Teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools: A narrative inquiry

Teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools: A narrative inquiry | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools: A narrative inquiry Andile Jideani This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7905234/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This article presents the results of a narrative inquiry into teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools. Five teachers who participated in the study were selected through homogeneous purposive sampling. Reflective activities, semi-structured interviews, and focus group interviews were used to generate data. Socio-cultural theory underpinned the study, and data were analysed inductively through thematic data analysis and critical discourse analysis (CDA). Findings highlight teachers’ perceptions of grammar as unengaging, the influence of prior classroom experiences on teacher beliefs, and teachers' lack of English grammar knowledge in some rural and township South African high schools. It is in this context that the study recommends the incorporation of technologically based approaches for English grammar teaching to stir up learners' interest and motivation. Critical Discourse Analysis English grammar Experiences Narrative inquiry Socio-cultural theory South African high schools Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Grammar, broadly defined as the study of word combinations to form sentences, is unique to each language and dictates how meaning is expressed (Yaccob &Yunus, 2019 ; Junior & Abdullah, 2021). Scholars highlight the importance of English grammar for second language learners and argue that grammar proficiency is vital for effective written communication despite the challenges learners face (Schurz & Cozumel, 2023; Ong, 2017 ). Furthermore, knowledge of grammar assists learners in correcting errors, improves writing, and fosters competence in communication (Uysal & Bardakci, 2014 ; Ong, 2020). Schurz and Cozumel (2023) also add that teaching grammar helps learners to internalise language rules, leading to better language usage and clearer assessment, and this points to the importance of grammar in ensuring continuity in the language and more identifiable assessment criteria. However, teachers and learners find grammar challenging to teach and learn despite its importance, indicating a persistent difficulty in second-language English education (Liviero, 2017 ; Soomro et al., 2023 ). The South African basic education system is governed by the Department of Basic Education (DBE) and encompasses Grades R (Reception) to 12. It is shaped by the country's diverse linguistic and cultural heritage and is aimed at promoting equitable, quality education for all (Crouch & Hoadley, 2018 ). It is characterised by primary education that includes grades R to 7 and high school level that starts from grades 8 to 12. The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) is the official curriculum. The country has a multilingual language policy, reflecting its 11 official languages, and while the policy supports mother tongue instruction, English is dominant. Hence, this study focuses on the teaching of English grammar to second language learners at a high school level. Furthermore, in the English First Additional Language grades 10 to 12 CAPS curriculum document, under the section ‘language structures and conventions’, it is outlined that grammar should be taught implicitly in the context of writing and reading. The document is silent on the use of mediating tools such as EdTech resources to teach the English grammar section to second language learners. Studies highlight challenges that English teachers and learners encounter during the teaching of English grammar, which include but are not limited to learners’ defeatist attitude, teachers' lack of grammar knowledge, and apprenticeship of observation (Soomro, Abbasi, & Kalhoro,2023; Rustamov & Mirza ogli, 2023 ; Andriani, Yuniar, & Abdullah, 2021 ). To mitigate this, research indicates that teachers may need to stop relying too much on traditional methods like rote teaching, chalk, and blackboard and embrace new approaches such as educational technology resources (Rossiter,2021; Pawlak, 2020 ). As such, Balouchi and Samad ( 2021 ) conducted a study that focused on using educational technology resources and found that emerging technologies have transformed how grammar is taught and have become key to teaching and learning. Thus, exploring experiences in teaching English grammar is necessary to understand how teachers unpack this section's intended curriculum in the classrooms. Even though there is an increase in the knowledge of modern teaching strategies in this era, teachers, especially in rural and township schools are unfamiliar with using the educational technology resources (EdTech), (hardware, software, and ideological ware resources) to draw their learners’ interest in learning English grammar (Zubaidi et al., 2025; Reeves, 2019). The ability of teachers viewed as digital refuges to use EdTech resources is often contested, while learners are viewed as digital natives (Wang, Myers & Sundaram, 2013 ). In other words, teachers often lag behind in using EdTech resources while learners are ahead of them; this discrepancy may affect teaching English grammar to second-language learners. Moreover, studies have been conducted in developed countries like the USA, the UK, and China on the subject and the challenges teachers and learners encounter in teaching and learning English as a second language. However, there is a gap as the problems persist despite having access to EdTech resources (Ong, 2017 ; Hoffmann, 2022 ; Qasserras, 2023 ). Therefore, this study explores teachers' experiences in this context. This comes after my observation and reflection as an English teacher that grammar is hated by teachers and learners, which explains poor performance. Hence, I want to understand teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar to improve learners’ performance. As a result, this study unpacks the following questions: What are teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools? And why do teachers teach English grammar in the manner they do in selected South African high schools? 2. Theorising Teachers’ Experiences: Socio-Cultural Theory (SCT) SCT explores the world's influence on the development of an individual and learning as a social process where development occurs through interaction with other people. Glǎveanu ( 2021 ) and Panhwar et.al ( 2016 ) argue that socio-cultural theory concerns society's important contributions to individual development, and Vygotsky, his co-workers, and successors developed this theory. The theory emphasises the interaction between culture and the development of people in their environment. Furthermore, SCT believes every function in an individual’s cultural development is social and individual (Pathan et al., 2018 ; Glǎveanu, 2021 ). This means that teachers’ experiences should be personal to address personal needs and social to address the needs of learners. SCT has different constructs (mediation, Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and scaffolding) that are useful in teaching English grammar, particularly at the high school level. According to Aimin ( 2013 ), mediation is a construct that unites all ventures of sociocultural theory. The author asserts that mediation is rooted in the observation that humans do not connect directly to the world, but symbolic and physical tools mediate their cognitive and material activities. Making language the most potent symbolic tool humans possess to mediate their connection to the world, each other, and themselves (Glǎveanu, 2021 ; Panhwar, 2016). Moreover, language is a crucial bridge between people globally, with English as a common language in many nations. According to Tylka et al. ( 2023 ), communication relies on symbolic tools like language, calculators, and computers to mediate. This implies that when teachers teach English grammar, they utilise language to convey the content of the lesson, and digital tools like laptops and the Internet can further support the learning process. In addition, language is the most relevant of these tools in this context, as the English teachers' experiences teaching grammar are explored because the study focuses on how English teachers communicate this section to the learners (Glǎveanu, 2021 ; Lantolf & Minakova, 2021). Hoffmann ( 2022 ) highlights that teaching English grammar to second-language speakers is essential for accurate language use and preventing mistakes that can disrupt clear communication. Moreover, teaching grammar effectively can resolve various speech and communication difficulties. However, teaching English grammar to speakers of other languages like Zulu can be challenging due to differences in grammatical structures and rules between English and native languages (Pawlak, 2021 ; Andriani, Yuniar, & Abdullah, 2021 ). This suggests cultural and contextual variations must be considered when teaching English grammar. In other words, teachers must draw from informal experiences, which drives them to choose mediating tools to teach English grammar. Mediation tools may include hardware resources, software resources, and Ideological resources to teach English grammar. The ZPD is the potential level of development where individuals learn independently and through the assistance of more knowledgeable others (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978 ; Enciso, 2020 ). This refers to the space where individuals and the ‘more knowledgeable other’ (MKO), who may be a teacher or parent, intersect to assist the learner in learning the second language (Scott & Palincsar, 2013 ; Andriani et.al., 2021 ). In the same way, Lantolf et al. ( 2020 ) suggest that the ZPD is important in learning a second language because other aspects of the language are acquired informally outside the classroom, while knowledge is acquired during formal teaching and learning. In contrast, if the learner learns the language independently, without the assistance of MKO, some mistakes would not be corrected (Glǎveanu,2021; Rossiter, 2021 ). In the context of this study, learners are expected to learn English grammar with the help of MKO. As such, in a case where teachers engage in the ZPD process, formal experiences should drive them because the Department of Education expects them to teach learners as prescribed in the intended curriculum. Scaffolding refers to various instructional techniques that gradually move learners toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process (Tylka et al., 2023 ). Martínez and Mejía ( 2020 ) suggest that cooperative learning activities involve scaffolding as a type of assistance from adults that enables learners to perform activities, solve problems, and accomplish what they could not have achieved without assistance. Furthermore, Balouchi and Samad ( 2021 ) state that from the level of ZPD, scaffolding requires teachers to take learners to a higher level of understanding where specific techniques and approaches are selected to enhance the learner’s knowledge. For example, if a learner already understands the different parts of speech, the teacher should leverage that foundation to help them form sentences using communicative language teaching (CLT). Conversely, if teachers do not employ appropriate teaching methods, learners may fail to grasp the intended subject matter, especially when learning English grammar, as supported by research from Enciso ( 2020 ) and Tylka et al. ( 2023 ). This suggests that teachers must use proper strategies to teach English grammar to second-language learners. Adopting relevant instructional techniques to teach English grammar suggests that non-formal experiences should drive teachers to select the most appropriate methods based on their preferences and the peculiarities of their classes. Vygotsky supports and encourages interactive learning and rejects teacher-centered teaching and learning (Eun, 2016 ; Mughal & Zafar, 2011 ). This suggests the importance of collaborative strategies that engage teachers and learners with socio-cultural values, norms, and interactions. In other words, teachers must be facilitators instead of instructors. Furthermore, the sociocultural approach suits language learning because it underscores interaction and critical mental progress (Mughal & Zafar, 2011 ; Enciso, 2020 ). Learning a language enables learners to explore topics related to their culture as they naturally incorporate their personal experiences into the learning process. Thus, making education relevant to learners’ daily lives, teachers seek to be driven by informal experiences as they use a social approach to teach English grammar. 3. Teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar to second language learners at a high school level Experience refers to the knowledge, skills, and understanding gained through personal involvement, observation, or participation in different events or activities (Dewey, 1938 ; Gutek, 2022). It is gained gradually through ongoing interaction with one's environment, influencing how individuals understand, respond to, and manage life's circumstances. Essentially, experience leads to the development of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. For example, when someone meditates on what took place in the past and decides what to do differently in the future. Furthermore, the relationship between time, reflection, and learning expectations is an important experience element (Killen, 2010; Loughran, 2013). Experience can also be defined as practical knowledge, skill, and attitude derived from practical knowledge or observing a particular activity (Dewey, 1938 ; Khoza, 2024 ). Studies identify three categories of experiences: non-formal (attitude), informal (skill), and formal (knowledge). Non-formal experience refers to one's values, attitudes, and beliefs regarding the educational resources’ teachers use to teach in South African high schools. This experience level requires teachers to think about different approaches to teaching grammar. A study by Khoza ( 2024 ) on curriculum vision supports Mvana’s ( 2025 ) assertion that each teacher’s ideology is key, as it cannot be replaced by other tools in teaching, meaning that they remain the best resources in class. The non-formal experience puts each teacher at the center of teaching. It allows teachers to consult their unique individual identities from formal and informal experiences to make informed decisions based on the needs of their learners (Khoza & Mpungose, 2018; Denhere & Moloi, 2021 ). This suggests that they get to practice their agency based on specific needs and are driven by personal identities such as the value of love, passion, and respect for others. Things could go wrong if teachers depended on personal preferences alone and were not guided by formal and informal experiences (Mpungose, 2020 ; Khoza & Mpungose, 2018). Informal experience relates to skills attained from others, and it implores teachers to draw from their own experiences to address communal needs. This includes having skills in Edtech, such as social media sites, artificial intelligence, and others (Denhere & Moloi, 2021 ; Mpungose, 2020 ). This suggests that teaching is a social process; thus, this level allows teachers to use social skills to teach grammar. A study by Mpungose ( 2020 ) found that while English teachers reflect on informal experiences, they have many options, such as YouTube videos on grammar and games. Furthermore, while the Internet offers valuable educational resources, there is a risk of using it for non-academic purposes. Teachers can mitigate this by directing learners to specific digital content, such as online newspapers and digital texts, to support learning (Nene, 2022 ; Nkohla, 2025). The study’s last and highest experience category is formal experiences, discussed