TraditionalNon-animal-based Food Ingredients Consumed by the Nomadic Kazakh and Kyrgyz Peoples in the Eurasian Steppe in Tekes, Xinjiang, China

TraditionalNon-animal-based Food Ingredients Consumed by the Nomadic Kazakh and Kyrgyz Peoples in the Eurasian Steppe in Tekes, Xinjiang, China | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article TraditionalNon-animal-based Food Ingredients Consumed by the Nomadic Kazakh and Kyrgyz Peoples in the Eurasian Steppe in Tekes, Xinjiang, China Zeyuan Wang, Mengyao Ma, Yatong Carris Jiang, Xiaohui Liu, Zulhumar Memetjan, and 5 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8673843/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: The Eurasian steppe has sustained nomadic pastoralism for millennia, yet the traditional food systems of Kazakh and Kyrgyz peoples remain poorly documented. Scholarship has emphasized meat and milk, overlooking diverse wild edibles historically consumed, despite high burdens of non-communicable diseases and micronutrient deficiencies. Methods: In August 2024, research was conducted in Tekes County, Xinjiang, using ethnobotanical and Indigenous food system approaches. Data were gathered through questionnaires, free listing, market surveys, and guided fieldwork. Thirty participants—including elders, vendors, and doctors from Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Han, Uighur, Mongol, and Hui groups—were interviewed until saturation. Transcripts in Mandarin were thematically analyzed. Results: Seventy-eight non-animal-based ingredients were identified: 62 wild fruits and vegetables, 8 mushrooms, 3 honeys, and 5 edible soils. Wild plants were consumed as fruits, jams, or teas, with tea-like preparation most common. Half had medicinal functions, notably reducing blood pressure and alleviating internal heat. Barriers included climate change, environmental degradation, tourism, and lifestyle shifts. Interaction with Han and Hui groups expanded local plant and fish knowledge. Conclusion: This study offers the first systematic documentation of non-animal-based foods in the Central Asian steppe. These underutilized ingredients could alleviate disease burdens and improve nutrition. Recognizing Indigenous knowledge and integrating traditional foods are vital for sustainable food systems and planetary health. Nomadic People Pastoralism Traditional Food Systems Indigenous Ingredients Central Asia World Nomadic Year Nutrition Transition 1. Background Pastoralism means “a livelihood system based on extensive livestock production” [ 1 ], and the history of pastoralism can be traced back 10,000 years, when people adapted to drought [ 2 ]. In total, around 200 million people worldwide still practice pastoralism [ 1 ]. Current scientific research suggests that pastoralism can contribute to biodiversity, planetary health, climate adaptation, and sustainability within pastoral ecosystems [ 3 ]. To recognize the contribution of pastoralism to humanity, 2026 has been designated as the International Year of Rangelands and Pastoralists [ 4 ]. Eurasia hosts the largest contiguous rangeland in the world, a semi-arid grassland stretching from the Urals and Caspian in the west to the Tian Shan and Altai in the east [ 5 ], where nomadic pastoralism has been practiced for over 5,000 years [ 6 ]. The Kazakh and Kyrgyz are two cross-border ethnic groups residing primarily in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and China [ 7 , 8 ]. The Kazakh and Kyrgyz peoples were traditionally nomadic [ 7 , 8 ], but they are currently experiencing a nutrition transition [ 9 ], resulting in high rates of non-communicable diseases and micronutrient deficiencies, such as hypertension [ 10 ] and iron deficiency [ 11 ]. In existing literature on the food systems of the Kazakh and Kyrgyz, scholars have focused primarily on meat and milk [ 12 ] and argue that the use of fruits and vegetables is very limited [ 11 ]. However, this contrasts with 17th-century documentation by Russian anthropologists, which noted that Kazakh nomadic people utilized various fruits, nuts, and herbs [ 13 ]. Although FAO has published several collections of case studies on the food ingredients of Indigenous and traditional food systems (such as 14), it still lacks case studies on the nomadic peoples of the Central Asian steppe. Therefore, the traditional food systems of nomadic peoples on the steppe remain significantly understudied. To explore the inconsistencies between current nomadic food systems and historical documentation, and to better understand traditional nomadic food systems on the steppe, the current study will address the following research questions: Besides meat and milk, what other ingredients are used by the Kazakh and Kyrgyz people in the Central Asian steppe? How do the Kazakh and Kyrgyz people utilize these ingredients, including cooking methods and medicinal functions? What are the enablers and barriers for the Kazakh and Kyrgyz people in utilizing such ingredients? 2. Methods The current study was a side project under “Documenting Indigenous Food Biodiversity through Youth Participation in China” [ 15 ], conducted by the Good Food Fund China Action Hub, an NGO in China dedicated to sustainable food system transformation [ 16 ]. Through existing Indigenous youth connections, the study was conducted in Tekes, Xinjiang, China, in August 2024. Tekes County is located in the eastern section of the Ili River Valley in northwest Xinjiang. Surrounded by mountains on all sides, it lies between the Tianshan Mountains and the Wusun Mountains [ 17 ]. Tekes has a population of more than 160,000 and is a traditional settlement for Kazakh and Kyrgyz peoples with nomadic traditions. The county administers two townships and six towns, with a total of 61 villages and 15 communities [ 17 ]. The Kelajun Scenic Area in Tekes is an important part of the “Xinjiang Tianshan” World Natural Heritage Site [ 18 ]. Over the past decade, the tourism industry in Tekes has made considerable progress [ 19 ]. The study visited five communities across six different towns and townships, balancing ethnicity, levels of urbanization, and levels of remoteness to best capture potential factors influencing dietary practices. The study referred to research methods in Indigenous food systems [ 20 ] and ethnobotany [ 21 ], and employed several approaches to collect data. First, based on existing research about wild edibles in Xinjiang from botanical perspectives at Xinjiang Agricultural University, a questionnaire featuring photos of wild edibles was developed. Elders with pastoral experience and traditional knowledge were invited through chain sampling to identify food ingredients and explain relevant cooking methods and medicinal functions. Challenges in utilizing these ingredients were also discussed through open-ended questions. Second, after completing the questionnaire interviews, each interviewee was invited to add other traditional ingredients not included in the questionnaire through free listing. Third, two key informants—one animal doctor and one elder—guided the research team to the steppe to collect wild edible ingredients. Fourth, the team visited the largest local market and interviewed vendors, including those from other ethnic groups, to investigate local ingredients. Data collection continued until saturation was achieved. All interviews were transcribed in Mandarin. Thematic analysis was applied for inductive coding. Results include non-animal-based food ingredients identified, medicinal functions, and cooking methods. Nutrient composition data were collected from the China Food Composition Tables [ 22 ], FoodData Central (FDC) from the U.S. Department of Agriculture [ 23 ], and existing literature to identify indigenous ingredients rich in common nutrients. The study also planned to explore the spiritual meanings of foods, but most interviewees were reluctant to answer due to sensitivity. Thus, spiritual meanings were not included in the final results. In total, 30 individuals were interviewed, including 15 Kazakh, six Kyrgyz, three Han, two Uighur, two Mongol, and two Hui (Dungan) participants. Most were elders, vendors, and Kazakh/Kyrgyz doctors. Fourteen interviews were conducted in Mandarin Chinese and 16 in Kazakh or Kyrgyz, assisted by trained local translators. Twenty-one interviewees were men and nine were women. More men were reached through chain sampling because people believed men were more involved in pastoralism and had greater experience collecting foods from the steppe. The data collection process strictly followed the principle of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent. The Ethics Review Board of the Good Food Fund China Action Hub approved the study (Protocol #: 0002024007). The drafting of the manuscript used the collected data and there was no identifiable information in the data used. 3. Results As shown in Table 1 , a total of 78 non-animal-based food ingredients were identified, including 62 wild fruits or vegetables, 8 types of mushrooms, 3 types of honey, and 5 edible soils. There is a rich tradition of gathering wild plants during grazing, which are consumed as fruits, jams, or tea alternatives. Eating directly and consuming them as tea were the most common ways of intake, and almost half of these ingredients can be consumed in such forms. Thirty-nine ingredients have traditional medicinal functions, with reducing heat and lowering hypertension being the most common, and approximately 20% of the ingredients were believed to possess such properties. Nutrient data for 34 of the 78 ingredients were available in the existing literature. Six themes and 13 categories were identified as barriers or enablers to the use of Indigenous ingredients. Only the introduction of new ingredients under the influence of other ethnic groups was found to encourage the use of Indigenous ingredients. Table 1 Numbers of Food Ingredients based on Food Types Non-animal-based Food~ Types Numbers+ Examples Fruits or Vegetables 62 Pteridium aquilinum; Hippophae rhamnoides; Fragaria vesca Mushrooms 8 Morchella; Coprinus comatus; Lyophyllum decastes Beverages (including consuming like tea, drinking with milk, and drinking with alcohol)= 33 Crataegus songarica; Ribes heterotrichum; Taraxacummongolicum Honey* 3 Polyfloral honey; Tianshan Honey Soils 5 White soil; black soil; yellow soil Note: ~: Existing literature more commonly refers to plant-based foods. The current study decided to use the term non-animal-based foods because the identified items include soils, which cannot be classified as plant-based. +: Some ingredients belong to more than one type. Thus, the total number reported exceeds 78. Similar phenomena occur in other tables. =: Some plants that are commonly consumed as fruits and vegetables in the dominant society are used as beverages. Likewise, consuming them “like tea” is commonly practiced as tea alternatives. However, the interviewees did not perceive that they were drinking these ingredients as tea substitutes. Therefore, the current study adopted the term consuming like tea to align with their perceptions. *: Due to the variety of flowers on the steppe, there may be more types of honey. The three types identified are based on how Kazakh and Kyrgyz people perceive honey in Tekes. Appendix One lists all identified ingredients along with their cooking methods, medicinal functions, and nutritional values, where applicable. It also provides additional information mentioned by interviewees, such as seasonality and the influence of climate change. 