Sixty years after Orne’s American Psychologist article: A Conceptual Framework for Subjective Experiences Elicited by Demand Characteristics.

Unlike objects, study participants form beliefs from cues present in a testing situation (demand characteristics). These beliefs can alter study outcomes (demand effects). Neglecting demand effects can threaten the internal and external validity of studies (including their replication). While demand characteristics garnered much attention following Orne's introduction of this notion, consideration of their effects has become sparse in experimental reports. Moreover, the concept remains confusing. Here, we introduce a conceptual framework for subjective experiences elicited by demand characteristics. The model distinguishes between participants' awareness of the hypothesis, their motivation to comply with it, and the strategy they use to meet situational requirements. We stress that demand effects may elicit genuine experiences. To illustrate the heuristic value of the model, we apply it to Evaluative Conditioning and the Rubber Hand Illusion. The General Discussion summarizes the main insights of our current analysis and discusses risk and opportunities associated with demand characteristics.