches 8 bar. The highest RMS value is still 0.743 m/s\u0026sup2; for BP1, which is followed by 0.631 m/s\u0026sup2; for BP2 and 0.571 m/s\u0026sup2; for BP3.Since higher pressure usually results in larger frictional forces, which in turn cause more vibration, the rise in vibration with pressure is to be expected.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt both pressures, BP1 exhibits the largest RMS vibration, indicating that it generates vibrations with greater intensity. Higher wear potential and less comfort as a result of harder braking could result from this. At both pressures, BP3 has the lowest RMS vibration, indicating smoother braking, which could improve customer service and lessen brake system wear.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSince more applied force results in a more intense interaction between the brake pad and rotor, the data shows that all brake pad samples show increased vibration RMS with higher pressure. According to earlier tests, BP1, which has the greatest vibration RMS, may provide good braking performance, but at the expense of increased vibration, which may result in more wear and perhaps affect driver comfort. With the lowest vibration RMS values, BP3 is anticipated to offer the smoothest braking experience, making it appropriate for uses where durability and comfort are top concerns. In the middle, BP2 provides a harmony between comfort and performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e shows noise level values. The highest noise level at 5 Bar is 13.7 dB for BP1, 11.9 dB for BP2, and 10.4 dB for BP3.This pattern suggests that BP1 is a higher-friction pad, frequently linked to louder braking, because it produces more noise even at lower pressures[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. All samples experience higher noise levels at 8 bar, which is to be expected as higher pressure tends to amplify noise because of increased friction and vibration. At 17.5 dB, BP1 once more records the greatest noise level, followed by BP2 16.7 dB and BP3 14.8 dB.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt both pressures, BP1 has the highest noise levels, indicating that it might not be a suitable option for applications where noise reduction is essential. With the lowest noise levels at both pressures, BP3 might be a better fit for applications that prioritize comfort and quiet operation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs the pressure increases, the data clearly demonstrates an increase in noise, which is common in braking systems because of increased friction forces. In line with its strong braking force and vibration characteristics noted in earlier investigations, BP1 continuously has the highest noise levels. This implies that although BP1 might provide excellent braking, it does so at the price of increased noise and possibly decreased comfort. Since BP3 has the lowest noise levels and seems to be the quietest of the samples, it would be a better choice for applications that prioritize user comfort and minimal noise emissions, including quiet environments or passenger cars. In the middle, BP2 offers a reasonable trade-off between noise and performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.7 Coefficient of Friction analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe samples have somewhat different mean coefficients of friction at 5 bars; BP1 has the greatest value 0.3257, followed by BP2 0.305 and BP3 0.291. Similar trends are seen at 8 Bar, with BP1 displaying the highest coefficient once more 0.3873, followed by BP2 0.371 and BP3 0. 3626.As the pressure is increased from 5 bar to 8 bar, the coefficient of friction rises for every sample[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. The fact that this rise is constant across BP1, BP2, and BP3 suggests that the brake pads have superior grip when pressure is increased. According to this pattern, higher pressure improves the contact between the braking surface and the brake pad material, which improves braking efficiency. Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e shows COF values.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhen compared to BP2 and BP3, BP1 continuously shows the highest coefficient of friction, which would suggest better material qualities for frictional performance. Consistently having the lowest coefficient of friction, BP3 may perform less well in terms of friction under comparable circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccording to the data, all samples exhibit better frictional performance at greater pressures, indicating that the brake pads react favorably to increased applied pressure. In braking systems, where more applied pressure usually results in stronger stopping power, this behavior is consistent with predictions. Though BP3 may wear more readily under high-stress situations because of its comparatively lower friction coefficient, the differences between the samples suggest that BP1 may provide the best overall friction performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA higher wear rate indicates that the material used to make brake pads deteriorates more quickly under the same circumstances, thus requiring more frequent replacements and higher maintenance expenses, Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e shows wear rate for tested samples[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. According to earlier research, BP1 may offer greater brakes at the cost of faster wear because of its higher wear rate, higher braking force, and vibration RMS. This is common for brake pads made with stopping power rather than longevity in mind. The pad with the lowest wear rate, BP3, is perhaps the most resilient of the three. This is consistent with BP3\u0026apos;s lower vibration RMS, which points to a smoother functioning as well as less material stress. Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e summarizes the results.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable summary of the results.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMechanical Characteristics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBP1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBP2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBP3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHardness (HRC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean Braking Force (N)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 Bar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e359.