3.1 Cooking Methods Table 2 shows twelve identified methods of consumption. Eating directly is the most common, particularly for wild fruits such as berries. Consuming ingredients “like tea” is the second most popular method, and many of these items are otherwise used as fruits or vegetables. Some ingredients are preserved by drying during the summer and later consumed in winter to provide greater food variety. Making jam is the third most common method, especially for preserving wild fruits. Further details are provided in Appendix 1. Table 2 Consuming methods for each food ingredient Consuming Methods Numbers Consuming like tea (may need drying first) 30 Cooking with soup 6 Drinking with milk 2 Stuffed into dumplings 2 Stirring Fried 10 Eating directly 36 Condiments 3 Dried and Eat 4 Jam 21 Drinking with Alcohol 1 Eating with sugar 1 Missing data 1 3.2 Medicinal Functions Table 3 presents 30 traditional medicinal functions identified from 39 of these Indigenous ingredients. Reducing heat and lowering hypertension were the most common functions. Other frequently mentioned medicinal functions include detoxification, nourishing the stomach, and supplementing nutrients. People believed that consuming soils could help address micronutrient deficiencies, and young girls were particularly inclined to eat soils for this purpose. However, most interviewees were not clear about which specific micronutrients were involved. Further details are provided in Appendix 1. Table 3 Traditional Medicinal Functions for Indigenous Ingredients Common Traditional Medicinal Functions Numbers Good for women 1 Treat cold 2 Reducing Internal hot 18 Detoxification 7 Lowing hypertension 15 Reducing blood sugar 2 Lowering blood lipids 1 Tonifying the kidneys 1 Reducing fever 1 Soothing the throat 1 Treating sore throat 1 Treating cancer 1 Nourishing the stomach 5 Relieving cough 3 Resolving phlegm 1 Beneficial for the intestines 2 Diuretic effect 1 Environmental disinfection 1 Nourishing the brain 2 Enriching the blood 3 Supplementing nutrients 5 Supplementing calcium 1 Treating rhinitis 1 Beneficial for the lungs 1 Treating diarrhea 2 Treating duodenitis 1 Treating all diseases 1 Treating arthritis 1 Treating rheumatism 1 3.3 Nutrient Values Of the 78 identified ingredients, 35 have existing nutrient values reported in the China Food Composition Tables [ 22 ] and in FoodData Central (FDC) from the U.S. Department of Agriculture [ 23 ]. Compared with FDA daily value standards (≥ 20% DV), 31 of these ingredients are rich in at least one nutrient. As shown in Table 4 , vitamin C is the nutrient most commonly found at high levels, while 49% of the identified ingredients are rich in iron, followed by vitamin A at 34%, and dietary fiber and protein, each at 26%. Table 4 Ingredients that are Rich in Nutrients Nutrient Name Current Daily Value Numbers of Indigenous Ingredients Rich in this Nutrient Compared to FDA Standards (high ( > = 20% DV) Examples of Indigenous Ingredients Rich in this Nutrient Protein 50g 9 Medicago lupulina, Morchella, Coprinus comatus Fat 78g 3 Juglans regia, Prunus dulcis, Juglans cathayensis Dode Total carbohydrate 275g 4 Prunus armeniaca, Nitraria schoberi, Tremella fuciformis (wild) Dietary Fiber 28g 9 Auricularia heimuer (wild), Tremella fuciformis (wild), Morchella Vitamin A 900mcg RAE 12 Taraxacummongolicum, Medicago lupulina, Sonchus brachyotus Riboflavin 1.3mg 6 Coprinus comatus, Morchella, Prunus dulcis Niacin 16mg NE 4 Lyophyllum decastes, Morchella, Nitraria schoberi Vitamin C 90mg 19 Hippophae rhamnoides, Ribes nigrum, Medicago lupulina Vitamin E 15mg alpha-tocopherol 6 Juglans cathayensis Dode, Prunus dulcis, Hemerocallis minor Calcium 1300mg 4 Plantago major, Hemerocallis minor, Capsella bursa-pastoris Magnesium 420mg 7 Juglans cathayensis Dode, Auricularia heimuer (wild), Prunus dulcis Iron 18mg 17 Auricularia heimuer (wild), Morchella, Plantago major Zinc 11mg 7 Lyophyllum decastes, Morchella, Hemerocallis minor 3.4 Recent Barriers and Enablers to Utilize Indigenous Ingredients The current study identified 13 categories under six themes: Food Access, Pasture Loss, Climate Change, Lifestyle Change, Environmental Causes, and Influences of Other Ethnic Groups. Only the introduction of new ingredients under the influence of other ethnic groups enabled the use of Indigenous ingredients. All other categories negatively affected the use of Indigenous ingredients. 3.4.1 Food Access Food access was a direct factor influencing pastoralists’ supply and use of Indigenous ingredients and relevant alternatives. Historically, it was shaped by ecological conditions, and more recently by the development of food value chains. Ecological factors such as temperature, altitude, and water availability directly determined the accessibility of local ingredients. For example, when discussing why Kazakh people did not eat fish, a Kazakh woman in her 70s (Kazakh Female Elder One) explained: Nomads used to live in the mountains without water, so they rarely saw fish. So none of us knows how to eat fish. It's just about eating horse, beef, mutton, meat and these things, as well as naan. It's also quite cold here. Things like wild walnuts can only be found in Gongliu County, where the altitude is lower and it's warmer. Interviewees from different ethnic groups noted that Tekes traditionally had very limited fruit and vegetable varieties in the open market. Pastoralists often had to obtain food during pastoralism. For instance, when reflecting on life in the 1960s, a Kazakh male elder over 70 years old (Kazakh Elder One) recalled: “Back then (the 1960s), only a few of them are still alive now. What was their life like back then? The food, called grass, was from the mountain. It's what we now call wild vegetables. Just eat those things, wild leeks, wild green vegetables and so on.” In recent decades, however, the food value chain in Tekes has become more connected to other parts of China, making more plant-based foods available in the open market. For example, when discussing ingredients in the bazaar, a Hui man in his 50s (Hui Man One) shared his childhood memory: “In the past, vegetables were just a potato and an onion, which were two kinds of vegetables. Have some wild vegetables and wild garlic. Nowadays, there are a lot of things on the bazaar, and many fruits and vegetables are transported from other provinces. More vegetable sellers of Hui and Han come here for business.” 3.4.2 Pasture Loss In recent years, pastureland has been decreasing due to various causes such as climate change and tourism development. At the same time, population growth and the economic benefits of herding have encouraged more people to engage in pastoralism. These changes have reduced the availability of many wild Indigenous ingredients. Climate change has negatively influenced the growth of pasture and the foods available for animals, forcing livestock to consume ingredients that were traditionally part of pastoralists’ diets. For example, when discussing wild edibles, a Kazakh healer in his forties (Kazakh Healer One) shared: Due to climate change and tourism development, there is less grass available for livestock to eat. The population is still growing, and the demand for the number of livestock is also increasing. In the past, weeding was done in July, when the grass was mature and produced seeds, and seeds were naturally saved. Nowadays, too many livestock are raised. Even these wild vegetables, including those wild strawberries, are eaten up by cattle and sheep as soon as they sprout. By April, the grassland has been almost eaten up. With the increase in population, more people want to graze. In the past, one could find a lot of food on the grassland and in the mountains, such as radishes, mushrooms and morels. Nowadays, there are fewer and fewer ingredients, which will lead to a greater deficiency of certain nutrients among herdsmen. Rapid tourism development in Tekes has also contributed to pasture loss and reduced the use of Indigenous ingredients, as pastoralists now have access to much less land. For instance, when discussing factors influencing the use of Indigenous ingredients, a female Han doctor living in Kazakh communities (Han Female Doctor One) explained: Such as the Qiongkushitai Grassland, has been fenced off for tourism development. If the local herdsmen still want to graze or pick ingredients, they can only move to the top of the mountain. Once tourism is developed, people have less and less land, and it becomes even more difficult to pick ingredients. Especially in winter, the herdsmen's winter pastures are only in the area around their own homes. Now they even have to buy forage from other places. 3.4.3 Climate Changes Climate change influenced the use of Indigenous ingredients in two primary ways. First, as noted by Kazakh Healer One in the discussion of pasture loss, climate change reduced the availability of food for animals, forcing them to consume ingredients traditionally reserved for pastoralists. Second, climate change also affected the growth, quantity, and distribution of certain Indigenous ingredients. For example, when discussing its impact, a Kyrgyz healer in his 40s (Kyrgyz Healer One) explained: The weather is too hot and dry. Look at this blackcurrant. It has dried up. It's certain that we won't be able to wait until the flesh is very plump and delicious. This seed has ripened, but the flesh is inedible. 3.4.4 Lifestyle Changes Lifestyle changes—including urbanization, migration, knowledge transmission, and the development of tourism—have all negatively influenced the use of Indigenous ingredients. In recent years, the lifestyles of Kazakh and Kyrgyz people have changed substantially due to urbanization, modernization, economic activities, and educational systems. For example, when discussing bird cherries, a Kazakh male in his sixties (Kazakh Elder Two) shared: I've seen this before. It's everywhere on the mountain... It can reduce internal heat and be used as jam. Now we elderly people are taking our grandson to school in the county town and can't go up the mountains. I can't find it. Many elders noted that younger generations are more willing to study outside and are less interested in maintaining traditional ways of life. As a result, many young people no longer know which foods are edible during pastoralism. For instance, when reflecting on lifestyle changes, a Kyrgyz woman in her 70s (Kyrgyz Female Elder One) explained: The younger generation doesn't recognize these traditional ingredients? It's normal. They are still in school and don't want to think about these things. Young people want to take the college entrance examination and get into big cities. Their aspirations are all good. But we're fine here. Anyway, there's still our elder brother on the mountain. I saw on TV that some villages were completely empty. 3.4.5 Tourism Development Because of the rapid development of tourism, income from tourism has become a primary source for many Kazakh and Kyrgyz families in Tekes, especially those living near tourist attractions. As a result, people have altered their daily routines and are no longer able to gather wild edibles. For example, when discussing wild foods, a Kazakh youth around 30 years old (Kazakh Youth One) explained: Our family has a homestay. We young people and children also have to lead horses or watch over the store for tourists on a regular basis. The money earned this way is much more than that from herding. The younger generation, except for the occasional summer vacation when they go to the mountain pastures, basically do not go herding. 3.4.6 Environmental Causes Environmental causes included chemicals, pollution, and environmental regulations. All of these factors negatively influenced the use of Indigenous ingredients. Kazakh and Kyrgyz people with pastoralist experience believed that chemicals and pollution were another cause of the reduction in wild Indigenous ingredients. Fertilizers and artificial precipitation were seen as harmful to the growth of these foods. For example, when discussing vegetable consumption, a Kazakh healer in his 60s (Kazakh Healer Two) shared: “What's that called? Oh yeah, artificial rainfall. With frequent artificial rainfall, many varieties of grass have stopped growing. Because there are chemicals...the land was contracted by the boss and large-scale pesticide cultivation was carried out. The use of pesticides has changed the flavor of vegetables. In the past, people would want to eat them again and again, but now they don't taste good. So, in comparison, eating meat is still better.” Pastoralists and other ethnic groups also mentioned that some commonly used ingredients are no longer permitted due to environmental policies and the protection of endangered species. For instance, when discussing the use of snow lotus, a Kazakh woman in her 40s (Kazakh Female One) explained: I know, I know. This is snow lotus. I used it before and it could cure all diseases. It is now listed as a protected plant and can be found on the mountain. Previously, it could be directly picked and sold. It became more expensive when dried. It's not allowed to be collected now, but people still use it privately. 