Longitudinal Mediation of the Motivational Dimension of Affect: Neuroticism and Dual-Task Cognitive Plasticity

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In accordance with the motivational dimensional model of affect, high avoidance emotions restrain executive function. Concurrently, high levels of neuroticism are associated with poorer executive function and emotional regulation abilities. This study employed the psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm to measure dual-task coordination ability and investigate whether motivation of affect plays a longitudinal mediating role between neuroticism and dual-task coordination ability. The findings demonstrated that: (1) motivation of affect negatively predicted dual-task coordination ability; (2) Both dual-task coordination and motivation of affect underwent temporal variations, with individuals having higher levels of neuroticism manifesting stronger avoidance emotions at the initial stage; (3) Through the longitudinal mediation of the initial level and slope of change in the motivation of affect, individuals with higher neuroticism levels exhibited a slower rate of improvement in dual-task coordination ability during practice. Overall, the impact of neuroticism on the cognitive plasticity of dual-task performance can be accounted for through the longitudinal mediation of motivation of affect. Motivational dimensional model of affect Dual-task Psychological refractory period Longitudinal mediation Neuroticism Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Dual-task coordination and executive function In the swift-paced nature of contemporary life, the phenomenon of multitasking, which pertains to managing two tasks concurrently, is omnipresent. The term dual-task processing refers to the execution of two tasks simultaneously, where their cognitive processes would overlap in time. Executive function, which is critical for undertaking complex behaviors, encompasses the ability to coordinate dual-task processing as a key subcomponent. This coordination entails the capacity to allocate attention between two tasks that need to be performed concurrently (Koch et al., 2018 ). Among the paradigms employed to measure dual-task processing performance, the psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm offers a robust quantitative index. This paradigm consists of two simple reaction tasks presented in rapid succession, with the interval between the two stimuli (stimulus onset asynchrony, SOA) varying across trials. Research has indicated that the performance of Task 1 (T1) is not influenced by variations in SOA, whereas the reaction time for Task 2 (T2) increases as SOA decreases. In other words, the greater the overlap in task processing time (i.e., the shorter the SOA), the longer the reaction time for T2, which is known as the PRP effect (Pashler, 1994 ). After minimizing confounding factors, the PRP effect is believed to arise from a processing bottleneck at the central stage (Koch et al., 2018 ). The response-selection bottleneck (RSB) model postulates that task processing encompasses three independent stages: stimulus identification, response selection, and response execution. During the response selection stage, the central processor can only handle one task at a time, and the PRP effect is caused by the prolonged time T2 must wait for T1 to complete its response selection stage (Pashler, 1994 ). In contrast, the subsequently proposed central capacity sharing (CCS) model suggests that the central processor operates in parallel, allowing the response selection for two tasks to occur simultaneously. However, the limited attention resources are shared between the tasks, resulting in a slowdown in processing speed for both (Tombu & Jolicœur, 2003). Unlike the RSB model, which only considers the wait time for T1, the CCS model implies that the difficulty of T2 should impact the PRP effect. Based on this, the present study hypothesizes that in the PRP paradigm, the greater the difficulty of T2, the poorer the performance in dual-task coordination. Emotional influence on executive function The earliest two-dimensional theories of emotion characterized emotions using valence and arousal (Russell, 1980 ). Valence refers to the subjective pleasantness of an emotion, categorized as positive or negative, while arousal pertains to the physiological activation level, ranging from high to low. Building on this, the Broaden-and-Build Theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2001 ) posits that negative emotions are often positively correlated with poorer executive function. For instance, individuals with major depressive disorder frequently exhibit impaired attention (Keller et al., 2019 ) and perform worse in dual-task coordination compared to healthy controls. Moreover, better distraction abilities can predict subsequent levels of depression independently of baseline depressive symptoms (Mikoteit et al., 2015 ), and negative emotions have been shown to cause delayed effects on attention-switching tasks (Yang & Feng, 2013 ). In addition to the impact of emotional valence on executive function, researchers have recently begun to focus on the influence of the motivational dimension. The motivation of affect Dimensional Model proposed by Gable and Harmon-Jones ( 2010 ) suggests that motivation is a third dimension of emotion, alongside valence and arousal, collectively constituting the emotional experience. The motivational dimension can be divided into "approach" and "avoidance" directions, with varying levels of intensity. A wealth of research has found that high-motivation emotions lead to poorer executive function performance. For example, high-intensity avoidance or approach motivations narrow attention focus (Zhang & Zhou, 2013 ; Liu et al., 2016 ), and high-intensity avoidance motivation increases the bias in time interval perception (Yin et al., 2023 ). Overall, research on the impact of emotion on executive function has a long history, with findings consistently showing that negative emotions and high-motivation emotions negatively affect executive function. However, since the introduction of the motivation of affect Dimensional Model, the influence of the motivational dimension on dual-task coordination has not been fully explored. The rapid allocation of attention resources between two tasks reflects an individual's subjective adaptive function and has significant practical implications. Therefore, this study hypothesizes that the motivational dimension of emotion can negatively predict dual-task coordination performance independently of emotional valence and arousal. Neuroticism, executive function, and emotional regulation Neuroticism is a personality trait closely linked to mental health. Previous research has shown that individuals with high levels of neuroticism tend to exhibit poorer executive function, particularly in areas related to emotional control (Peng et al., 2022 ; Kim et al., 2022 ). Neuroticism is also negatively correlated with psychological resilience (Liang et al., 2016 ). Individuals with high neuroticism scores are inclined to avoid conflict and have weaker emotional regulation abilities. However, effective emotional regulation is beneficial in reducing negative emotional experiences (Xie et al., 2023 ) and lowering levels of depression and anxiety (Wang et al., 2023 ). Consequently, individuals with high levels of neuroticism often experience prolonged periods of negative emotional states. Longitudinal mediation of the motivation of affect dimension between neuroticism and dual-task coordination As previously discussed, emotion is a crucial factor influencing executive function. However, existing research on this relationship often overlooks the process of change over time. Studies have shown that practice can reduce the interference effects between tasks in dual-task settings (dual-task costs) (Ruthruff et al., 2006 ), suggesting that the cognitive plasticity of dual-task coordination is significant, and dual-task performance can be improved through practice. Nonetheless, most studies have focused on how the nature of tasks affects the overall PRP effect, while the factors influencing the cognitive plasticity of dual-task coordination have not been thoroughly explored. In real life, emotions often fluctuate dynamically, especially when encountering negative emotions, where individuals actively regulate them, and emotional regulation strategies differ between individuals (Blanke et al., 2020 ). This implies that the impact of emotions cannot be viewed from a static perspective. It is necessary to analyze the relationship between emotions and executive function over time, taking into account individual traits, to better inform interventions aimed at improving executive function performance in different emotional states across various personality traits. This study hypothesizes that both dual-task coordination and motivation of affect change over time and that neuroticism influences this process. Moreover, neuroticism may not only directly impact motivation of affect and dual-task coordination but may also exert an indirect influence on dual-task coordination through the motivation of affect dimension. Individuals with high levels of neuroticism often struggle to regulate their emotions (Liang et al., 2016 ), leading to poorer dual-task coordination performance. Based on this, the study hypothesizes that the motivation of affect dimension will longitudinally mediate the negative impact of neuroticism on dual-task coordination performance. In summary, this study aims to investigate the influence of the motivation of affect dimension on dual-task coordination, the temporal trends of both factors, and the longitudinal mediation role of the motivation of affect dimension between neuroticism and dual-task coordination ability. To ensure that the selected indicators accurately reflect dual-task coordination and distinguish between performance levels, the study first hypothesizes, based on the CCS model, that the greater the difficulty of T2, the poorer the dual-task coordination performance. Building on this, the study further hypothesizes that the motivation of affect dimension can negatively predict dual-task coordination performance independently of emotional valence and arousal, that both dual-task coordination and motivation of affect change over time, that neuroticism influences this process, and that the motivation of affect dimension longitudinally mediates the negative impact of neuroticism on dual-task coordination performance. Method Participant A total of 36 students from Beijing Normal University participated in the study, including 18 females (50%). The participants were aged between 18 and 24 years (M = 20.5, SD = 1.58). All participants had no symptoms of anxiety or depression, no history of psychological or neurological disorders, were right-handed, and had normal hearing and vision or corrected vision. Prior to the experiment, each participant signed an informed consent form. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Department of Psychology at Beijing Normal University. Experiment materials Two video clips for each emotional condition (negative, neutral, and positive) were selected as emotion induction materials, with each clip lasting 2 minutes and 45 seconds. To evaluate whether these video clips met the study's requirements, 12 university students from Beijing universities completed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) questionnaire after viewing each clip. The results indicated significant differences in the emotion induction effects of the different types of video clips, as reflected by the PANAS scores ( F (2, 33) = 15.70, p < 0.001). In the formal experiment, each participant viewed materials from all three emotion induction conditions (positive, negative, neutral). To avoid carryover effects from emotion induction, the experiment was conducted over three days, with the video presentation order fully balanced. Six different sequences were randomly assigned across participants and balanced by gender, requiring three participants of the same gender to receive the same presentation sequence. This led to a total of 6×2×3 = 36 participants, exceeding the number required for subsequent analyses calculated using G*power 3.1.9 software. For the dual-task difficulty analysis, a within-subjects two-factor design with a medium effect size (ƒ = 0.25) was used to estimate the sample size (α = 0.05, 1-β = 0.8), resulting in a planned sample size of 24. For the emotion induction test, a within-subjects one-factor design with a medium effect size (ƒ = 0.25) was used to estimate the sample size (α = 0.05, 1-β = 0.8), with a planned sample size of 28. Dual-task coordination was measured using the classic psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm (Pashler, 1994), where Task 1 involved a shape or pitch judgment task and Task 2 was a Stroop task. The PRP effect was assessed using the method outlined in previous research (Kerusauskaite et al., 2020), with 50 ms as the short SOA condition and 500 ms as the long SOA condition. Neuroticism was measured using the neuroticism sub-scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), with a Cronbach's α coefficient of 0.83 for this study. Experiment procedure The experiment was programmed using Psychopy (v2021.2.3). Participants visited the laboratory for three consecutive days and completed the following tasks after signing an informed consent form: (1) self-assessment of emotional state; (2) viewing emotion induction videos; and (3) performing the dual-task paradigm. The specific procedure was as follows: (1) Self-assessment of Emotional State: Participants were presented with a coordinate system on the screen, with the horizontal axis representing motivation of affect (positive half-axis for approach/negative half-axis for avoidance) and the vertical axis representing emotional valence (positive half-axis for positive/negative half-axis for negative). Participants used a mouse to select their current emotional state and then answered questions regarding emotional arousal. (2) Viewing Emotion Induction Videos: Each day, participants viewed two video clips of the same type for emotion induction. One video was presented before the start of the experiment and the other midway through the experiment. The type of video varied daily, as previously described. (3) Dual-Task Paradigm: The main experiment consisted of 10 blocks each day, with 48 trials per block. The first 5 trials in each block were practice trials with feedback. All trials were dual-task with random SOA (stimulus onset asynchrony), and there were an equal number of trials for long and short SOA conditions. After each block, participants completed the self-assessment of their emotional state. They were then allowed to rest before starting the next block. All key presses were balanced between the left and right hands across participants to avoid the influence of handedness. The experiment lasted for a total of three days, with each day requiring 30 to 40 minutes (see Figure 1). Upon completion of the three-day experiment, participants completed the neuroticism questionnaire. Data analysis After confirming that each participant's overall accuracy was above 80%, incorrect responses, the first 5 practice trials of each block, and trials with response times exceeding 3 standard deviations were excluded before data analysis. Firstly, the PRP effect in the dual-task paradigm was analyzed with PRP values as the dependent variable. Specifically, PRP was calculated as the reaction time for Task 2 under the short SOA condition (50 ms) minus the reaction time for Task 2 under the long SOA condition (500 ms). A 2 (modality: visual, auditory) × 2 (Task 2 Stroop compatibility: conflict, compatibility) repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to examine the effect of Task 2 difficulty on performance. Secondly, for the emotional state measurement data, a one-way repeated measures ANOVA was performed with motivation of affect, valence, and arousal as the dependent variables to test the effectiveness of the different types of emotion induction videos. Thirdly, controlling for valence and arousal, the impact of self-reported motivation of affect on dual-task coordination was assessed. Regression analysis was conducted with PRP values as the dependent variable, motivation of affect scores as the independent variable, and valence and arousal scores as control variables. Fourthly, using Mplus 8 software, missing values were addressed using multiple imputation. Latent growth modeling (LGM) was employed to examine changes in dual-task coordination and motivation of affect over time. Specifically: ① Correlation analysis was conducted for all variables across the three days. ② Using data from the 5 blocks following negative emotion induction, an unconditional model was constructed to investigate changes in motivation of affect over time after negative emotion induction, and a conditional model was developed to examine the direct effect of neuroticism on the recovery of motivation of affect. ③ A latent variable growth longitudinal mediation model was used to assess whether motivation of affect mediates the effect of neuroticism on the trajectory of PRP effect value changes. Model evaluation was based on indicators such as CFI, TLI, RMSEA, and SRMR. Result The impact of dual-task settings on performance The results of the two-factor within-subjects ANOVA showed a significant main effect of Task 2 Stroop compatibility, F (1, 35) = 8.320, p = 0.007, η ² = 0.192. Task 2 was less difficult under the Stroop-compatible condition, resulting in a smaller PRP value and better dual-task performance. The main effect of the stimulus modality for Task 1 was not significant, nor was the interaction between the two factors. Manipulation check of emotional induction effect The ANOVA results indicated that: (1) There was a significant difference in motivation of affect scores across different types of videos, F (2, 30) = 13.85, p < 0.001, f = 0.531, with higher motivation under the positive condition and lower motivation under the negative condition. (2) There was a significant difference in emotional valence, F (2, 30) = 33.599, p < 0.001, f = 0.837, with higher valence under the positive condition, lower valence under the negative condition, and the neutral condition falling in between. (3) There was a significant difference in emotional arousal, F (2, 30) = 11.163, p < 0.001, f = 0.482, with the highest arousal under the negative condition, followed by the positive condition, and the lowest arousal under the neutral condition. In the manipulation check, the differences between levels for all three dependent variables were statistically significant, except for the non-significant difference in motivation scores between the neutral and positive conditions. Regression analysis of emotional self-assessment on PRP effect size The average daily scores for motivation of affect, emotional valence, emotional arousal, and PRP effect values for each participant were correlated with their respective neuroticism scores, as shown in Table 1. The results indicated that motivation of affect was negatively correlated with both PRP effect values and neuroticism scores, meaning that lower motivation of affect scores were associated with higher neuroticism scores and higher PRP effect values, which reflects poorer dual-task coordination. Additionally, motivation of affect was positively correlated with emotional valence, suggesting that emotions that evoke avoidance tend to be negative. However, emotional valence and emotional arousal did not show significant correlations with other variables. Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted with PRP effect values as the dependent variable. Age and gender were entered as independent variables in the first step, emotional arousal and valence scores were entered in the second step, and motivation of affect scores were entered in the third step. The results of the hierarchical regression showed that emotional valence scores negatively predicted PRP effect values, indicating that more negative emotional valence was associated with larger PRP values, poorer dual-task coordination, and a stronger psychological refractory period effect. Even after controlling for age, gender, emotional arousal, and valence, motivation of affect scores still negatively predicted PRP effect values, meaning that the more avoidant the motivation of affect, the larger the PRP value, the poorer the dual-task coordination, and the stronger the psychological refractory period effect. Latent growth model analysis: changes over time Previous studies have found that individuals with high neuroticism have a disadvantage in attention tasks, but analyzing average scores does not examine changes at specific time points. The latent growth model is used to analyze the temporal changes in dual-task performance and motivation of affect. Practice effect: changes in PRP effect size over time Table 3 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlation matrix for each variable over the three days. The results show that performance in the dual-task psychological refractory period (PRP) task improved gradually over time, while the level of avoidance in motivation of affect decreased. Paired-sample t-tests on the PRP values across the three days revealed no significant difference between the first and second days. However, significant improvements in dual-task coordination were observed on the third day compared to the first day ( t (35) = 2.21, p = 0.021) and the second day ( t (35) = 2.35, p = 0.025), as indicated by significantly smaller PRP effect values. Additionally, there were significant positive correlations among motivation of affect scores across the three days, suggesting individual differences in motivation of affect assessment among participants. The motivation of affect scores on the second and third days were negatively correlated with the PRP effect values on the second day, indicating that participants with poorer dual-task coordination on the second day also reported lower motivation of affect scores on both the second and third days. Neuroticism scores were negatively correlated with motivation of affect scores on the first day, suggesting that participants with higher neuroticism scores were more likely to report more avoidant motivation of affect on the first day. Emotional regulation: changes in motivation of affect over time To examine the changes in motivation of affect over time following emotional induction, a latent growth model analysis was conducted. The fit indices indicated that the nonlinear unconditional latent growth model provided a better fit to the data than the linear unconditional latent growth model. According to the results from the nonlinear unconditional model, the model intercept, which represents the initial level of motivation of affect under negative emotional induction, was -2.750, significantly less than 0 ( p < 0.001). This suggests that participants initially felt a desire to avoid following the induction of negative emotions. motivation of affect exhibited an increasing trend over the testing period (slope = 1.088, p < 0.001), with the rate of increase gradually slowing down (curvature slope = 0.205, p = 0.01). In other words, participants gradually adjusted their emotions, returning to a state of non-avoidant motivation of affect, with the effectiveness of this adjustment diminishing over time. Additionally, both the intercept variance and slope variance were significant, indicating substantial individual differences in participants' initial levels of motivation of affect and the rate of subsequent change. The direct effects of neuroticism on the initial level and growth rate of motivation of affect A conditional growth model was further constructed by including neuroticism as a predictor variable to examine whether neuroticism could predict the initial level and growth rate of motivation of affect. The results showed that the conditional model had a good fit ( χ²/df = 9.403/8, CFI = 0.992, TLI = 0.985, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.042). Neuroticism significantly negatively predicted the intercept of motivation of affect ( β = -0.363, p = 0.027), indicating that higher levels of neuroticism were associated with a more avoidant initial level of motivation of affect. However, neuroticism did not significantly predict the slope of motivation of affect ( β = 0.178, p = 0.33), suggesting that while neuroticism influences the initial level of motivation of affect, it does not directly predict the rate of emotional recovery. Neuroticism and cognitive plasticity in dual-task: A longitudinal mediation model of motivation of affect To investigate the longitudinal mediating role of motivation of affect, a structural equation model was constructed using neuroticism scores in conjunction with the latent growth models of motivation of affect and dual-task PRP effects. The fit indices indicated that the model had a good fit ( χ²/df = 9.199/10, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.045, RMSEA = 0.000, SRMR = 0.069). The final model is presented in Figure 3. Direct effects in the longitudinal mediation model The direct pathways between neuroticism, motivation of affect, and the psychological refractory period (PRP) effect in dual-task performance are presented in Table 6. Neuroticism was found to significantly negatively predict the intercept of motivation of affect ( β = -0.273, p = 0.049), and it also significantly positively predicted the slope of the PRP effect ( β = 9.616, p < 0.001). The initial level of motivation of affect significantly positively predicted the initial level of the PRP effect ( β = 58.364, p < 0.001), but its rate of increase significantly negatively predicted the rate of decrease in the PRP effect ( β = -88.172, p < 0.001). This suggests that participants with lower initial levels of motivation of affect (i.e., those feeling more avoidant) had lower initial PRP effect values, indicating better dual-task coordination at the start. However, their rate of improvement in the PRP effect over time was slower, indicating poorer learning outcomes. Longitudinal mediation effect test of motivation of affect To further explore the longitudinal mediating role of motivation of affect between neuroticism and the PRP effect, the Bootstrap method (1,000 resamples) was employed to test the mediating effects of the intercept and slope of intentional self-regulation. The model included two indirect paths: (1) Neuroticism → motivation of affect Intercept → PRP Effect Slope; (2) Neuroticism → motivation of affect Slope → PRP Effect Slope. The Bootstrap results showed that both indirect paths were significant (see Table 7), indicating that neuroticism can indirectly negatively influence the slope of the PRP effect. Higher levels of neuroticism were associated with a smaller PRP effect slope, meaning that participants with higher neuroticism levels showed less improvement over time. The initial level and growth rate of motivation of affect played a longitudinal mediating role between neuroticism and the PRP effect. Discussion In this study, the dual-task psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm was used to measure dual-task coordination ability, and it was found that the difficulty level of Task 2 (T2) significantly increased the effect size of the psychological refractory period. The more difficult T2 was, the poorer the dual-task coordination, suggesting that the central bottleneck processing stage of T2 and T1 may be parallel. This result validates the hypothesis and supports the Central Resource Sharing (CCS) model of dual-tasking (Tombu & Jolicœur, 2003). The manipulation check results proved that the materials used in this study had significant priming effects on emotional valence, arousal, and motivational dimensions, simulating a richer emotional state. Neuroticism was negatively correlated with motivation of affect, and motivation of affect was negatively correlated with PRP effect size. The higher the level of neuroticism, the stronger the motivation of affect to avoid; the more avoidant the motivation of affect, the larger the PRP effect size, and thus the poorer the dual-task coordination. This is consistent with existing research findings that neuroticism hinders emotional regulation (Liang, et al., 2016 ), and high-intensity avoidant motivation of affect is not conducive to the performance of executive functions (Yin, et al., 2023 ). Hierarchical regression analysis, controlling for age, gender, emotional valence, and arousal, revealed that the motivation of affect dimension scores could still negatively predict PRP effect size. That is, the lower the motivation of affect dimension scores (more avoidant), the larger the PRP value, the poorer the