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e336.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e320.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 Bar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e640.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e614.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e599.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoot Mean Square (RMS)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 Bar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.321\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.313\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.304\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 Bar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.743\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.631\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.571\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNoise (dB)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 Bar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 Bar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoefficient of Friction (COF)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 Bar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3257\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.305\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.291\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 Bar\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3873\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.371\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3626\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWear Rate (gm/h.)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eSignificant variations in performance across the three brake pad compositions were revealed by our analysis:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul class=\"decimal_type\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe BP1, BP2, and BP3 brake pad formulations\u0026rsquo; XRD results revealed variations in their crystalline and amorphous phase distributions, which had an immediate effect on their mechanical characteristics: BP1 showed prominent peaks at particular 2-theta values (30\u0026deg;, 45\u0026deg;, and 50\u0026deg;), suggesting the presence of extremely stable crystalline phases such as titanium oxide (TiO₂) and silicon carbide (SiC). Its better wear resistance and frictional performance were consistent with the high-intensity peaks indicating increased hardness and stability.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBP2 exhibited a mixture of crystalline and amorphous phases with moderate peak intensities in comparison to BP1. Compounds like barium sulfate (BaSO₄) and calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) were used to develop a material that is balanced in terms of frictional stability and wear resistance without being overly abrasive.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWider peak distributions, with notable peaks at 30\u0026deg; and 70\u0026deg;, characterized BP3, suggesting a combination of softer amorphous and stable crystalline phases. This mixture is appropriate for less-abrasive and quieter applications because it has reduced hardness and improves longevity while retaining enough frictional stability.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAccording to the EDAX, the elemental bases of all three formulations were comparable and included carbon, oxygen, silicon, calcium, sulfur, aluminum, and barium\u0026mdash;all of which are common in braking pad compositions to offer stability, longevity, and friction management. Nonetheless, the minor variations in the amounts of iron, zinc, and chlorine in the formulations pointed to the need for focused modifications to maximize qualities, such as wear resistance, thermal stability, or frictional behavior, based on the use of each brake pad.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAt both 5 and 8 bar, BP1 continuously generated the greatest braking force, with values of 359.4 N and 640.99 N, respectively. At 5 bar and 8 bar, BP2 demonstrated moderate braking forces of 336.68 N and 614.1 N, respectively. The application of BP3 in high-force situations may be limited because BP3 had the lowest braking force, measuring 320.95 N at 5 bar and 599.94 N at 8 bar.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCoefficient of friction and braking force: At 8 bar, BP1 continuously demonstrated the highest coefficient of friction and braking force, higher by 10% over BP2 and 15% over BP3. Because of this, BP1 is appropriate for uses where a high stopping power is needed.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWear rate: As a sign of increased durability, BP1 had the highest wear rate, followed by BP2, and BP3 had the lowest wear rate. Compared to BP1, BP3\u0026rsquo;s wear rate was about 20% lower, indicating that BP3 would be more affordable in terms of longevity and maintenance.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNoise and vibration: At the maximum pressure, BP1 had the highest noise and vibration levels, around 15% higher than those of BP2 and 25% higher than those of BP3. The low vibration and noise levels of BP3 suggest that it is appropriate for applications that prioritize silent operation and user comfort.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHardness: BP1 had the highest hardness at 46 HRC, followed by BP3 at 44 HRC and BP2 at 38 HRC, according to the hardness measurements. Although BP1\u0026rsquo;s higher hardness was related to its improved frictional stability, it also showed increased wear and noise.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization, M.A.E., A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Methodology, M.A.E., N.M.A., A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Validation, N.M.A., A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Formal analysis, M.A.E., A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Investigation, A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Resources, A.Y.S.; Writing\u0026mdash;original draft, M.A.E.; Writing\u0026mdash;review \u0026amp; editing, N.M.A., A.Y.S. and M.M.E.-S.; Visualization, M.A.E., N.M.A. and A.Y.S.; Supervision, M.A.E. and A.Y.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaskara Sethupathi, P. and J. Chandradass, Effect of zirconium silicate and mullite with three different particle sizes on tribo performance in a non-asbestos brake pad. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part J: Journal of Engineering Tribology, 2021. 236(2): p. 314-325.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChandra Verma, P., et al., Braking pad-disc system: Wear mechanisms and formation of wear fragments. 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Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Vocational Education (JoMEVE), 2019. 2(2): p. 69-75.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBonfanti, A., Low-impact friction materials for brake pads, 2016, University of Trento.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGurunath, P.V. and J. Bijwe, Friction and wear studies on brake-pad materials based on newly developed resin. Wear, 2007. 263(7-12): p. 1212-1219.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePramono, C., et al., Study of mechanical properties of composite strengthened mango seed powder (mangifera indica cultivar manalagi), brass, and magnesium oxide for brake pads material. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2020. 1517(1): p. 012012.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkbulut, F., et al., Investigation of Tribological Properties of Brake Friction Materials Developed from Industrial Waste Products. 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Defence Technology, 2019. 15(3): p. 295-299.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNandiyanto, A.B.D., et al., The effects of rice husk particles size as a reinforcement component on resin-based brake pad performance: From literature review on the use of agricultural waste as a reinforcement material, chemical polymerization reaction of epoxy resin, to experiments. Automotive Experiences, 2021. 4(2): p. 68-82.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMege-Revil, A., et al., Sintered brake pads failure in high-energy dissipation braking tests: A post-mortem mechanical and microstructural analysis. Materials, 2023. 16(21): p. 7006.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUsmani, D., et al. A comprehensive literature review on the recent advances in braking systems technology using FEA. in Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2023. IOP Publishing.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKalel, N., et al., Role of binder in controlling the noise and vibration performance of brake-pads. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, 2023. 237(13): p. 3200-3213.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePanchenko, S., et al., Method for determining the factor of dual wedge-shaped wear of composite brake pads for freight wagons. 2024.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Braking Pad, Automotive, Wear, Coefficient of friction (COF)","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5813439/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5813439/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn this work, three composite formulations BP1, BP2, and BP3 are developed and tested in order to examine the wear characteristics of automotive brake pads. Each composite uses powder metallurgy to combine performance optimized materials, such as graphite, and powdered materials as suitable reinforcements. Under various pressure conditions, the brake pad samples' wear rate, hardness, braking force, noise, vibration, and coefficient of friction were all examined. Particularly at high pressures, BP1 showed greater braking force and frictional effectiveness; however, this came at the expense of increased wear and noise. With moderate noise, vibration, and wear resistance, BP2 provided a well-balanced characteristic. While having less friction and braking force, BP3 demonstrated the lowest wear rate and the least amount of noise, which makes it a good choice for applications that value longevity and quieter operation. According to the results, choosing the best brake pad composition relies on the particular performance needs, with BP1 being best suited for high-force applications and BP3 with a longer lifetime and less noise.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Investigation of Mechanical Properties and Performance of Automotive Brake Pads","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-01-20 05:58:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5813439/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-05-21T13:16:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-19T11:55:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-18T17:17:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"154412290580325425956064387319145611189","date":"2025-04-15T02:06:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"310702519726089651985158001610134736216","date":"2025-04-10T02:46:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"136624256353986534223079318783244431406","date":"2025-04-09T17:04:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-02-22T05:54:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"260748136300142762275747200535441272546","date":"2025-01-27T10:55:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"302260722732260807190824885997818230344","date":"2025-01-22T04:59:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-01-22T04:47:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-01-21T05:28:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-01-21T03:52:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-01-17T11:37:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-01-12T11:39:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ee697998-baac-4e68-81a7-dcaabb9853e8","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 20th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":43020932,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering"},{"id":43020933,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering/Mechanical engineering"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-08T15:58:57+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5813439","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-15116-3","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2025-09-01 15:57:07","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 1st, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-01-20 05:58:26","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-025-15116-3","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-15116-3","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5813439","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5813439","identity":"rs-5813439","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}