3.4.7 Influences of Other Ethic Groups The influence of other ethnic groups on the consumption of Indigenous ingredients was bi-directional. On the one hand, interactions with other groups introduced new knowledge about edible foods; on the other hand, local people often chose to sell Indigenous ingredients for profit rather than consume them. Both nomadic and other ethnic groups mentioned that interactions with Han and Hui communities expanded knowledge of edibility and the use of wild plant-based foods and fish. For example, when discussing mushroom consumption, a Uighur elder in his 60s shared: When I was a child, I also lived on a mountain ranch with the Kazakhs. Mushrooms were hardly eaten before. But later when I started working and went to the national-owned unit canteens, the Han people from other provinces were cooking and eating mushroom there, and we followed them to eat. However, economic changes also increased the market value of many Indigenous ingredients. Businessmen from other regions were willing to purchase them at high prices, which led many pastoralists to sell rather than consume their traditional foods. For instance, when discussing morel mushrooms (Morchella), a Kazakh man in his 50s explained: The mushrooms were picked up and sold, and business owners came to collect them. We really don't want to eat it. It's very expensive. We'll sell it for money. 4. Discussion The current study is the first to systematically document non-animal-based food ingredients in the Central Asian steppe, demonstrating that Kazakh and Kyrgyz people utilized multiple non-animal-based ingredients during pastoralism. The findings differ from most academic publications and documents on food systems in Central Asia, which primarily focus on meat and milk [ 12 ] and suggest that plant-based foods in the region are limited [ 11 ]. However, the results are consistent with ethnographic records by Russian anthropologists in the 17th century [ 13 ], showing that many Indigenous ingredients used by Kazakh people have been understudied and forgotten. This phenomenon may be attributed to three causes. First, the Kazakh famine in the early 1920s resulted in the death of 90% of livestock and 1.5 to 2.3 million people [ 24 ]. This tragedy caused nomadic communities to lose much of their traditional knowledge and practices. Second, colonization and Russification substantially altered lifestyles and dietary practices in the Central Asian steppe [ 25 ], leading Kazakh and Kyrgyz people to abandon many traditional dietary practices. Third, most universities in China, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan are located in urban areas. Scholars from these institutions often lack the resources or time to conduct investigations in remote regions, and when they do, they rarely focus on Indigenous food biodiversity. In Kyrgyzstan, the use of numerous wild medicinal plants has been reported [ 26 ], suggesting that Kyrgyz people may still widely utilize multiple non-animal-based foods, though this remains underreported in existing literature on food systems and biodiversity [ 27 ]. The widespread use of wild plants during pastoralism is also consistent with findings from other regions. For example, Maasai people in East Africa use 34 wild plants during pastoralism [ 28 ]. However, although nomadic groups utilize diverse food biodiversity, the variety they consume appears smaller than that of other lifestyles. For instance, Indigenous Blang communities living in forests in Yunnan, China, use around 200 ingredients [ 15 ]. The limited use of wild plants among pastoralist groups may be attributed to the dry climate and environmental conditions. Consuming ingredients “like tea” is one of the most popular ways to utilize Indigenous biodiversity. This practice aligns with local seasonality and climate: summers in the steppe are rich in plants, while winters are extremely dry [ 29 ]. Consuming “like tea” serves as a traditional food preservation strategy for Kazakh and Kyrgyz people, ensuring better food security in winter. Similarly, making jam is another common method of utilizing Indigenous food biodiversity and preserving food. Therefore, when conducting food and nutrition surveys among Kazakh and Kyrgyz communities in remote areas, seasonality and preservation practices should be carefully considered. Moreover, none of the Central Asian countries currently have food-based dietary guidelines [ 30 ]. Thus, when developing national or regional dietary guidelines for populations living in the Central Asian steppe, seasonality and food preservation should be incorporated. Appendix One further documents the seasonality of certain ingredients consumed “like tea” or as jam, underscoring the importance of seasonality and preservation in Indigenous food systems of the Central Asian steppe. Because of the nutrition transition, Kazakh and Kyrgyz people are experiencing increasing rates of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) [ 10 ] and micronutrient deficiencies [ 11 ]. Several traditional medicinal functions identified in this study may help mitigate side effects associated with the nutrition transition. For example, reducing hypertension is one of the most common medicinal functions, and hypertension is among the leading NCDs in Central Asian countries [ 10 ]. More research is needed to explore how traditional foods can be used as medicine to reduce NCDs. Pica (the practice of eating soils) was also identified in this study. No existing academic publications have reported this phenomenon among Kazakh or Kyrgyz people, but news reports from Central Asia support its presence [ 31 ]. According to studies in Africa, pica is linked to iron and calcium deficiencies [ 32 , 33 ]. As shown in Table 4 , many Indigenous ingredients identified in this study are rich sources of iron. Iron deficiency has also been reported among Kazakh and Kyrgyz populations [ 34 , 35 ]. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that reduced consumption of Indigenous ingredients contributes to iron and calcium deficiencies, leading to pica. Rediscovering these Indigenous ingredients may provide nature-based solutions to mitigate micronutrient deficiencies and pica. Further research is required to verify this assumption. The study identified 12 categories as barriers to the use of Indigenous ingredients. Most of these barriers are related to climate, environmental factors, and interactions with the external world. Although not previously reported in the Central Asian steppe, all of these categories have been documented in existing literature on Indigenous biodiversity [ 36 , 37 ]. Thus, strategies from existing literature should be adapted. Importantly, Kazakh and Kyrgyz involvement in policymaking related to environmental protection, climate adaptation, and regional development is essential. This study also found that interactions among different ethnic groups have increased the use of Indigenous ingredients, such as mushrooms. Although this phenomenon is not widely reported in existing literature, several publications confirm its existence. For example, making jam is a popular way for Kazakh and Kyrgyz people to consume Indigenous biodiversity. While interviewees did not mention the origin of jam-making, existing literature documents that Kazakh and Kyrgyz people learned this practice from Russians [ 38 ], providing historical evidence of cross-ethnic influences on traditional food systems. To promote the use of Indigenous biodiversity for planetary health, more policies and projects should be implemented to encourage dialogue among neighboring ethnic groups and expand knowledge for the sustainable utilization of Indigenous ingredients. The current study acknowledges five limitations. First, due to time and funding constraints, the investigation was conducted only in the summer. This may have overlooked underreported dietary behaviors of Kazakh and Kyrgyz people in winter. Future studies should therefore be conducted in winter to address this gap. Second, most data were collected through interviews and lacked observational evidence. More ethnographic data should be gathered to provide detailed insights into how Kazakh and Kyrgyz people utilize non-animal-based foods. Such ethnography could also be compared with Russian records from the 17th century to better understand historical changes in Kazakh and Kyrgyz dietary practices. Third, the current study focused only on Kazakh and Kyrgyz people in China, which may have excluded dietary behaviors of Kazakh and Kyrgyz communities in other countries. Although the study attempted to mitigate this by engaging scholars from Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, further research conducted directly in these countries would provide stronger verification. Fourth, traditional Kazakh and Kyrgyz cultures are disappearing in China. It was difficult to find elders over 80 years old or traditional Kazakh and Kyrgyz doctors with extensive experience. More studies should be conducted in regions where traditional practices remain more intact. Fifth, due to political sensitivity, Kazakh and Kyrgyz people were reluctant to share the spiritual meanings of food. However, existing literature has reported relevant spiritual aspects of food and pastoralism among Kazakh and Kyrgyz people, such as the gifting of kumis in summer [ 39 ]. Further studies should explore these dimensions in greater depth. 5. Conclusions This study is the first to systematically document non-animal-based foods in the Central Asian steppe and deepens the understanding of pastoralists’ traditional food systems. The study shows that traditional nomadic food systems in the region include a diverse range of non-animal-based ingredients that are underutilized and often forgotten in daily life and academic studies. These underutilized foods have great potential to alleviate non-communicable diseases, malnutrition, and pica brought by nutrition transition, and to improve plant-based food availability in the Eurasian steppe. Food preservation strategies and seasonality are particularly important factors in dietary practice among Kazakh and Kyrgyz people and should be considered in future food and nutrition surveys and in designing food-based dietary guidelines (FBDGs). To further understand traditional food systems in the Central Asian steppe, more studies should be conducted in different countries for more comprehensive information. More conversations among different ethnic groups should be encouraged to expand knowledge of using indigenous ingredients. To develop sustainable food systems and planetary health in the Central Asian steppe and other Central Asian countries, indigenous non-animal-based ingredients and the traditional knowledge behind them should be valued and included as a crucial part. Abbreviations Not Applicable. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The data collection process strictly followed the principle of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent. The Ethics Review Board of the Good Food Fund China Action Hub approved the study (Protocol #: 0002024007). Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Consent for publication Not Applicable. Availability Data and Materials The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding The project was a part of “Documenting Indigenous Food Biodiversity through Youth Participation in China” funded by Good Food Fund China Action Hub and the University scientific research project of No.2024XJKY05 at Xiangsihu College of Guangxi Minzu University. The institution of co-corresponding author Ao Huang was the primary funding institution of this study. Author’s Contributions ZW was responsible for the project design and drafting of the manuscript. MM oversaw data collection and analysis, while YJ focused specifically on nutritional data collection and analysis. XL and WL contributed to data collection and assisted with manuscript editing. ZM translated and transcribed the interview data and conducted the initial analysis. AH contributed to securing funding, project design, and managed the manuscript submission. YH and SC contributed to manuscript drafting and editing. YL coordinated collaboration and networking efforts to support the successful implementation of the project. Acknowledgement We thanks for all interviewees and translators who participated in this project. We thanks for Good Food Fund China Action Hub to provide project funding and collected relevant data. Authors' information Dr. Zeyuan Wang earned his Ph.D. in Social and Behavioral Health Sciences with a specialization in Food Studies from the University of Toronto. His ancestry spans Hakka, Hui, Han, and Sogdian communities across Central and East Asia, shaping his deep interest in the cultural foundations of food systems. His research focuses on uncovering forgotten and underutilized dietary behaviors within Indigenous and traditional food systems. Using interdisciplinary design, mixed-methods approaches, and theories such as the Diffusion of Innovation, he examines how these systems interact with industrial food chains and globalization, and how their revitalization can strengthen territorial diets, food value chains, nutrition, food security, and climate resilience. His work also aims to safeguard food heritage and planetary health, and he integrates visual art as a tool for public engagement. While his research spans five continents, his primary focus is on traditional territorial food systems in the Silk Road countries of Inner Asia and the Sino–Southeast Asian ethnic migration corridor—regions closely connected to his lineage and characterized by rich ethnic diversity and complex historical evolution. Within this framework, he has conducted studies on Indigenous dietary biodiversity, breastfeeding and postpartum dietary practices, climate adaptation, and food fermentation. Dr. Wang collaborates with international organizations including the FAO, UNESCO, and the International Union of Nutritional Sciences. References Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Pastoralism. FAO Policy Support and Governance Gateway. 2025a [cited 2025 Nov 16]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/policy-support/policy-themes/pastoralism/en/ University of Massachusetts Amherst. Pastoralism. 2021 Jan 25. Available from: https://websites.umass.edu/infochs/2021/01/25/pastoralism/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Seven reasons why pastoralism supports a better future. 2024 Jun 25. Available from: https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/seven-reasons-why-pastoralism-supports-a-better-future/en/ Rangelands CGIAR. Sustaining livelihoods, cultures and ecosystems – gearing up for the International Year of Pastoralists and Rangelands (IYRP 2026). CGIAR News Events. 2024 Dec 20 [cited 2025 Nov 16]. Available from: https://www.cgiar.org/news-events/news/rangelands-sustaining-livelihoods-cultures-and-ecosystems-cgiar-and-partners-gear-up-for-the-international-year-of-pastoralists-and-rangelands-iyrp-2026/ Barbolini N, Woutersen A, Dupont-Nivet G, Silvestro D, Tardif D, Coster PMC, et al. Cenozoic evolution of the steppe-desert biome in Central Asia. Sci Adv. 2020;6(41):eabb8227. 10.1126/sciadv.abb8227 . Kerven C, Robinson S, Behnke R. Pastoralism at scale on the Kazakh rangelands: From clans to workers to ranchers. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2021;4:590401. 10.3389/fsufs.2020.590401 . Chang C. The study of nomads in the Republic of Kazakhstan. In: The ecology of pastoralism. 2015. pp. 17–40. Kokaisl P. Kyrgyz Minorities in China. Inner Asia. 2012;14(2):383–402. Otunchieva A, Borbodoev J, Ploeger A. The transformation of food culture on the case of Kyrgyz nomads—a historical overview. Sustainability. 2021;13(15):8371. 10.3390/su13158371 . Aringazina A, Kuandikov T, Arkhipov V. Burden of the cardiovascular diseases in Central Asia. Cent Asian J Glob Health. 2018;7(1). Available from: https://cajgh.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/cajgh/article/view/184 Can H, Ozyigit II, Can M, Hocaoglu-Ozyigit A, Yalcin IE. Multidimensional scaling of the mineral nutrient status and health risk assessment of commonly consumed fruity vegetables marketed in Kyrgyzstan. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2022;200(4):1902–16. 10.1007/s12011-021-02872-9 . Jia M, Zhen L, Xiao Y. Changing food consumption and nutrition intake in Kazakhstan. Nutrients. 2022;14(2):326. 10.3390/nu14020326 . McLean JE. Steppe, seed, & supper: an ethnoarchaeological approach to plant foodways in Kazakhstan [dissertation]. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania; 2012. Available from: https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI3542917 Kuhnlein HV, Erasmus B, Spigelski D. Indigenous peoples' food systems: the many dimensions of culture, diversity and environment for nutrition and health. Rome: FAO; 2009. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i0370e/i0370e.pdf Wang Z, Ma M, Li Y. Document Indigenous Food Ingredients in China through Youth Participation. Can J Diet Pract Res. 2024;85(3):325–6. 10.1002/jcde.12313 . Good Food Fund. China Food Systems Action Hub. [Internet]. [cited 2025 Nov 16]. Available from: https://www.goodfoodchina.net/en/actionhub Tekes County People’s Government. Discover Tekes. [Internet]. [cited 2025 Nov 16]. Available from: http://www.zgtks.gov.cn/zgtks/zjtks/list_zj.shtml UNESCO. World Heritage Committee inscribes two natural sites from China and Namibia. UNESCO. 2024 Aug. Available from: https://www.unesco.org/zh/articles/shijieyichanweiyuanhuijiangliangchufenbielaizizhongguohenamibiyadeziranyizhilierushijieyichanminglu Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Department of Culture and Tourism. Promoting high-quality development of Ili’s cultural and tourism industry. 2024 Aug 30. Available from: https://wlt.xinjiang.gov.cn/wlt/mtbd/202408/92dcb047437846c29b8a95e079344c65.shtml Kuhnlein HV, Smitasiri S, Yesudas S, Bhattacharjee L, Dan L, Ahmed S. Documenting traditional food systems of indigenous peoples: international case studies; guidelines for procedures. 2006. Cheng Z, Lu X, Lin F, Naeem A, Long C. Ethnobotanical study on wild edible plants used by Dulong people in northwestern Yunnan, China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2022;18(1):3. 10.1186/s13002-021-00494-x . Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Institute of Nutrition and Health, Chinese Nutrition Society. Chinese food composition table. 5th ed. Beijing: Science; 2021. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. FoodData Central. [Internet]. [cited 2025 Nov 16]. Available from: https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/ Cameron S. The Kazakh famine of 1930–33: Current research and new directions. Eur-Asia Stud. 2018;70(6):1003–21. 10.1080/09668136.2018.1479483 . Hofmeister U. Civilization and Russification in Tsarist Central Asia, 1860–1917. J World Hist. 2016;411 – 42. 10.1353/jwh.2016.0026 Aishahan A. The use of medicinal plants by the Kyrgyz of the southwestern part of the Fergana Valley. Bull Sci Pract. 2022;8(6):54–8. 10.33619/2414-2948/79/07 . Vlkova M, Verner V, Kandakov A, Polesny Z, Karabaev N, Pawera L, et al. Edible plants sold on marginal rural markets in Fergana Valley, southern Kyrgyzstan. Bulg J Agric Sci. 2015;21(2):243–50. Langois A, Kuhnlein HV. The Maasai food system. In: Kuhnlein HV, Erasmus B, Spigelski D, editors. Indigenous peoples’ food systems. Rome: FAO & CINE; 2009. pp. 109–26. Propastin PA, Kappas M, Muratova NR. Inter-Annual Changes in Vegetation Activities and Their Relationship to Temperature and Precipitation in Central Asia from 1982 to 2003. J Environ Inf. 2008;12(2). 10.3808/jei.200800117 . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Dietary guidelines. 2025b [cited 2025 Nov 16]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/nutrition/education/food-dietary-guidelines/home/en/ Dalrymple D. A corner of Kyrgyzstan has a cure-all: Let them eat clay. New York Times. 2005 Sep 5. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/05/world/asia/a-corner-of-kyrgyzstan-has-a-cureall-let-them-eat-clay.html Abu BA, Morrissey A, Wu Y, Castillo DA, Becker R, Wu T, et al. Pica practices, anemia, and oral health outcomes: a systemic review. BMC Oral Health. 2025;25(1):13. 10.1186/s12903-024-03732-2 . Tiagha AR, Eteneneng EJ, Nkeh-Chungag B. The impact of pica on maternal cardiovascular health: a review. Int J Nurs Stud. 2025. 10.1111/ijns.12260 . UNICEF Kyrgyzstan. National Integrated Micronutrient and Anthropometric Survey of the Kyrgyz Republic. 2021. Bishkek: UNICEF; 2022. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/kyrgyzstan/reports/national-integrated-micronutrient-and-anthropometric-survey-2021 Rogova S, et al. Diabetes, iron-deficiency anemia, and endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic disorders in children: a socio-epidemiological study in urban Kazakhstan. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2025;22(9):1346. 10.3390/ijerph22091346 . Muluneh MG. Impact of climate change on biodiversity and food security: a global perspective—a review article. Agric Food Secur. 2021;10(1):1–25. 10.1186/s40066-021-00287-2 . Kanter R, Kennedy G, Boza S. Local, traditional and indigenous food systems in the 21st century to combat obesity, undernutrition and climate change. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2023;7:1195741. 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1195741 . Zanca R. Food and everyday life in the post-socialist world. Budapest: Central European University; 2011. Turgunova G, Djumaeva M, Aitbaeva A. Preserving health through traditions: How folk customs form a healthy lifestyle. BIO Web Conf. 2024;120:01059. 10.1051/bioconf/202412001059 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8673843","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":581340698,"identity":"4243097b-cbe3-4e6a-820d-56c86d448cf3","order_by":0,"name":"Zeyuan Wang","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDADfiA+8IAkLZINQC0JDAwSYN4BYrQYgFQRpUW+vceAmafmjt3ma4cfAm05XMcvffjY4w8VDPL8Ddi1MPacAWo59ix52+00A5AWCcm+tHSDA2cYDGfgsIpZIseAOYftcLLZ7QSIFoMzPGYSB9uAjsShhU3+DVDLv8PJxrPTP6BqkcehhUeCx4A5t+2wnYF0DpotBji0SPCkFRz+23c4QeJ2TsGBBIN0yZk9bGkSZ85IGG7EoUW+/fDGhzO+Hbbnn52++cOHCmt+fh7mYxIVFTbycji0MDBwgB2Q2ADmGCCsx6UeCNgfgEh7PCpGwSgYBaNgpAMANcNcL/O1AZMAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Toronto","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zeyuan","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":581340700,"identity":"55536129-0be0-43b1-ab23-0fc8ac601d5e","order_by":1,"name":"Mengyao Ma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"EcoHowFun Chinese CSA Network","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mengyao","middleName":"","lastName":"Ma","suffix":""},{"id":581340704,"identity":"dff7c14e-5f23-4409-b060-a2cf7bda079a","order_by":2,"name":"Yatong Carris Jiang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Alberta","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yatong","middleName":"Carris","lastName":"Jiang","suffix":""},{"id":581340706,"identity":"f55364b5-9704-4606-ba63-3eaccf64b23d","order_by":3,"name":"Xiaohui Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The University of Texas at Austin","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xiaohui","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":581340710,"identity":"4fc97393-5b2e-4fbd-8d9c-6122ff0a8ed6","order_by":4,"name":"Zulhumar Memetjan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Minzu University of China","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zulhumar","middleName":"","lastName":"Memetjan","suffix":""},{"id":581340713,"identity":"ac1620b1-8962-4a60-93f6-509fe75d2d6f","order_by":5,"name":"Ao Huang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Guangxi University for Nationalities","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ao","middleName":"","lastName":"Huang","suffix":""},{"id":581340717,"identity":"2abeb848-3434-42d6-87b9-ba11971576ff","order_by":6,"name":"Shanquan Chen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shanquan","middleName":"","lastName":"Chen","suffix":""},{"id":581340721,"identity":"d6fe6bfe-5614-4aad-86ee-45fec5dcca4d","order_by":7,"name":"Yufeng Han","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yufeng","middleName":"","lastName":"Han","suffix":""},{"id":581340724,"identity":"b0b89c84-b217-441f-9061-7bbbc2fff21b","order_by":8,"name":"Wen Lv","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Independent Scholar","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wen","middleName":"","lastName":"Lv","suffix":""},{"id":581340727,"identity":"d6cbf50b-e735-47f0-9122-2be878e944ca","order_by":9,"name":"Yihong Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Good Food Fund China Action Hub","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yihong","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-23 01:23:55","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8673843/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8673843/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":101352609,"identity":"078cd154-0b30-4981-b454-d82f614f1d52","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-28 19:10:32","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":867997,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8673843/v1/1563b5e0-7c92-4609-ba57-3d0e9f281c1b.