below. Formal experience relates to knowledge, content, pedagogy, and hardware resources teachers use to interpret the curriculum (Khoza, 2024 ; Mpungose, 2020 ). Formal experiences involve interpreting what is in written documents; for example, the DBE has a CAPS curriculum that teachers must follow to ensure uniformity. A study of English lecturers' strategies to decolonise the curriculum at a South African university by Mbhele ( 2018 ) concluded that the curriculum guides teachers on what to teach, so they know what to prepare for. The study also highlights the limitations of depending on formal experiences, given that teaching each section is time-constrained. For example, it limits teachers' agency in adapting methods based on the peculiarity of each class and topics such as grammar. Formal experience positions the department and policymakers at the center of any action taken in teaching English grammar to second language learners. Grammar is described as the set of formal patterns in which the words of a language are arranged to convey meanings (Rossiter, 2021 ). It is a set of conversions and rules that govern language and a branch of linguistic science concerned with describing, analyzing, and formulating formal language patterns. Grammar also refers to principles or rules that govern the form and meaning of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences in a particular language (Muysken, 2020 ; Huddleston & Pullum, 2002). In grammar teaching and learning, phonology refers to the sound system, while graphology refers to the writing system, spelling, and punctuation (Givón, 2014 ; Nordmann, 2020 ). Moreover, Ong ( 2017 ) notes that grammar teaching is a vital area that should be prioritised, and Hoffmann ( 2022 ) adds that teachers and learners identify grammar as a challenge. This implies a reflection on the importance of English grammar content points that formal experiences would drive teachers. Uysal and Bardakci ( 2014 ) argue that teaching grammar enables learners to identify and fix errors, enhancing their writing. Additionally, Muysken ( 2020 ) and Horst ( 2012 ) emphasise the role of grammar in helping learners absorb and apply general language rules and patterns. It leads to producing materials employing descriptive grammar for writing (Liviero, 2017 ; Rossiter, 2021 ). The significance of grammar has recently been reaffirmed due to its role in preserving language continuity and establishing more precise assessment guidelines. Liviero ( 2017 ) also states that grammar aids learners in understanding, gaining clarity, building self-assurance, and learning from their mistakes. In this section, teachers would be driven by formal experiences to teach English grammar. Furthermore, Yusob ( 2018 ) conducted a study in Taiwan to understand the challenges of teaching second-language grammar in schools, and 15 teachers participated in the study. The study reveals a few challenges, including the teachers' experience. Several participants were not exposed to grammar teaching strategies but relied on previous learning and trial and error. This suggests that apprenticeship of observation exists in English classrooms because novice teachers tend to repeat the mistakes of their teachers. Having teachers reflecting on the teaching strategies they use to teach grammar suggests that they are driven by non-formal experiences to teach English grammar to second language learners. The apprenticeship of observation is synonymous with the claim that "teachers teach the way they were taught" (Gray, 2020 , p.30). In addition, Cancino et al. ( 2020 ) conducted a study on the summary of Lortie's' apprenticeship of observation and found out that learners are on the receiving end of what teachers do; they are in a position to notice teachers' actions and not in a position to be analytical about what they see. This suggests that they replicate almost everything they see without being critical about what they emulate. Therefore, I argue that the practice does not help the system because teachers should learn to develop their strategies in context as technology advances. Cancino et al. ( 2020 ) also identify the anti-apprenticeship observation as how ‘negative prior language learning experience influences teachers’ beliefs and practices. This suggests that such experiences may affect teachers’ beliefs throughout their careers. Reflecting on the teaching approaches would lead teachers to be driven by non-formal experiences. Akinbode ( 2008 ) studied challenges associated with teaching and learning English as a second language grammar in some African secondary schools. Results show that most language teachers’ instructional techniques were too formal and straightforward. This suggests that teachers were not creative enough when teaching English grammar. Shinga and Pillay (2021) agree with Akinbode ( 2008 ) that teachers’ deficient language competence and inadequate pedagogical knowledge are significant problems, as language teachers are expected to be dynamic. Kellerman, Evans, and Graham ( 2021 ) support Chen and Goh ( 2011 ) by adding that language teachers should be conversant with modern trends. This implies that they should use the same traditional techniques and adopt new methods. Doing that would make teachers driven by non-formal experiences to teach English grammar to second language learners. In the context of South African high schools, this challenge needs to be addressed so that teaching grammar can make sense to learners (Hannaway, Kellerman, Evans & Graham, 2021 ; Hannaway, 2019 ). Language teachers who want to be effective must be committed to developing themselves and be lifelong researchers to keep up with changing times (Çiftci & Özcan, 2021 ; Hannaway, 2019 ). By so doing, teachers would be driven by formal and informal experiences. 4. Research questions and objectives The purpose and objective of the study were to understand teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar to second language learners in selected South African high schools. The data was generated to answer the following research questions: What are teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools? Why do teachers teach English grammar in the manner they do in selected South African high schools? 5. Research Design and Methodology 5.1 Research Design, approach, paradigm, and style A narrative inquiry method explored teachers' experiences teaching English grammar to second language learners in selected South African high schools. Narrative inquiry is a way of understanding experience, the relationship between researcher and participants, and telling stories of people's skills that make their lives individual and social (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000 ; Clandinin, 2022 ). Pino Gavidia and Adu ( 2022 ) note that narrative inquiry is used in educational research because there is a link between life history and learning, as life, education, and experiences are inseparably intertwined. This is relevant to this study because it seeks to understand teachers' experiences while teaching English grammar to second-language learners. Hence, this study is guided by a qualitative research approach, which is important because it is more descriptive, holistic, explorative, and contextual (Yin, 2013 ; Creswell, 2017 ). In this research, a qualitative narrative inquiry has assisted me in establishing the deeper meaning of teachers’ experiences through the lens of the interpretive paradigm. Furthermore, this paradigm is suitable for this study as it aims to gain in-depth knowledge and understanding of teachers’ experiences (Pino Gavidia & Adu, 2022 ; Creswell & Poth, 2017 ; Yin, 2013 ). 5.2 Sampling and Ethics Sampling involves the researcher deciding which people, settings, events, and cases to observe in a particular study (Creswell & Poth, 2017 ; Busetto, Wick, & Gumbinger, 2020 ). Homogeneous purposive sampling was used to select five English teachers from KZN province of South Africa, three from township schools, and two from rural schools. The rationale behind selecting these participants is that the researcher aimed to get participants who are similar in terms of certain traits, like job title and demographic group, because we wanted to understand how they teach English grammar to second language learners in rural and township contexts. Also, Zano (2023) asserts that learners usually underperform in the English grammar section of the language in such contexts. Clandinin ( 2022 ) notes that in narrative inquiry research, there is no strict, universally defined minimum number of participants since it aims to explore individual experiences in detail; even a small number of participants can be sufficient if their stories are rich and provide a deep understanding of the phenomenon being studied. Furthermore, the decision to work with five teachers from these contexts was made because the purpose was to get in-depth insight into this specific group of teachers who teach in schools that are categorised as under-resourced and underperforming (Schoch, 2020). Hence, in this study, five English teachers from five different schools were interviewed individually and as a group. Below is the participants' Table 1 , indicating their experience and demographic group, context, and gender. Even though these teachers come from similar contexts (township and rural high schools), and they are all second language speakers of English, their individual differences, especially in teaching experience and language background, can shape how they perceive and navigate their work in meaningful ways. For example, having all of them as L2 speakers gives them a unique empathy for their learners, which can positively or negatively influence their teaching practices. Hence, that may be the reason why some teachers mentioned that they focus on other sections of the language other than grammar, because learners show signs of boredom when learning that section. Another factor could be individual proficiency levels and confidence in English, which may vary among them. Some teachers may feel self-conscious about their language use, which could affect their classroom presence or willingness to use more advanced materials. Concerning ethics, teachers’ names remain private, and informed consent letters and ethical clearance certificates were obtained from them and the university. I used ChatGPT to create the diagram summarising the discussion of my findings. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained, and voluntary participation was declared (Creswell, 2017 ; Yin, 2013 ). Table 1 Participants table Participants Qualifications Profession Gender Context Experience Native language P1 Honors English Teacher Female Rural 18 years isiZulu P2 Honors English Teacher Female Township 23years isiZulu P3 Honors English Teacher Female Rural 9 Years isiZulu P4 Masters English Teacher Male Township 9 Years isiZulu P5 PhD English Teacher Male Township 9 Years isiZulu 5.3 Data generation, analysis, trustworthiness, and limitations This study employed one-on-one semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and reflective activities as the primary data generation methods. These methods were selected to elicit rich, in-depth, and multifaceted understandings of participants’ experiences and perspectives. Semi-structured interviews allowed for the exploration of individual narratives, while focus group discussions facilitated the co-construction of meaning through social interaction. Reflective activities provided participants with the opportunity to introspect and articulate thoughts that may not emerge in conversation. Together, these methods offered a robust triangulation of data; it was a deliberate methodological choice that aligned with the study’s epistemological orientation and research objectives and questions, which enhanced the credibility of the findings. Reflection refers to thinking about their work and what happened and deciding what they would do differently next time (Ortiz & Duarte, 2019 ). The reflective activities were structured using the phenomenon of the study, ‘teachers' experiences’, (formal, informal, and non-formal experiences). This means I formed questions on the three levels os experiences, such as the use of formal documents such as CAPS, teachers’ use of EdTech resources, and their use of different approaches to teach English grammar. This encouraged participants to describe their experiences, analyse their teaching decisions, and consider alternative approaches. Prompts included questions such as “How have you been teaching English grammar? What worked well and why?” and “How might you approach this differently in the future?” To ensure validity, the prompts and structure were reviewed by my PhD supervisor. Feedback from the review informed refinements to the clarity and relevance of the prompts. Additionally, participants’ reflections were analyzed for depth and consistency to confirm that the activities elicited meaningful engagement with pedagogical issues. One-on-one semi-structured interviews “involve gathering data through direct verbal interaction between individuals” (Akmese, 2016 ). This is where the researcher had one-on-one interview sessions with each of the participants, where I expanded on the questions they had previously answered in the reflective activities. For instance, “Can you elaborate more on why you teach English grammar the way you do? What do you think can be done to solve that problem? “Do you use your cell phone for academic purposes, such as downloading a YouTube video that may be useful to your lesson? If yes, how? If no, why?” Which language theories do you use to teach English grammar, how do you use them, and explain how you use them in this section of the language? Asking such questions helped to get in-depth responses from the participants. During the focus group discussion, English was used as the medium of instruction, though all the teachers were multilingual. Focus groups are one of the most effective methods of generating data in qualitative research as they widen the range of responses, activating forgotten details of experiences (Maree, 2015 ; Silverman, 2015). Questions for the three data generation methods centred on teachers' experiences with teaching English grammar to second language learners in selected South African high schools. Participants, three females and two males with 9 to 23 years of experience, spoke candidly about their struggles with grammar instruction. Their tone shifted between humour and frustration, often drawing on personal stories from their experience in the English classroom daily. The reflective activity was conducted once, and the semi-structured interviews were conducted once for each teacher and lasted 40 minutes; focus group discussions were conducted once and included all the study’s participants for 45 minutes. Jwan and Ong’ondo ( 2011 ) and Cohen ( 2013 ) noted that qualitative research requires robust data generation to ensure documentation of research procedures and techniques to ensure credibility and triangulation; hence, I used multiple data generation methods. An audio recorder was used to record one-on-one semi-structured and focus group interviews for easy transcription, done after the data generation processes. The data was analysed through thematic and critical discourse analysis (CDA). Inductive analysis was used to generate three themes from the data (Bertram & Christiansen, 2014 ). CDA is an analytical discourse examining the relationship between language and society and the study of language in texts and conversations. It analyses written and verbal language (Chebitok, 2021 ; Van Dijk, 2015 ). This suggests that CDA analyses the use of language by different people in different spheres of life. Transferability, dependability, confirmability, and Credibility were ensured to confirm the trustworthiness of the findings (Kecea, 2015; Akmese, 2016 ). To ensure the trustworthiness of this qualitative study, strategies were employed to address credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Data were generated through semi-structured interviews, reflective activities, and focus group conversations, enabling triangulation across multiple sources (Creswell, 2017 ). Member checking was conducted to validate participants’ interpretations, while peer debriefing supported critical reflection on emerging themes. An audit track of coding and analytic decisions was maintained to promote dependability, and reflexive journaling was used throughout the research process to enhance confirmability (Pervin & Mokhtar, 2022). Thick descriptions of the research context and participants were provided to support transferability. One of the limitations of this study is that narrative inquiry may lead to the researcher being biased because of subjectivity. This is because narrative inquiry heavily relies on participants' personal stories and the researcher's interpretation of those stories. This can introduce subjectivity, where the researcher’s beliefs, assumptions, or emotions may shape the narrative analysis, potentially affecting the credibility of the findings (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000 ; Clandinin, 2022 ). To overcome this, I shared my interpretations or story reconstructions with participants to verify accuracy and ensure their voices are faithfully represented. Another limitation was that narrative inquiry often focuses on a small number of participants, exploring their stories in-depth; in this case, I used only five participants. This means the findings may not be easily generalizable to broader populations or contexts. However, I overcame this limitation; I ensured trustworthiness by providing thick descriptions of the participants and context so that readers can judge whether the findings are relevant or applicable to their own settings (Jwan & Ong’ondo, 2011 ). 