Enhanced detectivity self-powered (photovoltaic) solar-blind UV-C Sn-doped β-Ga2O3-based photodetectors via Sn+-implantation with outstanding dark current suppression

Enhanced detectivity self-powered (photovoltaic) solar-blind UV-C Sn-doped β-Ga2O3-based photodetectors via Sn+-implantation with outstanding dark current suppression | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Enhanced detectivity self-powered (photovoltaic) solar-blind UV-C Sn-doped β-Ga2O3-based photodetectors via Sn+-implantation with outstanding dark current suppression Kishor Upadhyaya, Vijay Gudelli, Fatimah Alreshidi, Duarte Magalhães Esteves, and 5 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8371848/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Self-powered solar-blind Ga 2 O 3 -based photodetectors (PDs) encounter several challenges, including demanding and complex fabrication processes that substantially increase production costs. However, cost-effective simple device structures based on a single Ga 2 O 3 layer do not exhibit adequate performance due to high dark current. In this report, these challenges are addressed by employing Sn + implantation and post-implantation annealing of β-Ga 2 O 3 epilayers grown by pulsed laser deposition (PLD), enhancing the performance of the resulting metal − semiconductor − metal (MSM) PDs. As-grown β-Ga 2 O 3 film-based PDs are characterized by high dark current, a slow photoresponse (several seconds), and a weak on/off ratio (~ 10). We show that Sn + implantation and post-implantation annealing suppresses the dark current completely as bias increases, yielding an exceptionally superior photocurrent-to-dark current ratio (~ 10 9 ) and faster photoresponse (< 40 ms). We also demonstrate significant detectivity enhancement by a factor of 10 5 , along with a significant solar-blind rejection ratio (~ 10 4 ), a sharp cut-off at 265 nm (UV-C region), as well as excellent self-powered characteristics of implantation-based devices. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and density functional theory reveal the possible causes of such improvements. This is the first investigation of self-powered solar-blind DUV PDs based solely on a single Sn + -implanted β-Ga 2 O 3 layer. Physical sciences/Energy science and technology Physical sciences/Materials science Physical sciences/Nanoscience and technology Physical sciences/Optics and photonics Deep UV optoelectronics Visible-blind Ion implantation Thermal treatment Surface passivation wide bandgap semiconductor Transparent oxides Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementaryPD.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 28 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 16 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 01 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 28 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 26 Feb, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 24 Feb, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 19 Feb, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 19 Dec, 2025 First submitted to journal 14 Dec, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8371848","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":596614707,"identity":"f37c0e82-fef5-4dc2-9e0a-3fc284fe75f5","order_by":0,"name":"Kishor Upadhyaya","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kishor","middleName":"","lastName":"Upadhyaya","suffix":""},{"id":596614708,"identity":"318863a6-0e27-46e7-a525-e3f41db64c9e","order_by":1,"name":"Vijay Gudelli","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Vijay","middleName":"","lastName":"Gudelli","suffix":""},{"id":596614709,"identity":"b0204bb3-fe22-45fd-92a6-c1c4f1c49763","order_by":2,"name":"Fatimah Alreshidi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fatimah","middleName":"","lastName":"Alreshidi","suffix":""},{"id":596614710,"identity":"f372afd9-0f8c-42b4-9a76-790c5849d11f","order_by":3,"name":"Duarte Magalhães Esteves","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Instituto Superior Técnico","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Duarte","middleName":"Magalhães","lastName":"Esteves","suffix":""},{"id":596614711,"identity":"a92e8c08-5da1-4f69-9e23-8ca73fa81fec","order_by":4,"name":"Marco Peres","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Instituto Superior Técnico","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Marco","middleName":"","lastName":"Peres","suffix":""},{"id":596614712,"identity":"c96d6524-01c2-4364-8c7a-f5302b8ebb50","order_by":5,"name":"Mohamed Nejib Hedhili","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"KAUST Core Laboratories, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohamed","middleName":"Nejib","lastName":"Hedhili","suffix":""},{"id":596614713,"identity":"20212df1-631f-433f-9cca-bf91e7e59cfe","order_by":6,"name":"Nimer Wehbe","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"KAUST Core Laboratories, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nimer","middleName":"","lastName":"Wehbe","suffix":""},{"id":596614714,"identity":"7d23980a-489d-4e15-b9cf-fc76dc5de184","order_by":7,"name":"Katharina Lorenz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Instituto Superior Técnico","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Katharina","middleName":"","lastName":"Lorenz","suffix":""},{"id":596614715,"identity":"12beff9e-8113-4cd6-95bc-dd7482b8735d","order_by":8,"name":"Iman S. 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However, cost-effective simple device structures based on a single Ga\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e layer do not exhibit adequate performance due to high dark current. In this report, these challenges are addressed by employing Sn\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e implantation and post-implantation annealing of β-Ga\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e epilayers grown by pulsed laser deposition (PLD), enhancing the performance of the resulting metal\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;semiconductor\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;metal (MSM) PDs. As-grown β-Ga\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e film-based PDs are characterized by high dark current, a slow photoresponse (several seconds), and a weak on/off ratio (~\u0026thinsp;10). We show that Sn\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e implantation and post-implantation annealing suppresses the dark current completely as bias increases, yielding an exceptionally superior photocurrent-to-dark current ratio (~\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e) and faster photoresponse (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;40 ms). We also demonstrate significant detectivity enhancement by a factor of 10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e, along with a significant solar-blind rejection ratio (~\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e), a sharp cut-off at 265 nm (UV-C region), as well as excellent self-powered characteristics of implantation-based devices. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and density functional theory reveal the possible causes of such improvements. This is the first investigation of self-powered solar-blind DUV PDs based solely on a single Sn\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e-implanted β-Ga\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e layer.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Enhanced detectivity self-powered (photovoltaic) solar-blind UV-C Sn-doped β-Ga2O3-based photodetectors via Sn+-implantation with outstanding dark current suppression","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-27 22:15:23","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8371848/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-28T16:30:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-16T06:14:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"253069573211170231183298822037792082154","date":"2026-03-02T03:17:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-28T07:06:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"170321835990371565236562407384507183568","date":"2026-02-27T05:56:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"98306886118880076644061479871813481021","date":"2026-02-27T03:03:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-25T02:31:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-02-19T12:14:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-19T18:24:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"npj Self-Powered Electronics","date":"2025-12-14T12:34:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-selfpowered-electronics","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [npj Self-Powered Electronics](https://www.nature.com/npjselfpowelect)","snPcode":"44530","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44530/3","title":"npj Self-Powered Electronics","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"NPJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f517000d-fce7-4f15-8e27-118d0ef35990","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 27th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":63481810,"name":"Physical sciences/Energy science and technology"},{"id":63481811,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science"},{"id":63481812,"name":"Physical sciences/Nanoscience and technology"},{"id":63481813,"name":"Physical sciences/Optics and photonics"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-30T05:38:38+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-27 22:15:23","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8371848","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8371848","identity":"rs-8371848","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}