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"TraditionalNon-animal-based Food Ingredients Consumed by the Nomadic Kazakh and Kyrgyz Peoples in the Eurasian Steppe in Tekes, Xinjiang, China","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Background","content":"\u003cp\u003ePastoralism means “a livelihood system based on extensive livestock production” [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], and the history of pastoralism can be traced back 10,000 years, when people adapted to drought [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. In total, around 200\u0026nbsp;million people worldwide still practice pastoralism [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Current scientific research suggests that pastoralism can contribute to biodiversity, planetary health, climate adaptation, and sustainability within pastoral ecosystems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. To recognize the contribution of pastoralism to humanity, 2026 has been designated as the International Year of Rangelands and Pastoralists [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEurasia hosts the largest contiguous rangeland in the world, a semi-arid grassland stretching from the Urals and Caspian in the west to the Tian Shan and Altai in the east [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], where nomadic pastoralism has been practiced for over 5,000 years [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. The Kazakh and Kyrgyz are two cross-border ethnic groups residing primarily in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and China [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. The Kazakh and Kyrgyz peoples were traditionally nomadic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], but they are currently experiencing a nutrition transition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], resulting in high rates of non-communicable diseases and micronutrient deficiencies, such as hypertension [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] and iron deficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn existing literature on the food systems of the Kazakh and Kyrgyz, scholars have focused primarily on meat and milk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] and argue that the use of fruits and vegetables is very limited [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. However, this contrasts with 17th-century documentation by Russian anthropologists, which noted that Kazakh nomadic people utilized various fruits, nuts, and herbs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Although FAO has published several collections of case studies on the food ingredients of Indigenous and traditional food systems (such as 14), it still lacks case studies on the nomadic peoples of the Central Asian steppe. Therefore, the traditional food systems of nomadic peoples on the steppe remain significantly understudied.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo explore the inconsistencies between current nomadic food systems and historical documentation, and to better understand traditional nomadic food systems on the steppe, the current study will address the following research questions:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides meat and milk, what other ingredients are used by the Kazakh and Kyrgyz people in the Central Asian steppe?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow do the Kazakh and Kyrgyz people utilize these ingredients, including cooking methods and medicinal functions?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat are the enablers and barriers for the Kazakh and Kyrgyz people in utilizing such ingredients?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"2. Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current study was a side project under “Documenting Indigenous Food Biodiversity through Youth Participation in China” [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e], conducted by the Good Food Fund China Action Hub, an NGO in China dedicated to sustainable food system transformation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThrough existing Indigenous youth connections, the study was conducted in Tekes, Xinjiang, China, in August 2024. Tekes County is located in the eastern section of the Ili River Valley in northwest Xinjiang. Surrounded by mountains on all sides, it lies between the Tianshan Mountains and the Wusun Mountains [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Tekes has a population of more than 160,000 and is a traditional settlement for Kazakh and Kyrgyz peoples with nomadic traditions. The county administers two townships and six towns, with a total of 61 villages and 15 communities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. The Kelajun Scenic Area in Tekes is an important part of the “Xinjiang Tianshan” World Natural Heritage Site [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Over the past decade, the tourism industry in Tekes has made considerable progress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The study visited five communities across six different towns and townships, balancing ethnicity, levels of urbanization, and levels of remoteness to best capture potential factors influencing dietary practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study referred to research methods in Indigenous food systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] and ethnobotany [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], and employed several approaches to collect data. First, based on existing research about wild edibles in Xinjiang from botanical perspectives at Xinjiang Agricultural University, a questionnaire featuring photos of wild edibles was developed. Elders with pastoral experience and traditional knowledge were invited through chain sampling to identify food ingredients and explain relevant cooking methods and medicinal functions. Challenges in utilizing these ingredients were also discussed through open-ended questions. Second, after completing the questionnaire interviews, each interviewee was invited to add other traditional ingredients not included in the questionnaire through free listing. Third, two key informants—one animal doctor and one elder—guided the research team to the steppe to collect wild edible ingredients. Fourth, the team visited the largest local market and interviewed vendors, including those from other ethnic groups, to investigate local ingredients. Data collection continued until saturation was achieved.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll interviews were transcribed in Mandarin. Thematic analysis was applied for inductive coding. Results include non-animal-based food ingredients identified, medicinal functions, and cooking methods. Nutrient composition data were collected from the China Food Composition Tables [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], FoodData Central (FDC) from the U.S. Department of Agriculture [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], and existing literature to identify indigenous ingredients rich in common nutrients. The study also planned to explore the spiritual meanings of foods, but most interviewees were reluctant to answer due to sensitivity. Thus, spiritual meanings were not included in the final results.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn total, 30 individuals were interviewed, including 15 Kazakh, six Kyrgyz, three Han, two Uighur, two Mongol, and two Hui (Dungan) participants. Most were elders, vendors, and Kazakh/Kyrgyz doctors. Fourteen interviews were conducted in Mandarin Chinese and 16 in Kazakh or Kyrgyz, assisted by trained local translators. Twenty-one interviewees were men and nine were women. More men were reached through chain sampling because people believed men were more involved in pastoralism and had greater experience collecting foods from the steppe.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data collection process strictly followed the principle of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent. The Ethics Review Board of the Good Food Fund China Action Hub approved the study (Protocol #: 0002024007). The drafting of the manuscript used the collected data and there was no identifiable information in the data used.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, a total of 78 non-animal-based food ingredients were identified, including 62 wild fruits or vegetables, 8 types of mushrooms, 3 types of honey, and 5 edible soils. There is a rich tradition of gathering wild plants during grazing, which are consumed as fruits, jams, or tea alternatives. Eating directly and consuming them as tea were the most common ways of intake, and almost half of these ingredients can be consumed in such forms. Thirty-nine ingredients have traditional medicinal functions, with reducing heat and lowering hypertension being the most common, and approximately 20% of the ingredients were believed to possess such properties. Nutrient data for 34 of the 78 ingredients were available in the existing literature. Six themes and 13 categories were identified as barriers or enablers to the use of Indigenous ingredients. Only the introduction of new ingredients under the influence of other ethnic groups was found to encourage the use of Indigenous ingredients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumbers of Food Ingredients based on Food Types\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-animal-based Food~ Types\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumbers+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExamples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruits or Vegetables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePteridium aquilinum; Hippophae rhamnoides; Fragaria vesca\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMushrooms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMorchella; Coprinus comatus; Lyophyllum decastes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeverages (including consuming like tea, drinking with milk, and drinking with alcohol)=\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrataegus songarica; Ribes heterotrichum; Taraxacummongolicum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHoney*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolyfloral honey; Tianshan Honey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoils\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite soil; black soil; yellow soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNote:\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e~: Existing literature more commonly refers to plant-based foods. The current study decided to use the term \u003cem\u003enon-animal-based foods\u003c/em\u003e because the identified items include soils, which cannot be classified as plant-based.