6. Presentation of findings This section presents the results from the participants’ responses as they discuss their experiences of teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools. To answer the study’s first research questions, what are teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools? Excerpts were extracted from the participants’ responses from reflective activities, one-on-one semi-structured interviews, and focus group discussions as they are. In this section, I used pseudonyms such as P1, P2, and so forth to refer to the participants who participated in this study. This section unpacks the first theme, Perceptions of grammar as unengaging, the second theme, as influence of prior classroom experiences on teacher beliefs, and the last theme, as Teachers' lack of grammar knowledge. Table 2 below outlines each theme with each SCT’s construct and experience category. Table 2 Themes and Phenomenon Categorization Themes and levels of SCT Categories Perceptions of grammar as unengaging-Mediating tools Informal experiences: software resources, implemented curriculum, artificial intelligence, internet, and wifi Influence of prior classroom experiences on teacher beliefs-ZPD Non-formal experience: personal identity, love, respect, self-esteem, personal needs, self-direction, agency, teaching approaches Teachers' lack of grammar knowledge- Scaffolding Formal experience: hardware resources, intended curriculum, professionalism, and formal actions 7. Theme 1: Perceptions of grammar as unengaging A recurring theme in participant responses was the perception of grammar instruction as unengaging and monotonous, often leading to reduced motivation and participation in class activities. Mufanti et al. ( 2019 ) state that teaching grammar in a spoon-feeding way and in a traditional way alone makes learners lose interest in the language. This suggests that for grammar teaching to be effective, teachers must be innovative and creative to draw their learners' interest. In line with this. P5 and P3 stated, ‘ But grammar is boring, it is like Maths, you need to focus, you know there is this boring stuff, syntax, the rules that must be followed, so learners do not want that, ‘they feel bored.’ This suggests that even teachers realize this section is boring and unengaging to the learners. In line with this, P2 also noted: ‘ Learners feel bored while teaching English grammar, so I start by motivating them’. ‘English teachers need to prepare learners’ minds before the teaching and learning of English grammar starts. P1 and 4 added, ‘We all experienced the same problem as paper one, the grammar section.’ This implies that most English teachers have the same problem in teaching grammar. Hence, they choose to focus on sections that are simpler for the learners so that they will progress. Thus, non-formal experiences are essential to guide teachers in teaching English grammar. Moreover, in alignment with SCT’s mediation, teachers may use EdTech resources as mediating tools to teach English grammar to their learners. 8. Theme 2: Influence of Prior Classroom Experiences on Teacher Beliefs Another dominant theme emerging from the data was the influence of participants’ prior experiences as students on their current teaching beliefs and practices. This aligns with the concept of the ‘apprenticeship of observation’, where future educators internalise teaching behaviors observed during their own schooling. Lortie ( 2020 ) introduced the apprenticeship of observation, which refers to the notion that teachers tend to teach how they were taught when they were learners. This may happen unconsciously, especially if individuals do not intend to develop themselves to grow professionally. In the same way, P3 and P1: ‘The teachers are still using the old methods; maybe if we can change the teaching methods, learners can improve grammar. You know, the old teaching methods that we were using. I have seen that learners get excited if they come with something like a projector in class. P2 adds, ‘Learners need to be actively involved and engage in all the lessons.’ P3 adds, ‘The old teaching methods that we were using, you know them… that is why you find that I go to the class with my book and the chalk so that the learners will be bored’. P1 stated, ‘Check and ask yourself, do I know this perfectly? If you lack something, get all the information you need online. Using the previous question paper is the best; find something online to prepare your lessons. In addition, P1 and P5 responded: ‘Teachers use the teaching styles in their high schools. they do not even have an interest in doing research or learning so that they can teach it effectively. I had to use life examples so that they would be able to understand and connect to life instances, and that is how it helped a bit, I would say. Now, we have technology and smartphones. You can just take some grammar courses online to improve yourself . The above responses from the participants show a problem with apprenticeship of observation. This means that teachers still use the same traditional teaching strategies; they have not embraced the use of Edtech through blended learning. Strengthening modern approaches and methods to teach English grammar can instill teachers' habit of reflecting on informal experiences, and that can enable a successful ZPD process during the teaching and learning process of English grammar to second language learners. 9. Theme 3: Teachers' lack of grammar knowledge Balouchi and Samad ( 2021 ) note that although many English teachers have several years of experience teaching the language, they still lack grammatical awareness and knowledge. This supports what was indicated by the English teachers in this section, which is that they have gaps and lack knowledge of English grammar. As such, P3, HoD adds, “Some educators I am sharing the subject with say ‘I am not good at teaching paper 1(grammar section), so they just focus on paper 3 and paper 2. We are very lazy when teaching grammar; some teachers even bunk their periods. P5 also adds, “ I think it is high time that we say that as English teachers, we must upgrade ourselves. Let us go for honors and go for master’s degrees. Let us go for PhDs and develop as educators; let our content and method develop as English teachers”. This suggests a need for continuous teachers’ professional development, especially in grammar knowledge. Furthermore, P4 notes, “They need to ask themselves: How can I improve myself to deliver better lessons? This means that one needs to develop oneself to be better.” P2 and add that the elderly teachers would say, ‘I have been teaching this for many years, so you cannot tell me this and this and that.’ Other teachers may need workshops and development specifically on English grammar. Thus, strengthening teachers’ knowledge of English grammar would help formal experiences drive teachers, and the scaffolding process would be effective. 10. Discussion of findings The diagram below summarises the findings of this research, followed by further discussion of the findings. This section discusses findings from the presented findings on teachers' experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools. Based on the participants’ responses, this section delves into analysing the results from the previously presented data through CDA, and with that, the second research question is answered: Why do teachers teach English grammar in the manner they do in selected South African high schools? In this section, I still maintained the use of pseudonyms such as P1, P2, and so forth to refer to the participants who participated in this study. The discussion of findings is guided by the study’s three themes: Perceptions of grammar as unengaging, the second theme, as influence of prior classroom experiences on teacher beliefs, and the last theme, as Teachers' lack of grammar knowledge. Findings show that there is a strong perception that grammar is unengaging during the teaching of English grammar in selected South African high schools. This indicates how both learners and teachers perceive English grammar; the focus is on boredom associated with grammar instruction. This aligns with Andriani’s (2021) assertion that learners usually get bored in English grammar lessons, which may be caused by different factors, such as holding on to traditional methods. Teaching grammar in a traditional way alone makes learners lose interest in the learning process (Mufanti et al., 2019 ; Jideani, 2023 ). This suggests that teachers need to be innovative and creative for teaching to be effective. To alleviate this, teachers can adopt different EdTech resources, such as computers and online grammar lessons, and use Ideological resources as mediating tools to stir up learners’ interest during the teaching process. Furthermore, teachers’ description of grammar as "boring" compared to "Maths" indicates a perception of grammar as rigid, rule-bound, and technical, requiring focused attention and often resulting in disengagement. In the same way, Zubaidi and Velusamy ( 2025 ) state that using EdTech resources can be an effective strategy to address this challenge, given that learners today are techno-savvy. Therefore, teachers would be driven by informal experiences in this context as they choose the mediating tools to teach English grammar to second language learners. Findings also indicate that teachers’ responses reflect a conflict between old teaching methods and the desire for innovation through more engaging, interactive techniques. This implies that English teachers still hold on to the apprenticeship of observation, even though they long to adopt new approaches. Cancino et al. ( 2020 ) note that anti-apprenticeship observation refers to how ‘negative prior language learning experience influences English language teachers’ beliefs and practices. In the context of this study, it is the process where English teachers teach the way they were taught, even if it is ineffective. Furthermore, mentioning that "teachers are still using the old methods" suggests that resistance to innovation exists. This resistance could be driven by familiarity, comfort, or a lack of training in new pedagogies. Furthermore, P3 and P1's comments about the "old methods" highlight a power structure within the teaching profession that maintains traditional, authoritative methods. These methods are positioned as outdated and ineffective, contributing to learners' boredom and disengagement. The chalk-and-talk approach is typically teacher-centered, where the teacher holds all the knowledge and learners passively absorb information. This reflects a broader pedagogical ideology that privileges teachers as knowledge authorities and assumes a one-way flow of information. Kellerman, Evans, and Graham ( 2021 ) assert that language teachers should keep up with contemporary trends. In addition, Rahman et al. ( 2020 ) note that being flexible may help teachers be reflexive and make the classroom more comfortable and interactive. English teachers should embrace modern approaches such as the YouGlish task-based approach (TBA) that emphasises that language skills should be taught in context and CLT to enhance learners’ existing knowledge. This can happen when they engage with learners as MKO during the ZPD process while teaching English grammar to English second-language learners. Therefore, teachers would be driven by non-formal experiences in this context as they each decide on the teaching strategies for English grammar based on their beliefs and personal preferences. Findings also highlight teachers’ lack of grammar knowledge. P3’s comment about educators saying, “I am not good at teaching paper 1 (grammar section), so they just focus on paper 3 and paper 2,” highlights a certain level of reluctance and avoidance towards teaching grammar. This reluctance is compounded by the claim of teachers being "lazy" when teaching grammar and even skipping periods ("bunking their periods"). This suggests that such teachers do not have sufficient grammar knowledge to teach their learners; hence, they tend to avoid the section. Related to this, Soomro et al. ( 2023 ) assert that teachers' lack of grammar knowledge is one of the challenges in teaching English grammar to second-language learners. In the same way, Rustamov and Mirza Ogli ( 2023 ) add that this may be because the grammar was not taught explicitly while they were in teacher training institutions. Furthermore, the reference to "laziness" can be interpreted as a power struggle between the expectations of the education system and the realities teachers face in delivering content. By calling teachers "lazy," there is an implied disdain for their perceived lack of effort in engaging with grammar, which often requires more effort and is considered harder to teach. This reflects a power dynamic where teachers' competence is judged against the expectation that they should be able to teach all components of the curriculum. As such, Khoza ( 2024 ) notes that teachers are seen as curriculum managers with rich knowledge of their specific subject matter. However, findings suggest that this is not always the case, as teachers admit the difficulties they face while teaching certain sections, such as English grammar. Hence, while teachers play the role of the MKO as expected by the basic education department during the SCT’s scaffolding process, they find the grammar section challenging to teach. Therefore, teachers would be driven by formal experiences in this context as they teach grammar from the intended curriculum. 11. Conclusion and implications for education The study concludes that English teachers face different challenges when teaching English grammar as a second language. This study summarises these challenges as ‘perceptions of grammar as unengaging,’ ‘influence of prior classroom experiences on teacher beliefs,’ and ‘teachers’ lack of grammar knowledge.’ Findings highlight widespread boredom among learners when English grammar is taught in South African high schools. This boredom can largely be attributed to educators' traditional, rigid, rule-bound methods that fail to engage students' interest. Both Andriani (2021) and Mufanti et al. ( 2019 ) highlight that the conventional approach to grammar instruction often leads to disengagement, suggesting that there is a need for a more dynamic, interactive, and engaging teaching methodology. The perception of grammar as "boring" compared to subjects like Maths further underscores the need to reframe grammar instruction to make it more appealing and engaging for students. In response to this challenge, EdTech resources such as hardware resources, software resources, and PBL as ideological resources can be powerful tools for transforming grammar teaching. Using these resources aligns with the needs of tech-savvy learners. Teachers can utilise these tools to create an innovative, engaging, and student-centered approach to teaching English grammar, fostering more active participation and interest in the subject. The study, therefore, recommends incorporating EdTech Resources when teaching English grammar to second-language learners. Teachers should incorporate various EdTech resources to make grammar lessons more engaging. Since learners are increasingly becoming tech-savvy, these resources can facilitate more personalised, collaborative, and interactive learning experiences. This approach can significantly reduce the monotony of traditional grammar lessons and better cater to students' diverse learning styles. By so doing, teachers' EdTech resources can be used, meaning informal experiences would drive teachers. Given the limited access to digital infrastructure in the studied schools (rural and township schools), low-bandwidth and mobile-friendly tools such as WhatsApp and Google Forms could be used to support collaborative lesson planning and learner feedback. Additionally, pre-recorded video tutorials aligned with the national curriculum could be shared via USB drives or mobile apps to overcome unreliable internet access. On the issue of apprenticeship of observation, the study concludes that many teachers still cling to outdated, authoritative, and teacher-centered approaches despite recognizing that these methods contribute to learner disengagement and boredom (Rahman et al., 2020 ; Cancino et al., 2020 ; Jideani, 2023 ). This pattern, referred to as the "apprenticeship of observation," where teachers teach as they were taught, suggests that these educators are influenced by their previous learning experiences, even if those methods are ineffective in contemporary classrooms. This resistance to change may stem from the comfort and familiarity of old methods or insufficient professional development in modern pedagogies. The persistence of traditional methods also reflects a deeper issue within the education system—a power structure that positions teachers as the primary sources of knowledge. This structure limits interaction and learner agency, undermining the potential for more dynamic, learner-centered teaching practices. However, teachers' increasing recognition of the limitations of these methods also highlights a desire for change. By embracing more innovative, interactive, and student-centered approaches like YouGlish or CLT, teachers can bridge the gap between their personal beliefs and the evolving needs of their learners. The study recommends that English teachers should be provided with continuous professional development opportunities to update their teaching practices. This includes training in modern language teaching methods such as YouGlish, CLT, and the text based approach, to promote language teaching in context as prescribed in the CAPS curriculum (Aqib, Ekawati & Khabibah, 2025 ; Çiftci & Özcan, 2021 ). Such training should focus on the benefits of moving away from traditional methods and offer practical strategies for integrating technology and innovative approaches into grammar instruction. Such professional development can help teachers to be trained on teaching strategies that would help them to effectively scaffold their learners' grammar knowledge to a higher level. By so doing, teachers would be driven by non-formal experiences to teach English grammar to second language learners. The study concludes that English teachers' insufficient grammar knowledge leads to reluctance to teach grammar. Teachers' admission of avoiding grammar or being "lazy" in delivering it indicates that many lack the necessary confidence or expertise to teach it effectively. This is compounded by a historical gap in grammar instruction during teacher training, as noted by Soomro et al. ( 2023 ) and Rustamov and Mirza Ogli ( 2023 ), which leaves teachers underprepared. The term "laziness" suggests a deeper issue of power dynamics, where the expectation that teachers should be able to teach all curriculum components creates tension between their perceived competence and the reality of their challenges. Grammar instruction requires specialised knowledge, and teachers' struggles to teach it can be viewed as a reflection of their limited training rather than a lack of effort. This highlights an important gap in teacher preparation and professional development that must be addressed to ensure teachers can confidently and effectively teach all parts of the English curriculum, including grammar. In addition, rather than relying solely on centralised workshops, continuous professional development (CPD) in this context could take the form of school-based peer mentoring, where experienced teachers support less experienced colleagues in using EdTech tools for specific classroom tasks. Monthly reflective meetings and informal peer observations could be integrated into existing staff meetings to reduce additional workload and promote shared learning. For instance, one participant, a department head with 17 years of experience, noted that after observing students’ poor grammar performance and teachers’ lack of enthusiasm, she plans to hold regular training for novice English teachers on the importance of grammar and effective, engaging ways to teach it. Findings also indicate that teachers face a disconnect between their role as curriculum managers and the practical difficulties they encounter in delivering content, particularly grammar. This disconnect points to a need for more targeted support in areas where teachers feel least equipped, especially in teaching grammar to second-language learners. Based on these conclusions, the study recommends that teachers be encouraged to engage in reflective practice, considering their teaching experiences and identifying areas where they feel less competent, such as grammar. Regular reflection on their teaching methods and challenges can help teachers become more self-aware and actively seek professional development or collaboration opportunities to improve their skills. With constant reflection, teachers may need to develop their knowledge of grammar to play the role of MKO effectively during the ZPD process. By so doing, teachers would be driven by formal experiences to teach English grammar to second language learners. Declarations Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. Ethical Approval Statement All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee. This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors. Ethical approval was obtained from the Humanities & Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee. The ethics clearance document indicated that the research involved human participants who participated voluntarily in the study, having given informed consent. Their names were anonymized, and the research did not involve the use of animals. The protocol reference number is HSSREC/00003405/2023, and the date of approval was 27 November 2023. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7905234","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":538661721,"identity":"fdac99a2-6ea3-4b1b-b395-9dd14861d203","order_by":0,"name":"Andile 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12:35:38","extension":"xml","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":158576,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"73fe682ce839402999ea5367d647ca0a1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7905234/v1/8430e089ae95d54d8dc1f44f.xml"},{"id":95658170,"identity":"2d69e094-2079-4e83-9c4a-0754dd5e4427","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:23:30","extension":"html","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":179351,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7905234/v1/cb73b65b4bbfaf1440d35e33.html"},{"id":95636701,"identity":"78552f9e-531a-4a82-a8f6-f70fc859baf9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 12:35:38","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":110969,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTheme, SCT’s constructs, and Experience levels\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7905234/v1/970eb28a65b3bd9c6c36f103.png"},{"id":102011731,"identity":"a4c27aed-92cf-4ccf-bb6c-967d29d6fe9b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-06 06:26:05","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1002667,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7905234/v1/1744a9ed-e04b-4b1e-b38a-6f860cad9f18.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools: A narrative inquiry","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGrammar, broadly defined as the study of word combinations to form sentences, is unique to each language and dictates how meaning is expressed (Yaccob \u0026amp;Yunus, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Junior \u0026amp; Abdullah, 2021). Scholars highlight the importance of English grammar for second language learners and argue that grammar proficiency is vital for effective written communication despite the challenges learners face (Schurz \u0026amp; Cozumel, 2023; Ong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, knowledge of grammar assists learners in correcting errors, improves writing, and fosters competence in communication (Uysal \u0026amp; Bardakci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Ong, 2020). Schurz and Cozumel (2023) also add that teaching grammar helps learners to internalise language rules, leading to better language usage and clearer assessment, and this points to the importance of grammar in ensuring continuity in the language and more identifiable assessment criteria. However, teachers and learners find grammar challenging to teach and learn despite its importance, indicating a persistent difficulty in second-language English education (Liviero, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Soomro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR119\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe South African basic education system is governed by the Department of Basic Education (DBE) and encompasses Grades R (Reception) to 12. It is shaped by the country's diverse linguistic and cultural heritage and is aimed at promoting equitable, quality education for all (Crouch \u0026amp; Hoadley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). It is characterised by primary education that includes grades R to 7 and high school level that starts from grades 8 to 12. The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) is the official curriculum. The country has a multilingual language policy, reflecting its 11 official languages, and while the policy supports mother tongue instruction, English is dominant. Hence, this study focuses on the teaching of English grammar to second language learners at a high school level. Furthermore, in the English First Additional Language grades 10 to 12 CAPS curriculum document, under the section \u0026lsquo;language structures and conventions\u0026rsquo;, it is outlined that grammar should be taught implicitly in the context of writing and reading. The document is silent on the use of mediating tools such as EdTech resources to teach the English grammar section to second language learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudies highlight challenges that English teachers and learners encounter during the teaching of English grammar, which include but are not limited to learners\u0026rsquo; defeatist attitude, teachers' lack of grammar knowledge, and apprenticeship of observation (Soomro, Abbasi, \u0026amp; Kalhoro,2023; Rustamov \u0026amp; Mirza ogli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR126\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Andriani, Yuniar, \u0026amp; Abdullah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). To mitigate this, research indicates that teachers may need to stop relying too much on traditional methods like rote teaching, chalk, and blackboard and embrace new approaches such as educational technology resources (Rossiter,2021; Pawlak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). As such, Balouchi and Samad (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a study that focused on using educational technology resources and found that emerging technologies have transformed how grammar is taught and have become key to teaching and learning. Thus, exploring experiences in teaching English grammar is necessary to understand how teachers unpack this section's intended curriculum in the classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEven though there is an increase in the knowledge of modern teaching strategies in this era, teachers, especially in rural and township schools are unfamiliar with using the educational technology resources (EdTech), (hardware, software, and ideological ware resources) to draw their learners\u0026rsquo; interest in learning English grammar (Zubaidi et al., 2025; Reeves, 2019). The ability of teachers viewed as digital refuges to use EdTech resources is often contested, while learners are viewed as digital natives (Wang, Myers \u0026amp; Sundaram, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR136\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). In other words, teachers often lag behind in using EdTech resources while learners are ahead of them; this discrepancy may affect teaching English grammar to second-language learners. Moreover, studies have been conducted in developed countries like the USA, the UK, and China on the subject and the challenges teachers and learners encounter in teaching and learning English as a second language. However, there is a gap as the problems persist despite having access to EdTech resources (Ong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Hoffmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Qasserras, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, this study explores teachers' experiences in this context. This comes after my observation and reflection as an English teacher that grammar is hated by teachers and learners, which explains poor performance. Hence, I want to understand teachers\u0026rsquo; experiences teaching English grammar to improve learners\u0026rsquo; performance. As a result, this study unpacks the following questions: What are teachers\u0026rsquo; experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools? And why do teachers teach English grammar in the manner they do in selected South African high schools?