dual-task coordination, and the larger the psychological refractory period effect. This indicates that motivation of affect indeed independently influences dual-task coordination beyond emotional valence and arousal. The PRP effect size gradually decreased over three days, demonstrating cognitive plasticity in dual-task coordination ability. Under negative emotional priming, individuals' motivation of affect levels also shifted from initial avoidance to normal, reflecting the process of emotional regulation. The conditional growth model showed that neuroticism could predict the initial level of motivation of affect but not the rate of change, suggesting that the direct impact of neuroticism on the dynamic changes in motivation of affect and dual-task coordination is not significant. Although no significant correlation was found between neuroticism and dual-task coordination in the preliminary analysis, existing research has found that individuals with high levels of neuroticism perform poorly in executive function tasks (Peng, et al., 2022 ). Given that dual-task coordination exhibits a practice effect, a longitudinal mediation analysis was further conducted, revealing that the motivation of affect dimension played a longitudinal mediating role between neuroticism and dual-task coordination. High neuroticism poses a disadvantage, negatively affecting executive function performance, while the motivation of affect dimension represents the degree of emotional avoidance or approach, reflecting the individual's current state and thereby influencing dual-task coordination performance. High neuroticism individuals have a typical avoidant characteristic, easily perceiving more avoidant motivation of affect, leading to poor dual-task coordination. This influence exists during the dual-task practice process, as negative emotional priming can make high neuroticism individuals experience more avoidant motivation of affect, thereby affecting the learning outcomes of dual-tasking. However, this study also has some limitations. Firstly, in terms of the motivation of affect dimension, this study mainly investigated the avoidant direction, and the role of the approach direction of motivation of affect remains to be further explored. Secondly, no direct correlation was found between neuroticism and dual-task coordination performance, which is inconsistent with the hypothesis and previous studies. This may be because the participants in the study were all college students without psychological disorders, and their neuroticism scores were generally low (6.36 ± 3.37). Future research can further explore and confirm the direct relationship between neuroticism and dual-task coordination or focus on groups with high neuroticism. Additionally, this study only discussed motivation of affect as a longitudinal mediating variable. Future research should aim to explore the interactions between different mediating variables, more systematically revealing the mediating mechanisms of neuroticism affecting dual-task coordination, thereby providing a theoretical basis for intervention practices to reduce the negative impact of neuroticism on executive function. Conclusion Based on the above analysis, it can be seen that motivation of affect can negatively predict dual-task coordination ability, and over time, motivation of affect plays a longitudinal mediating role between neuroticism and dual-task coordination, affecting the learning speed of dual-task coordination. Both the intercept and slope of motivation of affect are mediating variables in the process of neuroticism affecting dual-task coordination. Therefore, in healthy populations, the role of neuroticism in dual-task coordination performance is a dynamic and indirect process. Declarations Conflict of interest: Neither my co-authors nor I have any interests that might influence the research. Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study. Author Contribution Wuxu Lin designed and conducted the experiments, performed data analysis, and wrote the initial manuscript draft. 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How the dimension of negative motivation of affect influences time perception: The mediating role of attention control and attention bias. Acta Psychologica Sinica , 1–15. Zhang, G., & Zhou, R. (2013). The Effect of Low Versus High Motivational Intensity Affect on Attentional Scope. Studies of Psychology and Behavior, 11 (1), 30–36. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6257828","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":434130914,"identity":"5f6cfc8d-1c2e-4373-a6e3-a72fd64944d6","order_by":0,"name":"Wuxu Lin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wuxu","middleName":"","lastName":"Lin","suffix":""},{"id":434130915,"identity":"a847d09a-985c-4712-8f97-01b727d07c0c","order_by":1,"name":"Yaojing Chen","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA9UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCQjFzMbAwPgYwk4gXguzMUlaQIBNmigt/LObjz3mqbFh55Nuv1ZduOMwAz97jgHDzx14LLlzLN2Y51gaM5vMmbLbM88cZpDseWPA2HsGtxYDiRwzaR62w8xsEjlpt3nbDjMY3MgxYGZsw6cl/5s0zz+IlmKQFnvCWnLYpIEqgVrSjzGDbZEgoEXiRpqZ5Ny+NJAtzNIz29J5JM48KzjYi0cL/4zkZxJvvtkky89If/i5sM1ajr89eeODn3i0gAATDwNDMgMDjwGIwwMiDuDXAEwoPxgY7BgY2B8QUjgKRsEoGAUjFAAA/3VHnmxnVwgAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Normal University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yaojing","middleName":"","lastName":"Chen","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-19 04:38:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6257828/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6257828/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":79650100,"identity":"bfe36dd3-9f58-4b8e-ad1d-6ef21b19da5b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 07:44:44","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":91527,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEntire experiment procedure. a. Overall Experimental Procedure. The sequence in which the film types (positive, negative, neutral) were presented was randomized across participants. For each participant, the two films viewed on the same day were of the same type. b. Dual-Task Psychological Refractory Period Paradigm Procedure. c. Single Trial Procedure.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6257828/v1/09406235333e379266f62e2b.png"},{"id":79650102,"identity":"15c6c8fa-0f67-4161-839d-5b6af5472b49","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 07:44:44","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":108142,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConditional Growth Model of Neuroticism on motivation of affect\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6257828/v1/f836681dd1c7374a99e13d9f.png"},{"id":79650104,"identity":"8e0c30dc-e4ec-41c2-907d-161974c786b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-01 07:44:45","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":101578,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLongitudinal Mediation Model of motivation of affect\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6257828/v1/4ee0522f5e6f2e2dd639834c.png"},{"id":99525932,"identity":"5fb81461-1cd7-40b4-a500-55be5c3f8d3a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-05 12:09:33","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":992156,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6257828/v1/320c41c3-d7fd-454b-a63c-db3914dde298.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Longitudinal Mediation of the Motivational Dimension of Affect: Neuroticism and Dual-Task Cognitive Plasticity","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDual-task coordination and executive function\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the swift-paced nature of contemporary life, the phenomenon of multitasking, which pertains to managing two tasks concurrently, is omnipresent. The term dual-task processing refers to the execution of two tasks simultaneously, where their cognitive processes would overlap in time. Executive function, which is critical for undertaking complex behaviors, encompasses the ability to coordinate dual-task processing as a key subcomponent. This coordination entails the capacity to allocate attention between two tasks that need to be performed concurrently (Koch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the paradigms employed to measure dual-task processing performance, the psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm offers a robust quantitative index. This paradigm consists of two simple reaction tasks presented in rapid succession, with the interval between the two stimuli (stimulus onset asynchrony, SOA) varying across trials. Research has indicated that the performance of Task 1 (T1) is not influenced by variations in SOA, whereas the reaction time for Task 2 (T2) increases as SOA decreases. In other words, the greater the overlap in task processing time (i.e., the shorter the SOA), the longer the reaction time for T2, which is known as the PRP effect (Pashler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter minimizing confounding factors, the PRP effect is believed to arise from a processing bottleneck at the central stage (Koch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The response-selection bottleneck (RSB) model postulates that task processing encompasses three independent stages: stimulus identification, response selection, and response execution. During the response selection stage, the central processor can only handle one task at a time, and the PRP effect is caused by the prolonged time T2 must wait for T1 to complete its response selection stage (Pashler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, the subsequently proposed central capacity sharing (CCS) model suggests that the central processor operates in parallel, allowing the response selection for two tasks to occur simultaneously. However, the limited attention resources are shared between the tasks, resulting in a slowdown in processing speed for both (Tombu \u0026amp; Jolicœur, 2003). Unlike the RSB model, which only considers the wait time for T1, the CCS model implies that the difficulty of T2 should impact the PRP effect. Based on this, the present study hypothesizes that in the PRP paradigm, the greater the difficulty of T2, the poorer the performance in dual-task coordination.