Giant nonlinearity in epitaxial graphene moiré superlattices for RF energy harvesting

Giant nonlinearity in epitaxial graphene moiré superlattices for RF energy harvesting | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Physical Sciences - Article Giant nonlinearity in epitaxial graphene moiré superlattices for RF energy harvesting Zengfeng Di, Wenhao Tan, Jiuming Liu, Zirui Wang, Shipeng Lu, and 11 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7085535/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The nonlinear Hall effect (NLHE) in two-dimensional moiré superlattice materials offers promising opportunities for radio frequency (RF) energy harvesting, but challenges persist in achieving both room-temperature controllable NLHE and scalable fabrication. Here, we report the manipulation of NLHE in the 4-inch epitaxial graphene-germanium (Gr-Ge) heterostructures for practical energy harvesting. The stacking of stripe-phase Ge(110) surface with monolayer graphene generates periodic hexagonal moiré superlattices exhibiting reduced C1v symmetry configuration. The intrinsic symmetry breaking at the Gr-Ge hetero-interface enables remarkable room-temperature NLHE strength of ~103 μmV-1, which exceeds all state-of-the-art moiré or bulk materials systems. Moreover, by adopting the series-connected nonlinear Hall rectifiers (NRs) array configuration and a dual-functional layout design with back-end-of-line (BEOL) processes, we develop self-contained rectenna dies incorporating a 4×4 NRs array with the remarkable rectified voltage exceeding 20 mV at -16 dBm input power, which is sufficient for driving commercial booster converter operation. Besides, we demonstrate the use of NRs array to realize ambient RF energy harvesting by powering an LED at room temperature. Our results demonstrate the successful transition of NLHE-based rectification from theoretical concept to practical applications. Beyond RF energy harvesting, the low-symmetry Gr-Ge moiré superlattices open new avenues for next-generation application in nonlinear electronics, photonics, and optoelectronic technologies. Physical sciences/Materials science/Materials for devices/Electronic devices Physical sciences/Materials science/Nanoscale materials/Two-dimensional materials Full Text Additional Declarations There is NO Competing Interest. Supplementary Files SupplementaryNote.docx SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION SupplementaryVideo.mp4 SUPPLEMENTARY VIDEO Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7085535","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Physical Sciences - Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":486382390,"identity":"0cffcb8e-2831-4923-88fc-3b572f5aba82","order_by":0,"name":"Zengfeng Di","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAz0lEQVRIie3RIQ7CMBSA4bc0aU3D7ARJr9BJBOMqS2YLmSSZGGoY8FyDkFRvVMyAR0K4wBIUjleFotscor/Yar7ttQXw+f4xUsu6A+ATXNfDCE1lc0BCRxHC7XvwXKIiRzNXyZQCe5xvkAhgV/ffgormZqkzHIxLoyCLN3yVOgkRO4mEWAJISAoRl+6tUPz4TJdI2B1J2U+4JYE29sTsYKafRJTmzV63nBK7F9nGFVdugid26t66WIRs+3ypdSFCdnGTb8Q+5JgL8vl8Pt/PPlL9NmrBB2DfAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9357-5107","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zengfeng","middleName":"","lastName":"Di","suffix":""},{"id":486382391,"identity":"2926b95b-12fc-4e86-a592-363dc3672e2c","order_by":1,"name":"Wenhao Tan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wenhao","middleName":"","lastName":"Tan","suffix":""},{"id":486382392,"identity":"96f32c39-e389-454e-9dd6-0b1b4114d914","order_by":2,"name":"Jiuming Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"ShanghaiTech University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jiuming","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":486382393,"identity":"1e4d6b1c-0cd3-4421-bd88-f734c9367104","order_by":3,"name":"Zirui Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"ShanghaiTech University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zirui","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":486382394,"identity":"45a98457-f85d-4072-bc6d-53be5df703c6","order_by":4,"name":"Shipeng Lu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shipeng","middleName":"","lastName":"Lu","suffix":""},{"id":486382395,"identity":"ca98d3d4-aae3-4025-a30f-33abf69bae32","order_by":5,"name":"Hao Wu","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-5164-6033","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hao","middleName":"","lastName":"Wu","suffix":""},{"id":486382396,"identity":"21f2ada3-3a80-4784-a839-44289ab49389","order_by":6,"name":"Shujie Tang","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3511-8215","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, CAS","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shujie","middleName":"","lastName":"Tang","suffix":""},{"id":486382397,"identity":"0f49ec56-7305-4f15-9571-ca079e32b102","order_by":7,"name":"Pai Li","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1742-4139","institution":"Chinese Academy of Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pai","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":486382398,"identity":"76bc9336-1737-484e-8750-c0ab47633ffa","order_by":8,"name":"Haitao Jiang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Haitao","middleName":"","lastName":"Jiang","suffix":""},{"id":486382399,"identity":"8a4c26c1-d63f-454f-9f0e-b596ecc1d84c","order_by":9,"name":"Zhongyin Xue","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"State Key Laboratory of Functional Materials for Informatics, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 865 Changning Road, Shanghai, 200050","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhongyin","middleName":"","lastName":"Xue","suffix":""},{"id":486382400,"identity":"dd992453-48c7-46ae-8435-6fb6973fee6a","order_by":10,"name":"Miao