\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Theorising Teachers’ Experiences: Socio-Cultural Theory (SCT)","content":"\u003cp\u003eSCT explores the world's influence on the development of an individual and learning as a social process where development occurs through interaction with other people. Glǎveanu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Panhwar et.al (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR107\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) argue that socio-cultural theory concerns society's important contributions to individual development, and Vygotsky, his co-workers, and successors developed this theory. The theory emphasises the interaction between culture and the development of people in their environment. Furthermore, SCT believes every function in an individual\u0026rsquo;s cultural development is social and individual (Pathan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Glǎveanu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This means that teachers\u0026rsquo; experiences should be personal to address personal needs and social to address the needs of learners. SCT has different constructs (mediation, Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and scaffolding) that are useful in teaching English grammar, particularly at the high school level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to Aimin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), mediation is a construct that unites all ventures of sociocultural theory. The author asserts that mediation is rooted in the observation that humans do not connect directly to the world, but symbolic and physical tools mediate their cognitive and material activities. Making language the most potent symbolic tool humans possess to mediate their connection to the world, each other, and themselves (Glǎveanu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Panhwar, 2016). Moreover, language is a crucial bridge between people globally, with English as a common language in many nations. According to Tylka et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR128\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), communication relies on symbolic tools like language, calculators, and computers to mediate. This implies that when teachers teach English grammar, they utilise language to convey the content of the lesson, and digital tools like laptops and the Internet can further support the learning process. In addition, language is the most relevant of these tools in this context, as the English teachers' experiences teaching grammar are explored because the study focuses on how English teachers communicate this section to the learners (Glǎveanu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Lantolf \u0026amp; Minakova, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHoffmann (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) highlights that teaching English grammar to second-language speakers is essential for accurate language use and preventing mistakes that can disrupt clear communication. Moreover, teaching grammar effectively can resolve various speech and communication difficulties. However, teaching English grammar to speakers of other languages like Zulu can be challenging due to differences in grammatical structures and rules between English and native languages (Pawlak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Andriani, Yuniar, \u0026amp; Abdullah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests cultural and contextual variations must be considered when teaching English grammar. In other words, teachers must draw from informal experiences, which drives them to choose mediating tools to teach English grammar. Mediation tools may include hardware resources, software resources, and Ideological resources to teach English grammar.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe ZPD is the potential level of development where individuals learn independently and through the assistance of more knowledgeable others (Vygotsky \u0026amp; Cole, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR134\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Enciso, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This refers to the space where individuals and the \u0026lsquo;more knowledgeable other\u0026rsquo; (MKO), who may be a teacher or parent, intersect to assist the learner in learning the second language (Scott \u0026amp; Palincsar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR117\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Andriani et.al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In the same way, Lantolf et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) suggest that the ZPD is important in learning a second language because other aspects of the language are acquired informally outside the classroom, while knowledge is acquired during formal teaching and learning. In contrast, if the learner learns the language independently, without the assistance of MKO, some mistakes would not be corrected (Glǎveanu,2021; Rossiter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR125\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In the context of this study, learners are expected to learn English grammar with the help of MKO. As such, in a case where teachers engage in the ZPD process, formal experiences should drive them because the Department of Education expects them to teach learners as prescribed in the intended curriculum.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eScaffolding refers to various instructional techniques that gradually move learners toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process (Tylka et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR128\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Mart\u0026iacute;nez and Mej\u0026iacute;a (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) suggest that cooperative learning activities involve scaffolding as a type of assistance from adults that enables learners to perform activities, solve problems, and accomplish what they could not have achieved without assistance. Furthermore, Balouchi and Samad (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) state that from the level of ZPD, scaffolding requires teachers to take learners to a higher level of understanding where specific techniques and approaches are selected to enhance the learner\u0026rsquo;s knowledge. For example, if a learner already understands the different parts of speech, the teacher should leverage that foundation to help them form sentences using communicative language teaching (CLT).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConversely, if teachers do not employ appropriate teaching methods, learners may fail to grasp the intended subject matter, especially when learning English grammar, as supported by research from Enciso (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and Tylka et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR128\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that teachers must use proper strategies to teach English grammar to second-language learners. Adopting relevant instructional techniques to teach English grammar suggests that non-formal experiences should drive teachers to select the most appropriate methods based on their preferences and the peculiarities of their classes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVygotsky supports and encourages interactive learning and rejects teacher-centered teaching and learning (Eun, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Mughal \u0026amp; Zafar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests the importance of collaborative strategies that engage teachers and learners with socio-cultural values, norms, and interactions. In other words, teachers must be facilitators instead of instructors. Furthermore, the sociocultural approach suits language learning because it underscores interaction and critical mental progress (Mughal \u0026amp; Zafar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Enciso, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Learning a language enables learners to explore topics related to their culture as they naturally incorporate their personal experiences into the learning process. Thus, making education relevant to learners\u0026rsquo; daily lives, teachers seek to be driven by informal experiences as they use a social approach to teach English grammar.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar to second language learners at a high school level","content":"\u003cp\u003eExperience refers to the knowledge, skills, and understanding gained through personal involvement, observation, or participation in different events or activities (Dewey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1938\u003c/span\u003e; Gutek, 2022). It is gained gradually through ongoing interaction with one's environment, influencing how individuals understand, respond to, and manage life's circumstances. Essentially, experience leads to the development of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. For example, when someone meditates on what took place in the past and decides what to do differently in the future. Furthermore, the relationship between time, reflection, and learning expectations is an important experience element (Killen, 2010; Loughran, 2013). Experience can also be defined as practical knowledge, skill, and attitude derived from practical knowledge or observing a particular activity (Dewey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1938\u003c/span\u003e; Khoza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Studies identify three categories of experiences: non-formal (attitude), informal (skill), and formal (knowledge).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-formal experience refers to one's values, attitudes, and beliefs regarding the educational resources\u0026rsquo; teachers use to teach in South African high schools. This experience level requires teachers to think about different approaches to teaching grammar. A study by Khoza (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) on curriculum vision supports Mvana\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) assertion that each teacher\u0026rsquo;s ideology is key, as it cannot be replaced by other tools in teaching, meaning that they remain the best resources in class. The non-formal experience puts each teacher at the center of teaching. It allows teachers to consult their unique individual identities from formal and informal experiences to make informed decisions based on the needs of their learners (Khoza \u0026amp; Mpungose, 2018; Denhere \u0026amp; Moloi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that they get to practice their agency based on specific needs and are driven by personal identities such as the value of love, passion, and respect for others. Things could go wrong if teachers depended on personal preferences alone and were not guided by formal and informal experiences (Mpungose, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Khoza \u0026amp; Mpungose, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInformal experience relates to skills attained from others, and it implores teachers to draw from their own experiences to address communal needs. This includes having skills in Edtech, such as social media sites, artificial intelligence, and others (Denhere \u0026amp; Moloi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mpungose, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that teaching is a social process; thus, this level allows teachers to use social skills to teach grammar. A study by Mpungose (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) found that while English teachers reflect on informal experiences, they have many options, such as YouTube videos on grammar and games. Furthermore, while the Internet offers valuable educational resources, there is a risk of using it for non-academic purposes. Teachers can mitigate this by directing learners to specific digital content, such as online newspapers and digital texts, to support learning (Nene, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Nkohla, 2025). The study\u0026rsquo;s last and highest experience category is formal experiences, discussed below.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormal experience relates to knowledge, content, pedagogy, and hardware resources teachers use to interpret the curriculum (Khoza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Mpungose, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Formal experiences involve interpreting what is in written documents; for example, the DBE has a CAPS curriculum that teachers must follow to ensure uniformity. A study of English lecturers' strategies to decolonise the curriculum at a South African university by Mbhele (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) concluded that the curriculum guides teachers on what to teach, so they know what to prepare for. The study also highlights the limitations of depending on formal experiences, given that teaching each section is time-constrained. For example, it limits teachers' agency in adapting methods based on the peculiarity of each class and topics such as grammar. Formal experience positions the department and policymakers at the center of any action taken in teaching English grammar to second language learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrammar is described as the set of formal patterns in which the words of a language are arranged to convey meanings (Rossiter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR125\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It is a set of conversions and rules that govern language and a branch of linguistic science concerned with describing, analyzing, and formulating formal language patterns. Grammar also refers to principles or rules that govern the form and meaning of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences in a particular language (Muysken, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Huddleston \u0026amp; Pullum, 2002). In grammar teaching and learning, phonology refers to the sound system, while graphology refers to the writing system, spelling, and punctuation (Giv\u0026oacute;n, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Nordmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, Ong (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) notes that grammar teaching is a vital area that should be prioritised, and Hoffmann (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) adds that teachers and learners identify grammar as a challenge. This implies a reflection on the importance of English grammar content points that formal experiences would drive teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUysal and Bardakci (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) argue that teaching grammar enables learners to identify and fix errors, enhancing their writing. Additionally, Muysken (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and Horst (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) emphasise the role of grammar in helping learners absorb and apply general language rules and patterns. It leads to producing materials employing descriptive grammar for writing (Liviero, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Rossiter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR125\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The significance of grammar has recently been reaffirmed due to its role in preserving language continuity and establishing more precise assessment guidelines. Liviero (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) also states that grammar aids learners in understanding, gaining clarity, building self-assurance, and learning from their mistakes. In this section, teachers would be driven by formal experiences to teach English grammar.