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e+: Some ingredients belong to more than one type. Thus, the total number reported exceeds 78. Similar phenomena occur in other tables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e=: Some plants that are commonly consumed as fruits and vegetables in the dominant society are used as beverages. Likewise, consuming them \u0026ldquo;like tea\u0026rdquo; is commonly practiced as tea alternatives. However, the interviewees did not perceive that they were drinking these ingredients as tea substitutes. Therefore, the current study adopted the term \u003cem\u003econsuming like tea\u003c/em\u003e to align with their perceptions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e*: Due to the variety of flowers on the steppe, there may be more types of honey. The three types identified are based on how Kazakh and Kyrgyz people perceive honey in Tekes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Appendix One lists all identified ingredients along with their cooking methods, medicinal functions, and nutritional values, where applicable. It also provides additional information mentioned by interviewees, such as seasonality and the influence of climate change.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Cooking Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows twelve identified methods of consumption. Eating directly is the most common, particularly for wild fruits such as berries. Consuming ingredients \u0026ldquo;like tea\u0026rdquo; is the second most popular method, and many of these items are otherwise used as fruits or vegetables. Some ingredients are preserved by drying during the summer and later consumed in winter to provide greater food variety. Making jam is the third most common method, especially for preserving wild fruits. Further details are provided in Appendix 1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsuming methods for each food ingredient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsuming Methods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumbers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsuming like tea (may need drying first)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCooking with soup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrinking with milk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStuffed into dumplings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStirring Fried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEating directly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCondiments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDried and Eat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrinking with Alcohol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEating with sugar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMissing data\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Medicinal Functions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents 30 traditional medicinal functions identified from 39 of these Indigenous ingredients. Reducing heat and lowering hypertension were the most common functions. Other frequently mentioned medicinal functions include detoxification, nourishing the stomach, and supplementing nutrients. People believed that consuming soils could help address micronutrient deficiencies, and young girls were particularly inclined to eat soils for this purpose. However, most interviewees were not clear about which specific micronutrients were involved. Further details are provided in Appendix 1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional Medicinal Functions for Indigenous Ingredients\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon Traditional Medicinal Functions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumbers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGood for women\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreat cold\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReducing Internal hot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDetoxification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLowing hypertension\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReducing blood sugar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLowering blood lipids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTonifying the kidneys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReducing fever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoothing the throat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreating sore throat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreating cancer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNourishing the stomach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelieving cough\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResolving phlegm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeneficial for the intestines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiuretic effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental disinfection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNourishing the brain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnriching the blood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupplementing nutrients\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupplementing calcium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreating rhinitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeneficial for the lungs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreating diarrhea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreating duodenitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreating all diseases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreating arthritis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreating rheumatism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Nutrient Values\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf the 78 identified ingredients, 35 have existing nutrient values reported in the China Food Composition Tables [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] and in FoodData Central (FDC) from the U.S. Department of Agriculture [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Compared with FDA daily value standards (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;20% DV), 31 of these ingredients are rich in at least one nutrient. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, vitamin C is the nutrient most commonly found at high levels, while 49% of the identified ingredients are rich in iron, followed by vitamin A at 34%, and dietary fiber and protein, each at 26%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIngredients that are Rich in Nutrients\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNutrient\u0026nbsp;Name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrent Daily Value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumbers of Indigenous Ingredients Rich in this Nutrient Compared to FDA Standards (high (\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20% DV)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExamples of Indigenous Ingredients Rich in this Nutrient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicago lupulina, Morchella, Coprinus comatus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuglans regia, Prunus dulcis, Juglans cathayensis Dode\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal carbohydrate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e275g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrunus armeniaca, Nitraria schoberi, Tremella fuciformis (wild)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDietary Fiber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuricularia heimuer (wild), Tremella fuciformis (wild), Morchella\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e900mcg RAE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaraxacummongolicum, Medicago lupulina, Sonchus brachyotus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiboflavin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3mg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoprinus comatus, Morchella, Prunus dulcis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNiacin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16mg NE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLyophyllum decastes, Morchella, Nitraria schoberi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90mg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHippophae rhamnoides, Ribes nigrum, Medicago lupulina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitamin E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15mg alpha-tocopherol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuglans cathayensis Dode, Prunus dulcis, Hemerocallis minor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalcium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1300mg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlantago major, Hemerocallis minor, Capsella bursa-pastoris\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnesium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e420mg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuglans cathayensis Dode, Auricularia heimuer (wild), Prunus dulcis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIron\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18mg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuricularia heimuer (wild), Morchella, Plantago major\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZinc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11mg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLyophyllum decastes, Morchella, Hemerocallis minor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Recent Barriers and Enablers to Utilize Indigenous Ingredients\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current study identified 13 categories under six themes: Food Access, Pasture Loss, Climate Change, Lifestyle Change, Environmental Causes, and Influences of Other Ethnic Groups. Only the introduction of new ingredients under the influence of other ethnic groups enabled the use of Indigenous ingredients. All other categories negatively affected the use of Indigenous ingredients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.1 Food Access\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood access was a direct factor influencing pastoralists\u0026rsquo; supply and use of Indigenous ingredients and relevant alternatives. Historically, it was shaped by ecological conditions, and more recently by the development of food value chains.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Ecological factors such as temperature, altitude, and water availability directly determined the accessibility of local ingredients. For example, when discussing why Kazakh people did not eat fish, a Kazakh woman in her 70s (Kazakh Female Elder One) explained:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNomads used to live in the mountains without water, so they rarely saw fish. So none of us knows how to eat fish. It's just about eating horse, beef, mutton, meat and these things, as well as naan. It's also quite cold here. Things like wild walnuts can only be found in Gongliu County, where the altitude is lower and it's warmer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterviewees from different ethnic groups noted that Tekes traditionally had very limited fruit and vegetable varieties in the open market. Pastoralists often had to obtain food during pastoralism. For instance, when reflecting on life in the 1960s, a Kazakh male elder over 70 years old (Kazakh Elder One) recalled:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Back then (the 1960s), only a few of them are still alive now. What was their life like back then? The food, called grass, was from the mountain. It's what we now call wild vegetables. Just eat those things, wild leeks, wild green vegetables and so on.