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEmotional influence on executive function\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe earliest two-dimensional theories of emotion characterized emotions using valence and arousal (Russell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e). Valence refers to the subjective pleasantness of an emotion, categorized as positive or negative, while arousal pertains to the physiological activation level, ranging from high to low. Building on this, the Broaden-and-Build Theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) posits that negative emotions are often positively correlated with poorer executive function. For instance, individuals with major depressive disorder frequently exhibit impaired attention (Keller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and perform worse in dual-task coordination compared to healthy controls. Moreover, better distraction abilities can predict subsequent levels of depression independently of baseline depressive symptoms (Mikoteit et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), and negative emotions have been shown to cause delayed effects on attention-switching tasks (Yang \u0026amp; Feng, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the impact of emotional valence on executive function, researchers have recently begun to focus on the influence of the motivational dimension. The motivation of affect Dimensional Model proposed by Gable and Harmon-Jones (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) suggests that motivation is a third dimension of emotion, alongside valence and arousal, collectively constituting the emotional experience. The motivational dimension can be divided into \"approach\" and \"avoidance\" directions, with varying levels of intensity. A wealth of research has found that high-motivation emotions lead to poorer executive function performance. For example, high-intensity avoidance or approach motivations narrow attention focus (Zhang \u0026amp; Zhou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), and high-intensity avoidance motivation increases the bias in time interval perception (Yin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, research on the impact of emotion on executive function has a long history, with findings consistently showing that negative emotions and high-motivation emotions negatively affect executive function. However, since the introduction of the motivation of affect Dimensional Model, the influence of the motivational dimension on dual-task coordination has not been fully explored. The rapid allocation of attention resources between two tasks reflects an individual's subjective adaptive function and has significant practical implications. Therefore, this study hypothesizes that the motivational dimension of emotion can negatively predict dual-task coordination performance independently of emotional valence and arousal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eNeuroticism, executive function, and emotional regulation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeuroticism is a personality trait closely linked to mental health. Previous research has shown that individuals with high levels of neuroticism tend to exhibit poorer executive function, particularly in areas related to emotional control (Peng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Neuroticism is also negatively correlated with psychological resilience (Liang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Individuals with high neuroticism scores are inclined to avoid conflict and have weaker emotional regulation abilities. However, effective emotional regulation is beneficial in reducing negative emotional experiences (Xie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and lowering levels of depression and anxiety (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, individuals with high levels of neuroticism often experience prolonged periods of negative emotional states.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLongitudinal mediation of the motivation of affect dimension between neuroticism and dual-task coordination\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs previously discussed, emotion is a crucial factor influencing executive function. However, existing research on this relationship often overlooks the process of change over time. Studies have shown that practice can reduce the interference effects between tasks in dual-task settings (dual-task costs) (Ruthruff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting that the cognitive plasticity of dual-task coordination is significant, and dual-task performance can be improved through practice. Nonetheless, most studies have focused on how the nature of tasks affects the overall PRP effect, while the factors influencing the cognitive plasticity of dual-task coordination have not been thoroughly explored. In real life, emotions often fluctuate dynamically, especially when encountering negative emotions, where individuals actively regulate them, and emotional regulation strategies differ between individuals (Blanke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This implies that the impact of emotions cannot be viewed from a static perspective. It is necessary to analyze the relationship between emotions and executive function over time, taking into account individual traits, to better inform interventions aimed at improving executive function performance in different emotional states across various personality traits. This study hypothesizes that both dual-task coordination and motivation of affect change over time and that neuroticism influences this process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, neuroticism may not only directly impact motivation of affect and dual-task coordination but may also exert an indirect influence on dual-task coordination through the motivation of affect dimension. Individuals with high levels of neuroticism often struggle to regulate their emotions (Liang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), leading to poorer dual-task coordination performance. Based on this, the study hypothesizes that the motivation of affect dimension will longitudinally mediate the negative impact of neuroticism on dual-task coordination performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, this study aims to investigate the influence of the motivation of affect dimension on dual-task coordination, the temporal trends of both factors, and the longitudinal mediation role of the motivation of affect dimension between neuroticism and dual-task coordination ability. To ensure that the selected indicators accurately reflect dual-task coordination and distinguish between performance levels, the study first hypothesizes, based on the CCS model, that the greater the difficulty of T2, the poorer the dual-task coordination performance. Building on this, the study further hypothesizes that the motivation of affect dimension can negatively predict dual-task coordination performance independently of emotional valence and arousal, that both dual-task coordination and motivation of affect change over time, that neuroticism influences this process, and that the motivation of affect dimension longitudinally mediates the negative impact of neuroticism on dual-task coordination performance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003ch2\u003eParticipant\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 36 students from Beijing Normal University participated in the study, including 18 females (50%). The participants were aged between 18 and 24 years (M = 20.5, SD = 1.58). All participants had no symptoms of anxiety or depression, no history of psychological or neurological disorders, were right-handed, and had normal hearing and vision or corrected vision. Prior to the experiment, each participant signed an informed consent form. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Department of Psychology at Beijing Normal University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eExperiment materials\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo video clips for each emotional condition (negative, neutral, and positive) were selected as emotion induction materials, with each clip lasting 2 minutes and 45 seconds. To evaluate whether these video clips met the study's requirements, 12 university students from Beijing universities completed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) questionnaire after viewing each clip. The results indicated significant differences in the emotion induction effects of the different types of video clips, as reflected by the PANAS scores (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2, 33) = 15.70, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001). In the formal experiment, each participant viewed materials from all three emotion induction conditions (positive, negative, neutral). To avoid carryover effects from emotion induction, the experiment was conducted over three days, with the video presentation order fully balanced. Six different sequences were randomly assigned across participants and balanced by gender, requiring three participants of the same gender to receive the same presentation sequence. This led to a total of 6×2×3 = 36 participants, exceeding the number required for subsequent analyses calculated using G*power 3.1.9 software. For the dual-task difficulty analysis, a within-subjects two-factor design with a medium effect size (ƒ = 0.25) was used to estimate the sample size (α = 0.05, 1-β = 0.8), resulting in a planned sample size of 24. For the emotion induction test, a within-subjects one-factor design with a medium effect size (ƒ = 0.25) was used to estimate the sample size (α = 0.05, 1-β = 0.8), with a planned sample size of 28.