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, Yusob (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR139\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a study in Taiwan to understand the challenges of teaching second-language grammar in schools, and 15 teachers participated in the study. The study reveals a few challenges, including the teachers' experience. Several participants were not exposed to grammar teaching strategies but relied on previous learning and trial and error. This suggests that apprenticeship of observation exists in English classrooms because novice teachers tend to repeat the mistakes of their teachers. Having teachers reflecting on the teaching strategies they use to teach grammar suggests that they are driven by non-formal experiences to teach English grammar to second language learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe apprenticeship of observation is synonymous with the claim that \"teachers teach the way they were taught\" (Gray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, p.30). In addition, Cancino et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a study on the summary of Lortie's' apprenticeship of observation and found out that learners are on the receiving end of what teachers do; they are in a position to notice teachers' actions and not in a position to be analytical about what they see. This suggests that they replicate almost everything they see without being critical about what they emulate. Therefore, I argue that the practice does not help the system because teachers should learn to develop their strategies in context as technology advances. Cancino et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) also identify the anti-apprenticeship observation as how \u0026lsquo;negative prior language learning experience influences teachers\u0026rsquo; beliefs and practices. This suggests that such experiences may affect teachers\u0026rsquo; beliefs throughout their careers. Reflecting on the teaching approaches would lead teachers to be driven by non-formal experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAkinbode (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) studied challenges associated with teaching and learning English as a second language grammar in some African secondary schools. Results show that most language teachers\u0026rsquo; instructional techniques were too formal and straightforward. This suggests that teachers were not creative enough when teaching English grammar. Shinga and Pillay (2021) agree with Akinbode (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) that teachers\u0026rsquo; deficient language competence and inadequate pedagogical knowledge are significant problems, as language teachers are expected to be dynamic. Kellerman, Evans, and Graham (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) support Chen and Goh (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) by adding that language teachers should be conversant with modern trends. This implies that they should use the same traditional techniques and adopt new methods. Doing that would make teachers driven by non-formal experiences to teach English grammar to second language learners. In the context of South African high schools, this challenge needs to be addressed so that teaching grammar can make sense to learners (Hannaway, Kellerman, Evans \u0026amp; Graham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Hannaway, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Language teachers who want to be effective must be committed to developing themselves and be lifelong researchers to keep up with changing times (\u0026Ccedil;iftci \u0026amp; \u0026Ouml;zcan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Hannaway, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). By so doing, teachers would be driven by formal and informal experiences.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Research questions and objectives","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe purpose and objective of the study were to understand teachers\u0026rsquo; experiences teaching English grammar to second language learners in selected South African high schools. The data was generated to answer the following research questions:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat are teachers\u0026rsquo; experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhy do teachers teach English grammar in the manner they do in selected South African high schools?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Research Design and Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1 Research Design, approach, paradigm, and style\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA narrative inquiry method explored teachers' experiences teaching English grammar to second language learners in selected South African high schools. Narrative inquiry is a way of understanding experience, the relationship between researcher and participants, and telling stories of people's skills that make their lives individual and social (Clandinin \u0026amp; Connelly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Clandinin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Pino Gavidia and Adu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR111\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) note that narrative inquiry is used in educational research because there is a link between life history and learning, as life, education, and experiences are inseparably intertwined. This is relevant to this study because it seeks to understand teachers' experiences while teaching English grammar to second-language learners. Hence, this study is guided by a qualitative research approach, which is important because it is more descriptive, holistic, explorative, and contextual (Yin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR138\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Creswell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In this research, a qualitative narrative inquiry has assisted me in establishing the deeper meaning of teachers\u0026rsquo; experiences through the lens of the interpretive paradigm. Furthermore, this paradigm is suitable for this study as it aims to gain in-depth knowledge and understanding of teachers\u0026rsquo; experiences (Pino Gavidia \u0026amp; Adu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR111\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Creswell \u0026amp; Poth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Yin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR138\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2 Sampling and Ethics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling involves the researcher deciding which people, settings, events, and cases to observe in a particular study (Creswell \u0026amp; Poth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Busetto, Wick, \u0026amp; Gumbinger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Homogeneous purposive sampling was used to select five English teachers from KZN province of South Africa, three from township schools, and two from rural schools. The rationale behind selecting these participants is that the researcher aimed to get participants who are similar in terms of certain traits, like job title and demographic group, because we wanted to understand how they teach English grammar to second language learners in rural and township contexts. Also, Zano (2023) asserts that learners usually underperform in the English grammar section of the language in such contexts. Clandinin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) notes that in narrative inquiry research, there is no strict, universally defined minimum number of participants since it aims to explore individual experiences in detail; even a small number of participants can be sufficient if their stories are rich and provide a deep understanding of the phenomenon being studied. Furthermore, the decision to work with five teachers from these contexts was made because the purpose was to get in-depth insight into this specific group of teachers who teach in schools that are categorised as under-resourced and underperforming (Schoch, 2020). Hence, in this study, five English teachers from five different schools were interviewed individually and as a group. Below is the participants' Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, indicating their experience and demographic group, context, and gender.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEven though these teachers come from similar contexts (township and rural high schools), and they are all second language speakers of English, their individual differences, especially in teaching experience and language background, can shape how they perceive and navigate their work in meaningful ways. For example, having all of them as L2 speakers gives them a unique empathy for their learners, which can positively or negatively influence their teaching practices. Hence, that may be the reason why some teachers mentioned that they focus on other sections of the language other than grammar, because learners show signs of boredom when learning that section. Another factor could be individual proficiency levels and confidence in English, which may vary among them. Some teachers may feel self-conscious about their language use, which could affect their classroom presence or willingness to use more advanced materials.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcerning ethics, teachers\u0026rsquo; names remain private, and informed consent letters and ethical clearance certificates were obtained from them and the university. I used ChatGPT to create the diagram summarising the discussion of my findings. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained, and voluntary participation was declared (Creswell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Yin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR138\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants table\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQualifications\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProfession\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContext\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNative language\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHonors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish Teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eisiZulu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHonors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish Teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTownship\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eisiZulu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHonors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish Teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9 Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eisiZulu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMasters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish Teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTownship\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9 Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eisiZulu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish Teacher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTownship\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9 Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eisiZulu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.3 Data generation, analysis, trustworthiness, and limitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study employed one-on-one semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and reflective activities as the primary data generation methods. These methods were selected to elicit rich, in-depth, and multifaceted understandings of participants\u0026rsquo; experiences and perspectives. Semi-structured interviews allowed for the exploration of individual narratives, while focus group discussions facilitated the co-construction of meaning through social interaction. Reflective activities provided participants with the opportunity to introspect and articulate thoughts that may not emerge in conversation. Together, these methods offered a robust triangulation of data; it was a deliberate methodological choice that aligned with the study\u0026rsquo;s epistemological orientation and research objectives and questions, which enhanced the credibility of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eReflection refers to thinking about their work and what happened and deciding what they would do differently next time (Ortiz \u0026amp; Duarte, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The reflective activities were structured using the phenomenon of the study, \u0026lsquo;teachers' experiences\u0026rsquo;, (formal, informal, and non-formal experiences). This means I formed questions on the three levels os experiences, such as the use of formal documents such as CAPS, teachers\u0026rsquo; use of EdTech resources, and their use of different approaches to teach English grammar. This encouraged participants to describe their experiences, analyse their teaching decisions, and consider alternative approaches. Prompts included questions such as \u0026ldquo;How have you been teaching English grammar? What worked well and why?\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;How might you approach this differently in the future?\u0026rdquo; To ensure validity, the prompts and structure were reviewed by my PhD supervisor. Feedback from the review informed refinements to the clarity and relevance of the prompts. Additionally, participants\u0026rsquo; reflections were analyzed for depth and consistency to confirm that the activities elicited meaningful engagement with pedagogical issues.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne-on-one semi-structured interviews \u0026ldquo;involve gathering data through direct verbal interaction between individuals\u0026rdquo; (Akmese, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This is where the researcher had one-on-one interview sessions with each of the participants, where I expanded on the questions they had previously answered in the reflective activities. For instance, \u0026ldquo;Can you elaborate more on why you teach English grammar the way you do? What do you think can be done to solve that problem? \u0026ldquo;Do you use your cell phone for academic purposes, such as downloading a YouTube video that may be useful to your lesson? If yes, how? If no, why?\u0026rdquo; Which language theories do you use to teach English grammar, how do you use them, and explain how you use them in this section of the language? Asking such questions helped to get in-depth responses from the participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the focus group discussion, English was used as the medium of instruction, though all the teachers were multilingual. Focus groups are one of the most effective methods of generating data in qualitative research as they widen the range of responses, activating forgotten details of experiences (Maree, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Silverman, 2015). Questions for the three data generation methods centred on teachers' experiences with teaching English grammar to second language learners in selected South African high schools. Participants, three females and two males with 9 to 23 years of experience, spoke candidly about their struggles with grammar instruction. Their tone shifted between humour and frustration, often drawing on personal stories from their experience in the English classroom daily.