Mineralization kinetics during embryonic avian bone growth: a three-dimensional multiscale and cryogenic imaging approach

Abstract Bone formation during embryonic development requires the rapid and sustained delivery of large amounts of calcium to mineralizing tissue. In avian embryos, this process coincides with a unique physiological transition in calcium supply, shifting from limited yolk reserves to massive mobilization from the eggshell. To address the question of how calcium transport responds to the increasing mineral demand during this transition, we combine micro computed tomography with three-dimensional cryogenic FIB-SEM imaging at different embryonic stages in the developing quail femur. Over this developmental period, bone mineralized volume increases rapidly through periosteal expansion. We observe that bone forming cells consistently contain numerous membrane-bound carriers loaded with mineral precursors throughout all growth stages. By integrating measurements across length scales, we calculate the intracellular velocities required to sustain the observed mineral deposition in the successive developmental stages. Surprisingly, these velocities remain within a similar range across development, despite the significant difference of bone formation rates, and are consistent with active transport by molecular motors. The increasing mineral demand corresponds to the expansion of mineralizing surfaces, which leads to an increasing number of cells, while the transport capacity of individual cells remains similar. Our work reveals a perfect tuning between the calcium transport capacity and bone growth, even in a situation where the skeletal growth is accelerating in the quail embryo. Significance statement Despite the importance of bone mineralization for the integrity of the skeleton, surprisingly little is known about how calcium is transported across the organic matrix to the mineralization sites during embryonal development. Using an avian model, where the main source of calcium shifts from a limited contribution from the yolk to the massive reservoir in the eggshell, we quantify bone mineral deposition using tissue level characterization together with three-dimensional cryogenic nanoscale imaging. We discover that intracellular vesicles containing mineral precursors are transported at similar speed, although the overall mineral deposition rate is increasing six-fold from embryonal day 10 to 14. This shows that the acceleration in mineralization activity is due to an increased number of bone cells rather than to a larger workload for individual cells. These findings demonstrate that rapid bone development is regulated to synchronize growth rates and mineral transport. Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. Footnotes Competing Interest Statement: The authors declare no competing interest.