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDual-task coordination was measured using the classic psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm (Pashler, 1994), where Task 1 involved a shape or pitch judgment task and Task 2 was a Stroop task. The PRP effect was assessed using the method outlined in previous research (Kerusauskaite et al., 2020), with 50 ms as the short SOA condition and 500 ms as the long SOA condition. Neuroticism was measured using the neuroticism sub-scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), with a Cronbach's α coefficient of 0.83 for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eExperiment procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experiment was programmed using Psychopy (v2021.2.3). Participants visited the laboratory for three consecutive days and completed the following tasks after signing an informed consent form: (1) self-assessment of emotional state; (2) viewing emotion induction videos; and (3) performing the dual-task paradigm. The specific procedure was as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1) Self-assessment of Emotional State: Participants were presented with a coordinate system on the screen, with the horizontal axis representing motivation of affect (positive half-axis for approach/negative half-axis for avoidance) and the vertical axis representing emotional valence (positive half-axis for positive/negative half-axis for negative). Participants used a mouse to select their current emotional state and then answered questions regarding emotional arousal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2) Viewing Emotion Induction Videos: Each day, participants viewed two video clips of the same type for emotion induction. One video was presented before the start of the experiment and the other midway through the experiment. The type of video varied daily, as previously described.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(3) Dual-Task Paradigm: The main experiment consisted of 10 blocks each day, with 48 trials per block. The first 5 trials in each block were practice trials with feedback. All trials were dual-task with random SOA (stimulus onset asynchrony), and there were an equal number of trials for long and short SOA conditions. After each block, participants completed the self-assessment of their emotional state. They were then allowed to rest before starting the next block.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll key presses were balanced between the left and right hands across participants to avoid the influence of handedness. The experiment lasted for a total of three days, with each day requiring 30 to 40 minutes (see Figure 1). Upon completion of the three-day experiment, participants completed the neuroticism questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter confirming that each participant's overall accuracy was above 80%, incorrect responses, the first 5 practice trials of each block, and trials with response times exceeding 3 standard deviations were excluded before data analysis.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirstly, the PRP effect in the dual-task paradigm was analyzed with PRP values as the dependent variable. Specifically, PRP was calculated as the reaction time for Task 2 under the short SOA condition (50 ms) minus the reaction time for Task 2 under the long SOA condition (500 ms). A 2 (modality: visual, auditory) × 2 (Task 2 Stroop compatibility: conflict, compatibility) repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to examine the effect of Task 2 difficulty on performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSecondly, for the emotional state measurement data, a one-way repeated measures ANOVA was performed with motivation of affect, valence, and arousal as the dependent variables to test the effectiveness of the different types of emotion induction videos.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThirdly, controlling for valence and arousal, the impact of self-reported motivation of affect on dual-task coordination was assessed. Regression analysis was conducted with PRP values as the dependent variable, motivation of affect scores as the independent variable, and valence and arousal scores as control variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFourthly, using Mplus 8 software, missing values were addressed using multiple imputation. Latent growth modeling (LGM) was employed to examine changes in dual-task coordination and motivation of affect over time. Specifically: ① Correlation analysis was conducted for all variables across the three days. ② Using data from the 5 blocks following negative emotion induction, an unconditional model was constructed to investigate changes in motivation of affect over time after negative emotion induction, and a conditional model was developed to examine the direct effect of neuroticism on the recovery of motivation of affect. ③ A latent variable growth longitudinal mediation model was used to assess whether motivation of affect mediates the effect of neuroticism on the trajectory of PRP effect value changes. Model evaluation was based on indicators such as CFI, TLI, RMSEA, and SRMR.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Result","content":"\u003ch2\u003eThe impact of dual-task settings on performance\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the two-factor within-subjects ANOVA showed a significant main effect of Task 2 Stroop compatibility, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 35) = 8.320, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.007, \u003cem\u003e\u0026eta;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = 0.192. Task 2 was less difficult under the Stroop-compatible condition, resulting in a smaller PRP value and better dual-task performance. The main effect of the stimulus modality for Task 1 was not significant, nor was the interaction between the two factors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eManipulation check of emotional induction effect\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe ANOVA results indicated that: (1) There was a significant difference in motivation of affect scores across different types of videos, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2, 30) = 13.85, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, \u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e = 0.531, with higher motivation under the positive condition and lower motivation under the negative condition. (2) There was a significant difference in emotional valence, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2, 30) = 33.599, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, \u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e = 0.837, with higher valence under the positive condition, lower valence under the negative condition, and the neutral condition falling in between. (3) There was a significant difference in emotional arousal, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2, 30) = 11.163, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, \u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e = 0.482, with the highest arousal under the negative condition, followed by the positive condition, and the lowest arousal under the neutral condition. In the manipulation check, the differences between levels for all three dependent variables were statistically significant, except for the non-significant difference in motivation scores between the neutral and positive conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eRegression analysis of emotional self-assessment on PRP effect size\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe average daily scores for motivation of affect, emotional valence, emotional arousal, and PRP effect values for each participant were correlated with their respective neuroticism scores, as shown in Table 1. The results indicated that motivation of affect was negatively correlated with both PRP effect values and neuroticism scores, meaning that lower motivation of affect scores were associated with higher neuroticism scores and higher PRP effect values, which reflects poorer dual-task coordination. Additionally, motivation of affect was positively correlated with emotional valence, suggesting that emotions that evoke avoidance tend to be negative. However, emotional valence and emotional arousal did not show significant correlations with other variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHierarchical regression analysis was conducted with PRP effect values as the dependent variable. Age and gender were entered as independent variables in the first step, emotional arousal and valence scores were entered in the second step, and motivation of affect scores were entered in the third step.