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe reflective activity was conducted once, and the semi-structured interviews were conducted once for each teacher and lasted 40 minutes; focus group discussions were conducted once and included all the study\u0026rsquo;s participants for 45 minutes. Jwan and Ong\u0026rsquo;ondo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) and Cohen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) noted that qualitative research requires robust data generation to ensure documentation of research procedures and techniques to ensure credibility and triangulation; hence, I used multiple data generation methods. An audio recorder was used to record one-on-one semi-structured and focus group interviews for easy transcription, done after the data generation processes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data was analysed through thematic and critical discourse analysis (CDA). Inductive analysis was used to generate three themes from the data (Bertram \u0026amp; Christiansen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). CDA is an analytical discourse examining the relationship between language and society and the study of language in texts and conversations. It analyses written and verbal language (Chebitok, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Van Dijk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR133\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that CDA analyses the use of language by different people in different spheres of life. Transferability, dependability, confirmability, and Credibility were ensured to confirm the trustworthiness of the findings (Kecea, 2015; Akmese, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo ensure the trustworthiness of this qualitative study, strategies were employed to address credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Data were generated through semi-structured interviews, reflective activities, and focus group conversations, enabling triangulation across multiple sources (Creswell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Member checking was conducted to validate participants\u0026rsquo; interpretations, while peer debriefing supported critical reflection on emerging themes. An audit track of coding and analytic decisions was maintained to promote dependability, and reflexive journaling was used throughout the research process to enhance confirmability (Pervin \u0026amp; Mokhtar, 2022). Thick descriptions of the research context and participants were provided to support transferability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne of the limitations of this study is that narrative inquiry may lead to the researcher being biased because of subjectivity. This is because narrative inquiry heavily relies on participants' personal stories and the researcher's interpretation of those stories. This can introduce subjectivity, where the researcher\u0026rsquo;s beliefs, assumptions, or emotions may shape the narrative analysis, potentially affecting the credibility of the findings (Clandinin \u0026amp; Connelly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Clandinin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). To overcome this, I shared my interpretations or story reconstructions with participants to verify accuracy and ensure their voices are faithfully represented. Another limitation was that narrative inquiry often focuses on a small number of participants, exploring their stories in-depth; in this case, I used only five participants. This means the findings may not be easily generalizable to broader populations or contexts. However, I overcame this limitation; I ensured trustworthiness by providing thick descriptions of the participants and context so that readers can judge whether the findings are relevant or applicable to their own settings (Jwan \u0026amp; Ong\u0026rsquo;ondo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Presentation of findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section presents the results from the participants\u0026rsquo; responses as they discuss their experiences of teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools. To answer the study\u0026rsquo;s first research questions, what are teachers\u0026rsquo; experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools? Excerpts were extracted from the participants\u0026rsquo; responses from reflective activities, one-on-one semi-structured interviews, and focus group discussions as they are. In this section, I used pseudonyms such as P1, P2, and so forth to refer to the participants who participated in this study. This section unpacks the first theme, Perceptions of grammar as unengaging, the second theme, as influence of prior classroom experiences on teacher beliefs, and the last theme, as Teachers' lack of grammar knowledge. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e below outlines each theme with each SCT\u0026rsquo;s construct and experience category.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThemes and Phenomenon Categorization\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThemes and levels of SCT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategories\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerceptions of grammar as unengaging-Mediating tools\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInformal experiences: software resources, implemented curriculum, artificial intelligence, internet, and wifi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInfluence of prior classroom experiences on teacher beliefs-ZPD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-formal experience: personal identity, love, respect, self-esteem, personal needs, self-direction, agency, teaching approaches\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers' lack of grammar knowledge- Scaffolding\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormal experience: hardware resources, intended curriculum, professionalism, and formal actions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Theme 1: Perceptions of grammar as unengaging","content":"\u003cp\u003eA recurring theme in participant responses was the perception of grammar instruction as unengaging and monotonous, often leading to reduced motivation and participation in class activities. Mufanti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) state that teaching grammar in a spoon-feeding way and in a traditional way alone makes learners lose interest in the language. This suggests that for grammar teaching to be effective, teachers must be innovative and creative to draw their learners' interest. In line with this. P5 and P3 stated, \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eBut grammar is boring, it is like Maths, you need to focus, you know there is this boring stuff, syntax, the rules that must be followed, so learners do not want that, \u0026lsquo;they feel bored.\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e This suggests that even teachers realize this section is boring and unengaging to the learners. In line with this, P2 also noted: \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eLearners feel bored while teaching English grammar, so I start by motivating them\u0026rsquo;. \u0026lsquo;English teachers need to prepare learners\u0026rsquo; minds before the teaching and learning of English grammar starts.\u003c/em\u003e P1 and 4 added, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;We all experienced the same problem as paper one, the grammar section.\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis implies that most English teachers have the same problem in teaching grammar. Hence, they choose to focus on sections that are simpler for the learners so that they will progress. Thus, non-formal experiences are essential to guide teachers in teaching English grammar. Moreover, in alignment with SCT\u0026rsquo;s mediation, teachers may use EdTech resources as mediating tools to teach English grammar to their learners.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"8. Theme 2: Influence of Prior Classroom Experiences on Teacher Beliefs","content":"\u003cp\u003eAnother dominant theme emerging from the data was the influence of participants\u0026rsquo; prior experiences as students on their current teaching beliefs and practices. This aligns with the concept of the \u0026lsquo;apprenticeship of observation\u0026rsquo;, where future educators internalise teaching behaviors observed during their own schooling. Lortie (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) introduced the apprenticeship of observation, which refers to the notion that teachers tend to teach how they were taught when they were learners. This may happen unconsciously, especially if individuals do not intend to develop themselves to grow professionally. In the same way, P3 and P1: \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;The teachers are still using the old methods; maybe if we can change the teaching methods, learners can improve grammar. You know, the old teaching methods that we were using. I have seen that learners get excited if they come with something like a projector in class.\u003c/em\u003e P2 adds, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Learners need to be actively involved and engage in all the lessons.\u0026rsquo; P3 adds, \u0026lsquo;The old teaching methods that we were using, you know them\u0026hellip; that is why you find that I go to the class with my book and the chalk so that the learners will be bored\u0026rsquo;.\u003c/em\u003e P1 stated, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Check and ask yourself, do I know this perfectly? If you lack something, get all the information you need online. Using the previous question paper is the best; find something online to prepare your lessons.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, P1 and P5 responded: \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Teachers use the teaching styles in their high schools. they do not even have an interest in doing research or learning so that they can teach it effectively. I had to use life examples so that they would be able to understand and connect to life instances, and that is how it helped a bit, I would say. Now, we have technology and smartphones. You can just take some grammar courses online to improve yourself\u003c/em\u003e. The above responses from the participants show a problem with apprenticeship of observation. This means that teachers still use the same traditional teaching strategies; they have not embraced the use of Edtech through blended learning. Strengthening modern approaches and methods to teach English grammar can instill teachers' habit of reflecting on informal experiences, and that can enable a successful ZPD process during the teaching and learning process of English grammar to second language learners.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"9. Theme 3: Teachers' lack of grammar knowledge","content":"\u003cp\u003eBalouchi and Samad (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) note that although many English teachers have several years of experience teaching the language, they still lack grammatical awareness and knowledge. This supports what was indicated by the English teachers in this section, which is that they have gaps and lack knowledge of English grammar. As such, \u003cem\u003eP3, HoD adds, \u0026ldquo;Some educators I am sharing the subject with say \u0026lsquo;I am not good at teaching paper 1(grammar section), so they just focus on paper 3 and paper 2. We are very lazy when teaching grammar; some teachers even bunk their periods.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eP5 also adds, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eI think it is high time that we say that as English teachers, we must upgrade ourselves. Let us go for honors and go for master\u0026rsquo;s degrees. Let us go for PhDs and develop as educators; let our content and method develop as English teachers\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e This suggests a need for continuous teachers\u0026rsquo; professional development, especially in grammar knowledge. Furthermore, P4 notes, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;They need to ask themselves: How can I improve myself to deliver better lessons? This means that one needs to develop oneself to be better.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e P2 and add that the elderly teachers would say, \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;I have been teaching this for many years, so you cannot tell me this and this and that.\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e Other teachers may need workshops and development specifically on English grammar. Thus, strengthening teachers\u0026rsquo; knowledge of English grammar would help formal experiences drive teachers, and the scaffolding process would be effective.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"10. Discussion of findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe diagram below summarises the findings of this research, followed by further discussion of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis section discusses findings from the presented findings on teachers' experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools. Based on the participants\u0026rsquo; responses, this section delves into analysing the results from the previously presented data through CDA, and with that, the second research question is answered: Why do teachers teach English grammar in the manner they do in selected South African high schools? In this section, I still maintained the use of pseudonyms such as P1, P2, and so forth to refer to the participants who participated in this study. The discussion of findings is guided by the study\u0026rsquo;s three themes: Perceptions of grammar as unengaging, the second theme, as influence of prior classroom experiences on teacher beliefs, and the last theme, as Teachers' lack of grammar knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFindings show that there is a strong perception that grammar is unengaging during the teaching of English grammar in selected South African high schools. This indicates how both learners and teachers perceive English grammar; the focus is on boredom associated with grammar instruction. This aligns with Andriani\u0026rsquo;s (2021) assertion that learners usually get bored in English grammar lessons, which may be caused by different factors, such as holding on to traditional methods. Teaching grammar in a traditional way alone makes learners lose interest in the learning process (Mufanti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Jideani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that teachers need to be innovative and creative for teaching to be effective. To alleviate this, teachers can adopt different EdTech resources, such as computers and online grammar lessons, and use Ideological resources as mediating tools to stir up learners\u0026rsquo; interest during the teaching process. Furthermore, teachers\u0026rsquo; description of grammar as \u003cem\u003e\"boring\" compared to \"Maths\"\u003c/em\u003e indicates a perception of grammar as rigid, rule-bound, and technical, requiring focused attention and often resulting in disengagement. In the same way, Zubaidi and Velusamy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR141\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) state that using EdTech resources can be an effective strategy to address this challenge, given that learners today are techno-savvy. Therefore, teachers would be driven by informal experiences in this context as they choose the mediating tools to teach English grammar to second language learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFindings also indicate that teachers\u0026rsquo; responses reflect a conflict between old teaching methods and the desire for innovation through more engaging, interactive techniques. This implies that English teachers still hold on to the apprenticeship of observation, even though they long to adopt new approaches. Cancino et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) note that anti-apprenticeship observation refers to how \u0026lsquo;negative prior language learning experience influences English language teachers\u0026rsquo; beliefs and practices. In the context of this study, it is the process where English teachers teach the way they were taught, even if it is ineffective. Furthermore, mentioning that \"teachers are still using the old methods\" suggests that resistance to innovation exists. This resistance could be driven by familiarity, comfort, or a lack of training in new pedagogies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, P3 and P1's comments about the \"old methods\" highlight a power structure within the teaching profession that maintains traditional, authoritative methods. These methods are positioned as outdated and