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn recent decades, however, the food value chain in Tekes has become more connected to other parts of China, making more plant-based foods available in the open market. For example, when discussing ingredients in the bazaar, a Hui man in his 50s (Hui Man One) shared his childhood memory:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;In the past, vegetables were just a potato and an onion, which were two kinds of vegetables. Have some wild vegetables and wild garlic. Nowadays, there are a lot of things on the bazaar, and many fruits and vegetables are transported from other provinces. More vegetable sellers of Hui and Han come here for business.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.2 Pasture Loss\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn recent years, pastureland has been decreasing due to various causes such as climate change and tourism development. At the same time, population growth and the economic benefits of herding have encouraged more people to engage in pastoralism. These changes have reduced the availability of many wild Indigenous ingredients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change has negatively influenced the growth of pasture and the foods available for animals, forcing livestock to consume ingredients that were traditionally part of pastoralists\u0026rsquo; diets. For example, when discussing wild edibles, a Kazakh healer in his forties (Kazakh Healer One) shared:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to climate change and tourism development, there is less grass available for livestock to eat. The population is still growing, and the demand for the number of livestock is also increasing. In the past, weeding was done in July, when the grass was mature and produced seeds, and seeds were naturally saved. Nowadays, too many livestock are raised. Even these wild vegetables, including those wild strawberries, are eaten up by cattle and sheep as soon as they sprout. By April, the grassland has been almost eaten up. With the increase in population, more people want to graze. In the past, one could find a lot of food on the grassland and in the mountains, such as radishes, mushrooms and morels. Nowadays, there are fewer and fewer ingredients, which will lead to a greater deficiency of certain nutrients among herdsmen.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRapid tourism development in Tekes has also contributed to pasture loss and reduced the use of Indigenous ingredients, as pastoralists now have access to much less land. For instance, when discussing factors influencing the use of Indigenous ingredients, a female Han doctor living in Kazakh communities (Han Female Doctor One) explained:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuch as the Qiongkushitai Grassland, has been fenced off for tourism development. If the local herdsmen still want to graze or pick ingredients, they can only move to the top of the mountain. Once tourism is developed, people have less and less land, and it becomes even more difficult to pick ingredients. Especially in winter, the herdsmen's winter pastures are only in the area around their own homes. Now they even have to buy forage from other places.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.3 Climate Changes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change influenced the use of Indigenous ingredients in two primary ways. First, as noted by Kazakh Healer One in the discussion of pasture loss, climate change reduced the availability of food for animals, forcing them to consume ingredients traditionally reserved for pastoralists. Second, climate change also affected the growth, quantity, and distribution of certain Indigenous ingredients. For example, when discussing its impact, a Kyrgyz healer in his 40s (Kyrgyz Healer One) explained:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe weather is too hot and dry. Look at this blackcurrant. It has dried up. It's certain that we won't be able to wait until the flesh is very plump and delicious. This seed has ripened, but the flesh is inedible.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.4 Lifestyle Changes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLifestyle changes\u0026mdash;including urbanization, migration, knowledge transmission, and the development of tourism\u0026mdash;have all negatively influenced the use of Indigenous ingredients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn recent years, the lifestyles of Kazakh and Kyrgyz people have changed substantially due to urbanization, modernization, economic activities, and educational systems. For example, when discussing bird cherries, a Kazakh male in his sixties (Kazakh Elder Two) shared:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI've seen this before. It's everywhere on the mountain... It can reduce internal heat and be used as jam. Now we elderly people are taking our grandson to school in the county town and can't go up the mountains. I can't find it.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany elders noted that younger generations are more willing to study outside and are less interested in maintaining traditional ways of life. As a result, many young people no longer know which foods are edible during pastoralism. For instance, when reflecting on lifestyle changes, a Kyrgyz woman in her 70s (Kyrgyz Female Elder One) explained:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe younger generation doesn't recognize these traditional ingredients? It's normal. They are still in school and don't want to think about these things. Young people want to take the college entrance examination and get into big cities. Their aspirations are all good. But we're fine here. Anyway, there's still our elder brother on the mountain. I saw on TV that some villages were completely empty.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.5 Tourism Development\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBecause of the rapid development of tourism, income from tourism has become a primary source for many Kazakh and Kyrgyz families in Tekes, especially those living near tourist attractions. As a result, people have altered their daily routines and are no longer able to gather wild edibles. For example, when discussing wild foods, a Kazakh youth around 30 years old (Kazakh Youth One) explained:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur family has a homestay. We young people and children also have to lead horses or watch over the store for tourists on a regular basis. The money earned this way is much more than that from herding. The younger generation, except for the occasional summer vacation when they go to the mountain pastures, basically do not go herding.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.6 Environmental Causes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental causes included chemicals, pollution, and environmental regulations. All of these factors negatively influenced the use of Indigenous ingredients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKazakh and Kyrgyz people with pastoralist experience believed that chemicals and pollution were another cause of the reduction in wild Indigenous ingredients. Fertilizers and artificial precipitation were seen as harmful to the growth of these foods. For example, when discussing vegetable consumption, a Kazakh healer in his 60s (Kazakh Healer Two) shared:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;What's that called? Oh yeah, artificial rainfall. With frequent artificial rainfall, many varieties of grass have stopped growing. Because there are chemicals...the land was contracted by the boss and large-scale pesticide cultivation was carried out. The use of pesticides has changed the flavor of vegetables. In the past, people would want to eat them again and again, but now they don't taste good. So, in comparison, eating meat is still better.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePastoralists and other ethnic groups also mentioned that some commonly used ingredients are no longer permitted due to environmental policies and the protection of endangered species. For instance, when discussing the use of snow lotus, a Kazakh woman in her 40s (Kazakh Female One) explained:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI know, I know. This is snow lotus. I used it before and it could cure all diseases. It is now listed as a protected plant and can be found on the mountain. Previously, it could be directly picked and sold. It became more expensive when dried. It's not allowed to be collected now, but people still use it privately.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.7 Influences of Other Ethic Groups\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe influence of other ethnic groups on the consumption of Indigenous ingredients was bi-directional. On the one hand, interactions with other groups introduced new knowledge about edible foods; on the other hand, local people often chose to sell Indigenous ingredients for profit rather than consume them.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth nomadic and other ethnic groups mentioned that interactions with Han and Hui communities expanded knowledge of edibility and the use of wild plant-based foods and fish. For example, when discussing mushroom consumption, a Uighur elder in his 60s shared:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen I was a child, I also lived on a mountain ranch with the Kazakhs. Mushrooms were hardly eaten before. But later when I started working and went to the national-owned unit canteens, the Han people from other provinces were cooking and eating mushroom there, and we followed them to eat.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, economic changes also increased the market value of many Indigenous ingredients. Businessmen from other regions were willing to purchase them at high prices, which led many pastoralists to sell rather than consume their traditional foods. For instance, when discussing morel mushrooms (Morchella), a Kazakh man in his 50s explained:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mushrooms were picked up and sold, and business owners came to collect them. We really don't want to eat it. It's very expensive. We'll sell it for money.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current study is the first to systematically document non-animal-based food ingredients in the Central Asian steppe, demonstrating that Kazakh and Kyrgyz people utilized multiple non-animal-based ingredients during pastoralism. The findings differ from most academic publications and documents on food systems in Central Asia, which primarily focus on meat and milk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] and suggest that plant-based foods in the region are limited [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the results are consistent with ethnographic records by Russian anthropologists in the 17th century [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], showing that many Indigenous ingredients used by Kazakh people have been understudied and forgotten.