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the hierarchical regression showed that emotional valence scores negatively predicted PRP effect values, indicating that more negative emotional valence was associated with larger PRP values, poorer dual-task coordination, and a stronger psychological refractory period effect. Even after controlling for age, gender, emotional arousal, and valence, motivation of affect scores still negatively predicted PRP effect values, meaning that the more avoidant the motivation of affect, the larger the PRP value, the poorer the dual-task coordination, and the stronger the psychological refractory period effect.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eLatent growth model analysis: changes over time\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have found that individuals with high neuroticism have a disadvantage in attention tasks, but analyzing average scores does not examine changes at specific time points. The latent growth model is used to analyze the temporal changes in dual-task performance and motivation of affect.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePractice effect: changes in PRP effect size over time\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlation matrix for each variable over the three days. The results show that performance in the dual-task psychological refractory period (PRP) task improved gradually over time, while the level of avoidance in motivation of affect decreased. Paired-sample t-tests on the PRP values across the three days revealed no significant difference between the first and second days. However, significant improvements in dual-task coordination were observed on the third day compared to the first day (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(35) = 2.21, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.021) and the second day (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(35) = 2.35, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.025), as indicated by significantly smaller PRP effect values.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, there were significant positive correlations among motivation of affect scores across the three days, suggesting individual differences in motivation of affect assessment among participants. The motivation of affect scores on the second and third days were negatively correlated with the PRP effect values on the second day, indicating that participants with poorer dual-task coordination on the second day also reported lower motivation of affect scores on both the second and third days. Neuroticism scores were negatively correlated with motivation of affect scores on the first day, suggesting that participants with higher neuroticism scores were more likely to report more avoidant motivation of affect on the first day.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEmotional regulation: changes in motivation of affect over time\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo examine the changes in motivation of affect over time following emotional induction, a latent growth model analysis was conducted. The fit indices indicated that the nonlinear unconditional latent growth model provided a better fit to the data than the linear unconditional latent growth model.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the results from the nonlinear unconditional model, the model intercept, which represents the initial level of motivation of affect under negative emotional induction, was -2.750, significantly less than 0 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001). This suggests that participants initially felt a desire to avoid following the induction of negative emotions. motivation of affect exhibited an increasing trend over the testing period (slope = 1.088, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001), with the rate of increase gradually slowing down (curvature slope = 0.205, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.01). In other words, participants gradually adjusted their emotions, returning to a state of non-avoidant motivation of affect, with the effectiveness of this adjustment diminishing over time. Additionally, both the intercept variance and slope variance were significant, indicating substantial individual differences in participants\u0026apos; initial levels of motivation of affect and the rate of subsequent change.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe direct effects of neuroticism on the initial level and growth rate of motivation of affect\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA conditional growth model was further constructed by including neuroticism as a predictor variable to examine whether neuroticism could predict the initial level and growth rate of motivation of affect. The results showed that the conditional model had a good fit (\u003cem\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;/df\u003c/em\u003e = 9.403/8, CFI = 0.992, TLI = 0.985, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.042). Neuroticism significantly negatively predicted the intercept of motivation of affect (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = -0.363, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.027), indicating that higher levels of neuroticism were associated with a more avoidant initial level of motivation of affect. However, neuroticism did not significantly predict the slope of motivation of affect (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = 0.178, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.33), suggesting that while neuroticism influences the initial level of motivation of affect, it does not directly predict the rate of emotional recovery.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eNeuroticism and cognitive plasticity in dual-task: A longitudinal mediation model of motivation of affect\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo investigate the longitudinal mediating role of motivation of affect, a structural equation model was constructed using neuroticism scores in conjunction with the latent growth models of motivation of affect and dual-task PRP effects. The fit indices indicated that the model had a good fit (\u003cem\u003e\u0026chi;\u0026sup2;/df\u003c/em\u003e = 9.199/10, CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.045, RMSEA = 0.000, SRMR = 0.069). The final model is presented in Figure 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDirect effects in the longitudinal mediation model\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe direct pathways between neuroticism, motivation of affect, and the psychological refractory period (PRP) effect in dual-task performance are presented in Table 6. Neuroticism was found to significantly negatively predict the intercept of motivation of affect (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = -0.273, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.049), and it also significantly positively predicted the slope of the PRP effect (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = 9.616, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001). The initial level of motivation of affect significantly positively predicted the initial level of the PRP effect (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = 58.364, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001), but its rate of increase significantly negatively predicted the rate of decrease in the PRP effect (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e = -88.172, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001). This suggests that participants with lower initial levels of motivation of affect (i.e., those feeling more avoidant) had lower initial PRP effect values, indicating better dual-task coordination at the start. However, their rate of improvement in the PRP effect over time was slower, indicating poorer learning outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLongitudinal mediation effect test of motivation of affect\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo further explore the longitudinal mediating role of motivation of affect between neuroticism and the PRP effect, the Bootstrap method (1,000 resamples) was employed to test the mediating effects of the intercept and slope of intentional self-regulation. The model included two indirect paths:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1) Neuroticism \u0026rarr; motivation of affect Intercept \u0026rarr; PRP Effect Slope;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(2) Neuroticism \u0026rarr; motivation of affect Slope \u0026rarr; PRP Effect Slope.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Bootstrap results showed that both indirect paths were significant (see Table 7), indicating that neuroticism can indirectly negatively influence the slope of the PRP effect. Higher levels of neuroticism were associated with a smaller PRP effect slope, meaning that participants with higher neuroticism levels showed less improvement over time. The initial level and growth rate of motivation of affect played a longitudinal mediating role between neuroticism and the PRP effect.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the dual-task psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm was used to measure dual-task coordination ability, and it was found that the difficulty level of Task 2 (T2) significantly increased the effect size of the psychological refractory period. The more difficult T2 was, the poorer the dual-task coordination, suggesting that the central bottleneck processing stage of T2 and T1 may be parallel. This result validates the hypothesis and supports the Central Resource Sharing (CCS) model of dual-tasking (Tombu \u0026amp; Jolicœur, 2003).