ineffective, contributing to learners' boredom and disengagement. The chalk-and-talk approach is typically teacher-centered, where the teacher holds all the knowledge and learners passively absorb information. This reflects a broader pedagogical ideology that privileges teachers as knowledge authorities and assumes a one-way flow of information. Kellerman, Evans, and Graham (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) assert that language teachers should keep up with contemporary trends. In addition, Rahman et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR122\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) note that being flexible may help teachers be reflexive and make the classroom more comfortable and interactive. English teachers should embrace modern approaches such as the YouGlish task-based approach (TBA) that emphasises that language skills should be taught in context and CLT to enhance learners\u0026rsquo; existing knowledge. This can happen when they engage with learners as MKO during the ZPD process while teaching English grammar to English second-language learners. Therefore, teachers would be driven by non-formal experiences in this context as they each decide on the teaching strategies for English grammar based on their beliefs and personal preferences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFindings also highlight teachers\u0026rsquo; lack of grammar knowledge. P3\u0026rsquo;s comment about educators saying, \u0026ldquo;I am not good at teaching paper 1 (grammar section), so they just focus on paper 3 and paper 2,\u0026rdquo; highlights a certain level of reluctance and avoidance towards teaching grammar. This reluctance is compounded by the claim of teachers being \"lazy\" when teaching grammar and even skipping periods (\"bunking their periods\"). This suggests that such teachers do not have sufficient grammar knowledge to teach their learners; hence, they tend to avoid the section. Related to this, Soomro et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR119\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) assert that teachers' lack of grammar knowledge is one of the challenges in teaching English grammar to second-language learners. In the same way, Rustamov and Mirza Ogli (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR126\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) add that this may be because the grammar was not taught explicitly while they were in teacher training institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the reference to \"laziness\" can be interpreted as a power struggle between the expectations of the education system and the realities teachers face in delivering content. By calling teachers \"lazy,\" there is an implied disdain for their perceived lack of effort in engaging with grammar, which often requires more effort and is considered harder to teach. This reflects a power dynamic where teachers' competence is judged against the expectation that they should be able to teach all components of the curriculum. As such, Khoza (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) notes that teachers are seen as curriculum managers with rich knowledge of their specific subject matter. However, findings suggest that this is not always the case, as teachers admit the difficulties they face while teaching certain sections, such as English grammar. Hence, while teachers play the role of the MKO as expected by the basic education department during the SCT\u0026rsquo;s scaffolding process, they find the grammar section challenging to teach. Therefore, teachers would be driven by formal experiences in this context as they teach grammar from the intended curriculum.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"11. Conclusion and implications for education","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study concludes that English teachers face different challenges when teaching English grammar as a second language. This study summarises these challenges as \u0026lsquo;perceptions of grammar as unengaging,\u0026rsquo; \u0026lsquo;influence of prior classroom experiences on teacher beliefs,\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;teachers\u0026rsquo; lack of grammar knowledge.\u0026rsquo; Findings highlight widespread boredom among learners when English grammar is taught in South African high schools. This boredom can largely be attributed to educators' traditional, rigid, rule-bound methods that fail to engage students' interest. Both Andriani (2021) and Mufanti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) highlight that the conventional approach to grammar instruction often leads to disengagement, suggesting that there is a need for a more dynamic, interactive, and engaging teaching methodology. The perception of grammar as \"boring\" compared to subjects like Maths further underscores the need to reframe grammar instruction to make it more appealing and engaging for students. In response to this challenge, EdTech resources such as hardware resources, software resources, and PBL as ideological resources can be powerful tools for transforming grammar teaching.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsing these resources aligns with the needs of tech-savvy learners. Teachers can utilise these tools to create an innovative, engaging, and student-centered approach to teaching English grammar, fostering more active participation and interest in the subject. The study, therefore, recommends incorporating EdTech Resources when teaching English grammar to second-language learners. Teachers should incorporate various EdTech resources to make grammar lessons more engaging. Since learners are increasingly becoming tech-savvy, these resources can facilitate more personalised, collaborative, and interactive learning experiences. This approach can significantly reduce the monotony of traditional grammar lessons and better cater to students' diverse learning styles. By so doing, teachers' EdTech resources can be used, meaning informal experiences would drive teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the limited access to digital infrastructure in the studied schools (rural and township schools), low-bandwidth and mobile-friendly tools such as WhatsApp and Google Forms could be used to support collaborative lesson planning and learner feedback. Additionally, pre-recorded video tutorials aligned with the national curriculum could be shared via USB drives or mobile apps to overcome unreliable internet access.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn the issue of apprenticeship of observation, the study concludes that many teachers still cling to outdated, authoritative, and teacher-centered approaches despite recognizing that these methods contribute to learner disengagement and boredom (Rahman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR122\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Cancino et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Jideani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This pattern, referred to as the \"apprenticeship of observation,\" where teachers teach as they were taught, suggests that these educators are influenced by their previous learning experiences, even if those methods are ineffective in contemporary classrooms. This resistance to change may stem from the comfort and familiarity of old methods or insufficient professional development in modern pedagogies. The persistence of traditional methods also reflects a deeper issue within the education system\u0026mdash;a power structure that positions teachers as the primary sources of knowledge. This structure limits interaction and learner agency, undermining the potential for more dynamic, learner-centered teaching practices. However, teachers' increasing recognition of the limitations of these methods also highlights a desire for change.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy embracing more innovative, interactive, and student-centered approaches like YouGlish or CLT, teachers can bridge the gap between their personal beliefs and the evolving needs of their learners. The study recommends that English teachers should be provided with continuous professional development opportunities to update their teaching practices. This includes training in modern language teaching methods such as YouGlish, CLT, and the text based approach, to promote language teaching in context as prescribed in the CAPS curriculum (Aqib, Ekawati \u0026amp; Khabibah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; \u0026Ccedil;iftci \u0026amp; \u0026Ouml;zcan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Such training should focus on the benefits of moving away from traditional methods and offer practical strategies for integrating technology and innovative approaches into grammar instruction. Such professional development can help teachers to be trained on teaching strategies that would help them to effectively scaffold their learners' grammar knowledge to a higher level. By so doing, teachers would be driven by non-formal experiences to teach English grammar to second language learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study concludes that English teachers' insufficient grammar knowledge leads to reluctance to teach grammar. Teachers' admission of avoiding grammar or being \"lazy\" in delivering it indicates that many lack the necessary confidence or expertise to teach it effectively. This is compounded by a historical gap in grammar instruction during teacher training, as noted by Soomro et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR119\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and Rustamov and Mirza Ogli (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR126\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), which leaves teachers underprepared. The term \"laziness\" suggests a deeper issue of power dynamics, where the expectation that teachers should be able to teach all curriculum components creates tension between their perceived competence and the reality of their challenges. Grammar instruction requires specialised knowledge, and teachers' struggles to teach it can be viewed as a reflection of their limited training rather than a lack of effort. This highlights an important gap in teacher preparation and professional development that must be addressed to ensure teachers can confidently and effectively teach all parts of the English curriculum, including grammar.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, rather than relying solely on centralised workshops, continuous professional development (CPD) in this context could take the form of school-based peer mentoring, where experienced teachers support less experienced colleagues in using EdTech tools for specific classroom tasks. Monthly reflective meetings and informal peer observations could be integrated into existing staff meetings to reduce additional workload and promote shared learning. For instance, one participant, a department head with 17 years of experience, noted that after observing students\u0026rsquo; poor grammar performance and teachers\u0026rsquo; lack of enthusiasm, she plans to hold regular training for novice English teachers on the importance of grammar and effective, engaging ways to teach it.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFindings also indicate that teachers face a disconnect between their role as curriculum managers and the practical difficulties they encounter in delivering content, particularly grammar. This disconnect points to a need for more targeted support in areas where teachers feel least equipped, especially in teaching grammar to second-language learners. Based on these conclusions, the study recommends that teachers be encouraged to engage in reflective practice, considering their teaching experiences and identifying areas where they feel less competent, such as grammar. Regular reflection on their teaching methods and challenges can help teachers become more self-aware and actively seek professional development or collaboration opportunities to improve their skills. With constant reflection, teachers may need to develop their knowledge of grammar to play the role of MKO effectively during the ZPD process. By so doing, teachers would be driven by formal experiences to teach English grammar to second language learners.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDisclosure statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee. This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was obtained from the Humanities \u0026amp; Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee. The ethics clearance document indicated that the research involved human participants who participated voluntarily in the study, having given informed consent. Their names were anonymized, and the research did not involve the use of animals. The protocol reference number is HSSREC/00003405/2023, and the date of approval was 27 November 2023.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe informed consent letters were sent via email to potential participants to explain the study\u0026apos;s purpose and determine their willingness to participate. The potential participants were high school English teachers, postgraduate students, my sister, and my supervisor as a critical friend. The form outlined how the data would be generated, including reflective activities sent via email, one-on-one interviews, and focus groups that would be conducted.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consents (Consent to Participate) were obtained from all participants personally, as they were all over the age of 18 years.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis manuscript does not have funding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo competing interests.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAimin, L. (2013). 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IGI Global.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Critical Discourse Analysis, English grammar, Experiences, Narrative inquiry, Socio-cultural theory, South African high schools","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7905234/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7905234/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis article presents the results of a narrative inquiry into teachers\u0026rsquo; experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools. Five teachers who participated in the study were selected through homogeneous purposive sampling. Reflective activities, semi-structured interviews, and focus group interviews were used to generate data. Socio-cultural theory underpinned the study, and data were analysed inductively through thematic data analysis and critical discourse analysis (CDA). Findings highlight teachers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of grammar as unengaging, the influence of prior classroom experiences on teacher beliefs, and teachers' lack of English grammar knowledge in some rural and township South African high schools. It is in this context that the study recommends the incorporation of technologically based approaches for English grammar teaching to stir up learners' interest and motivation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Teachers’ experiences teaching English grammar in selected South African high schools: A narrative inquiry","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-11 12:35:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7905234/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b824cb1c-fa9e-428e-a742-7bab296bc01e","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-06T06:25:44+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-11 12:35:34","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7905234","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7905234","identity":"rs-7905234","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}