Zhang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Miao","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""},{"id":486382401,"identity":"f46bc9a3-78e8-45ba-abdd-890102ff7693","order_by":11,"name":"Paul Chu","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5581-4883","institution":"City University of Hong Kong","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Paul","middleName":"","lastName":"Chu","suffix":""},{"id":486382402,"identity":"72e86297-e8b3-461a-b3cb-e5ad309d9d4b","order_by":12,"name":"Pan He","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1462-7202","institution":"Fudan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pan","middleName":"","lastName":"He","suffix":""},{"id":486382403,"identity":"c3fa876b-5994-42d8-8d5a-b1fbaa435a5a","order_by":13,"name":"Yongfeng Mei","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3314-6108","institution":"Fudan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yongfeng","middleName":"","lastName":"Mei","suffix":""},{"id":486382404,"identity":"1ff01e6e-6cd3-417b-8d3f-dd7b8af5d62d","order_by":14,"name":"Xufeng Kou","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8860-5105","institution":"ShanghaiTech University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xufeng","middleName":"","lastName":"Kou","suffix":""},{"id":486382405,"identity":"df7d4a3f-e42a-4a2e-8f18-f99f9e78ed52","order_by":15,"name":"Ziao Tian","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8342-1502","institution":"Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ziao","middleName":"","lastName":"Tian","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-09 15:44:13","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7085535/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7085535/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":105563079,"identity":"ecda725e-f7b8-476d-b4ca-72c981ecb80b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 12:45:53","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2063431,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Main.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7085535/v1_covered_5832a55f-e7cb-4b09-974e-8b9ea671f19e.pdf"},{"id":86927487,"identity":"59058262-8953-4399-8e34-48ea894bf99c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-17 09:02:21","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":43308,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryNote.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7085535/v1/18d61244e4dd8c6116801157.docx"},{"id":86927488,"identity":"994ad5bb-fbc2-4d26-913d-19cc8623d618","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-17 09:02:21","extension":"mp4","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":17768616,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"SUPPLEMENTARY VIDEO","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryVideo.mp4","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7085535/v1/e2fc8277db4fe7bf199e8955.mp4"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e Competing Interest.","formattedTitle":"Giant nonlinearity in epitaxial graphene moiré superlattices for RF energy harvesting","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7085535/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7085535/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"The nonlinear Hall effect (NLHE) in two-dimensional moiré superlattice materials offers promising opportunities for radio frequency (RF) energy harvesting, but challenges persist in achieving both room-temperature controllable NLHE and scalable fabrication. Here, we report the manipulation of NLHE in the 4-inch epitaxial graphene-germanium (Gr-Ge) heterostructures for practical energy harvesting. The stacking of stripe-phase Ge(110) surface with monolayer graphene generates periodic hexagonal moiré superlattices exhibiting reduced C1v symmetry configuration. The intrinsic symmetry breaking at the Gr-Ge hetero-interface enables remarkable room-temperature NLHE strength of ~103 μmV-1, which exceeds all state-of-the-art moiré or bulk materials systems. Moreover, by adopting the series-connected nonlinear Hall rectifiers (NRs) array configuration and a dual-functional layout design with back-end-of-line (BEOL) processes, we develop self-contained rectenna dies incorporating a 4×4 NRs array with the remarkable rectified voltage exceeding 20 mV at -16 dBm input power, which is sufficient for driving commercial booster converter operation. Besides, we demonstrate the use of NRs array to realize ambient RF energy harvesting by powering an LED at room temperature. Our results demonstrate the successful transition of NLHE-based rectification from theoretical concept to practical applications. Beyond RF energy harvesting, the low-symmetry Gr-Ge moiré superlattices open new avenues for next-generation application in nonlinear electronics, photonics, and optoelectronic technologies.","manuscriptTitle":"Giant nonlinearity in epitaxial graphene moiré superlattices for RF energy harvesting","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-17 09:02:16","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7085535/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"806bf219-0cc0-4140-bb01-9b90b333fc9a","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":51635229,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science/Materials for devices/Electronic devices"},{"id":51635230,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science/Nanoscale materials/Two-dimensional materials"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-20T11:27:04+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-17 09:02:16","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7085535","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7085535","identity":"rs-7085535","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}