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe manipulation check results proved that the materials used in this study had significant priming effects on emotional valence, arousal, and motivational dimensions, simulating a richer emotional state. Neuroticism was negatively correlated with motivation of affect, and motivation of affect was negatively correlated with PRP effect size. The higher the level of neuroticism, the stronger the motivation of affect to avoid; the more avoidant the motivation of affect, the larger the PRP effect size, and thus the poorer the dual-task coordination. This is consistent with existing research findings that neuroticism hinders emotional regulation (Liang, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), and high-intensity avoidant motivation of affect is not conducive to the performance of executive functions (Yin, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHierarchical regression analysis, controlling for age, gender, emotional valence, and arousal, revealed that the motivation of affect dimension scores could still negatively predict PRP effect size. That is, the lower the motivation of affect dimension scores (more avoidant), the larger the PRP value, the poorer the dual-task coordination, and the larger the psychological refractory period effect. This indicates that motivation of affect indeed independently influences dual-task coordination beyond emotional valence and arousal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe PRP effect size gradually decreased over three days, demonstrating cognitive plasticity in dual-task coordination ability. Under negative emotional priming, individuals' motivation of affect levels also shifted from initial avoidance to normal, reflecting the process of emotional regulation. The conditional growth model showed that neuroticism could predict the initial level of motivation of affect but not the rate of change, suggesting that the direct impact of neuroticism on the dynamic changes in motivation of affect and dual-task coordination is not significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough no significant correlation was found between neuroticism and dual-task coordination in the preliminary analysis, existing research has found that individuals with high levels of neuroticism perform poorly in executive function tasks (Peng, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Given that dual-task coordination exhibits a practice effect, a longitudinal mediation analysis was further conducted, revealing that the motivation of affect dimension played a longitudinal mediating role between neuroticism and dual-task coordination. High neuroticism poses a disadvantage, negatively affecting executive function performance, while the motivation of affect dimension represents the degree of emotional avoidance or approach, reflecting the individual's current state and thereby influencing dual-task coordination performance. High neuroticism individuals have a typical avoidant characteristic, easily perceiving more avoidant motivation of affect, leading to poor dual-task coordination. This influence exists during the dual-task practice process, as negative emotional priming can make high neuroticism individuals experience more avoidant motivation of affect, thereby affecting the learning outcomes of dual-tasking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, this study also has some limitations. Firstly, in terms of the motivation of affect dimension, this study mainly investigated the avoidant direction, and the role of the approach direction of motivation of affect remains to be further explored. Secondly, no direct correlation was found between neuroticism and dual-task coordination performance, which is inconsistent with the hypothesis and previous studies. This may be because the participants in the study were all college students without psychological disorders, and their neuroticism scores were generally low (6.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.37). Future research can further explore and confirm the direct relationship between neuroticism and dual-task coordination or focus on groups with high neuroticism. Additionally, this study only discussed motivation of affect as a longitudinal mediating variable. Future research should aim to explore the interactions between different mediating variables, more systematically revealing the mediating mechanisms of neuroticism affecting dual-task coordination, thereby providing a theoretical basis for intervention practices to reduce the negative impact of neuroticism on executive function.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eBased on the above analysis, it can be seen that motivation of affect can negatively predict dual-task coordination ability, and over time, motivation of affect plays a longitudinal mediating role between neuroticism and dual-task coordination, affecting the learning speed of dual-task coordination. Both the intercept and slope of motivation of affect are mediating variables in the process of neuroticism affecting dual-task coordination. Therefore, in healthy populations, the role of neuroticism in dual-task coordination performance is a dynamic and indirect process.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eConflict of interest: Neither my co-authors nor I have any interests that might influence the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\nAuthor Contribution\nWuxu Lin designed and conducted the experiments, performed data analysis, and wrote the initial manuscript draft. Yaojing Chen supervised the research design, provided methodological guidance, and critically revised the intellectual content. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript."},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBlanke, E. S., Brose, A., Kalokerinos, E. K., Erbas, Y., Riediger, M., \u0026amp; Kuppens, P. (2020). 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Effects of negative emotion and gender difference on task switching.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eChinese Mental Health Journal\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e,\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e27\u003c/em\u003e(5), 396\u0026ndash;400.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYin, H., Zhang, L., Liu, P., \u0026amp; Li, D. (2023). How the dimension of negative motivation of affect influences time perception: The mediating role of attention control and attention bias.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eActa Psychologica Sinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e,\u003c/em\u003e 1\u0026ndash;15.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhang, G., \u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Zhou, R. (2013).\u0026nbsp;The Effect of Low Versus High Motivational Intensity Affect on Attentional Scope. \u003cem\u003eStudies of Psychology and Behavior, 11\u003c/em\u003e(1), 30\u0026ndash;36.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Motivational dimensional model of affect, Dual-task, Psychological refractory period, Longitudinal mediation, Neuroticism","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6257828/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6257828/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe capacity to coordinate dual tasks constitutes a critical element of executive function. In accordance with the motivational dimensional model of affect, high avoidance emotions restrain executive function. Concurrently, high levels of neuroticism are associated with poorer executive function and emotional regulation abilities. This study employed the psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm to measure dual-task coordination ability and investigate whether motivation of affect plays a longitudinal mediating role between neuroticism and dual-task coordination ability. The findings demonstrated that: (1) motivation of affect negatively predicted dual-task coordination ability; (2) Both dual-task coordination and motivation of affect underwent temporal variations, with individuals having higher levels of neuroticism manifesting stronger avoidance emotions at the initial stage; (3) Through the longitudinal mediation of the initial level and slope of change in the motivation of affect, individuals with higher neuroticism levels exhibited a slower rate of improvement in dual-task coordination ability during practice. Overall, the impact of neuroticism on the cognitive plasticity of dual-task performance can be accounted for through the longitudinal mediation of motivation of affect.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Longitudinal Mediation of the Motivational Dimension of Affect: Neuroticism and Dual-Task Cognitive Plasticity","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-01 07:44:40","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6257828/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b5a83259-5fee-4792-badf-6f74d6decb5d","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 1st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-05T12:08:46+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-01 07:44:40","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6257828","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6257828","identity":"rs-6257828","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}