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis phenomenon may be attributed to three causes. First, the Kazakh famine in the early 1920s resulted in the death of 90% of livestock and 1.5 to 2.3\u0026nbsp;million people [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. This tragedy caused nomadic communities to lose much of their traditional knowledge and practices. Second, colonization and Russification substantially altered lifestyles and dietary practices in the Central Asian steppe [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], leading Kazakh and Kyrgyz people to abandon many traditional dietary practices. Third, most universities in China, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan are located in urban areas. Scholars from these institutions often lack the resources or time to conduct investigations in remote regions, and when they do, they rarely focus on Indigenous food biodiversity. In Kyrgyzstan, the use of numerous wild medicinal plants has been reported [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], suggesting that Kyrgyz people may still widely utilize multiple non-animal-based foods, though this remains underreported in existing literature on food systems and biodiversity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe widespread use of wild plants during pastoralism is also consistent with findings from other regions. For example, Maasai people in East Africa use 34 wild plants during pastoralism [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. However, although nomadic groups utilize diverse food biodiversity, the variety they consume appears smaller than that of other lifestyles. For instance, Indigenous Blang communities living in forests in Yunnan, China, use around 200 ingredients [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. The limited use of wild plants among pastoralist groups may be attributed to the dry climate and environmental conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsuming ingredients \u0026ldquo;like tea\u0026rdquo; is one of the most popular ways to utilize Indigenous biodiversity. This practice aligns with local seasonality and climate: summers in the steppe are rich in plants, while winters are extremely dry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Consuming \u0026ldquo;like tea\u0026rdquo; serves as a traditional food preservation strategy for Kazakh and Kyrgyz people, ensuring better food security in winter. Similarly, making jam is another common method of utilizing Indigenous food biodiversity and preserving food. Therefore, when conducting food and nutrition surveys among Kazakh and Kyrgyz communities in remote areas, seasonality and preservation practices should be carefully considered. Moreover, none of the Central Asian countries currently have food-based dietary guidelines [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, when developing national or regional dietary guidelines for populations living in the Central Asian steppe, seasonality and food preservation should be incorporated. Appendix One further documents the seasonality of certain ingredients consumed \u0026ldquo;like tea\u0026rdquo; or as jam, underscoring the importance of seasonality and preservation in Indigenous food systems of the Central Asian steppe.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBecause of the nutrition transition, Kazakh and Kyrgyz people are experiencing increasing rates of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] and micronutrient deficiencies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Several traditional medicinal functions identified in this study may help mitigate side effects associated with the nutrition transition. For example, reducing hypertension is one of the most common medicinal functions, and hypertension is among the leading NCDs in Central Asian countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. More research is needed to explore how traditional foods can be used as medicine to reduce NCDs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePica (the practice of eating soils) was also identified in this study. No existing academic publications have reported this phenomenon among Kazakh or Kyrgyz people, but news reports from Central Asia support its presence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. According to studies in Africa, pica is linked to iron and calcium deficiencies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, many Indigenous ingredients identified in this study are rich sources of iron. Iron deficiency has also been reported among Kazakh and Kyrgyz populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that reduced consumption of Indigenous ingredients contributes to iron and calcium deficiencies, leading to pica. Rediscovering these Indigenous ingredients may provide nature-based solutions to mitigate micronutrient deficiencies and pica. Further research is required to verify this assumption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study identified 12 categories as barriers to the use of Indigenous ingredients. Most of these barriers are related to climate, environmental factors, and interactions with the external world. Although not previously reported in the Central Asian steppe, all of these categories have been documented in existing literature on Indigenous biodiversity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, strategies from existing literature should be adapted. Importantly, Kazakh and Kyrgyz involvement in policymaking related to environmental protection, climate adaptation, and regional development is essential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also found that interactions among different ethnic groups have increased the use of Indigenous ingredients, such as mushrooms. Although this phenomenon is not widely reported in existing literature, several publications confirm its existence. For example, making jam is a popular way for Kazakh and Kyrgyz people to consume Indigenous biodiversity. While interviewees did not mention the origin of jam-making, existing literature documents that Kazakh and Kyrgyz people learned this practice from Russians [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e], providing historical evidence of cross-ethnic influences on traditional food systems. To promote the use of Indigenous biodiversity for planetary health, more policies and projects should be implemented to encourage dialogue among neighboring ethnic groups and expand knowledge for the sustainable utilization of Indigenous ingredients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current study acknowledges five limitations. First, due to time and funding constraints, the investigation was conducted only in the summer. This may have overlooked underreported dietary behaviors of Kazakh and Kyrgyz people in winter. Future studies should therefore be conducted in winter to address this gap.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, most data were collected through interviews and lacked observational evidence. More ethnographic data should be gathered to provide detailed insights into how Kazakh and Kyrgyz people utilize non-animal-based foods. Such ethnography could also be compared with Russian records from the 17th century to better understand historical changes in Kazakh and Kyrgyz dietary practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, the current study focused only on Kazakh and Kyrgyz people in China, which may have excluded dietary behaviors of Kazakh and Kyrgyz communities in other countries. Although the study attempted to mitigate this by engaging scholars from Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, further research conducted directly in these countries would provide stronger verification.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFourth, traditional Kazakh and Kyrgyz cultures are disappearing in China. It was difficult to find elders over 80 years old or traditional Kazakh and Kyrgyz doctors with extensive experience. More studies should be conducted in regions where traditional practices remain more intact.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFifth, due to political sensitivity, Kazakh and Kyrgyz people were reluctant to share the spiritual meanings of food. However, existing literature has reported relevant spiritual aspects of food and pastoralism among Kazakh and Kyrgyz people, such as the gifting of kumis in summer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Further studies should explore these dimensions in greater depth.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study is the first to systematically document non-animal-based foods in the Central Asian steppe and deepens the understanding of pastoralists\u0026rsquo; traditional food systems. The study shows that traditional nomadic food systems in the region include a diverse range of non-animal-based ingredients that are underutilized and often forgotten in daily life and academic studies. These underutilized foods have great potential to alleviate non-communicable diseases, malnutrition, and pica brought by nutrition transition, and to improve plant-based food availability in the Eurasian steppe. Food preservation strategies and seasonality are particularly important factors in dietary practice among Kazakh and Kyrgyz people and should be considered in future food and nutrition surveys and in designing food-based dietary guidelines (FBDGs). To further understand traditional food systems in the Central Asian steppe, more studies should be conducted in different countries for more comprehensive information. More conversations among different ethnic groups should be encouraged to expand knowledge of using indigenous ingredients. To develop sustainable food systems and planetary health in the Central Asian steppe and other Central Asian countries, indigenous non-animal-based ingredients and the traditional knowledge behind them should be valued and included as a crucial part.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch4\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data collection process strictly followed the principle of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent. The Ethics Review Board of the Good Food Fund China Action Hub approved the study (Protocol #: 0002024007). Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability Data and Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe project was a part of “Documenting Indigenous Food Biodiversity through Youth Participation in China” funded by Good Food Fund China Action Hub and the University scientific research project of No.2024XJKY05 at Xiangsihu College of Guangxi Minzu University. The institution of co-corresponding author Ao Huang was the primary funding institution of this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor’s Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZW was responsible for the project design and drafting of the manuscript. MM oversaw data collection and analysis, while YJ focused specifically on nutritional data collection and analysis. XL and WL contributed to data collection and assisted with manuscript editing. ZM translated and transcribed the interview data and conducted the initial analysis. AH contributed to securing funding, project design, and managed the manuscript submission. YH and SC contributed to manuscript drafting and editing. YL coordinated collaboration and networking efforts to support the successful implementation of the project.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe thanks for all interviewees and translators who participated in this project. We thanks for Good Food Fund China Action Hub to provide project funding and collected relevant data.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003eAuthors' information\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDr. Zeyuan Wang earned his Ph.D. in Social and Behavioral Health Sciences with a specialization in Food Studies from the University of Toronto. His ancestry spans Hakka, Hui, Han, and Sogdian communities across Central and East Asia, shaping his deep interest in the cultural foundations of food systems. His research focuses on uncovering forgotten and underutilized dietary behaviors within Indigenous and traditional food systems. Using interdisciplinary design, mixed-methods approaches, and theories such as the Diffusion of Innovation, he examines how these systems interact with industrial food chains and globalization, and how their revitalization can strengthen territorial diets, food value chains, nutrition, food security, and climate resilience. His work also aims to safeguard food heritage and planetary health, and he integrates visual art as a tool for public engagement. While his research spans five continents, his primary focus is on traditional territorial food systems in the Silk Road countries of Inner Asia and the Sino–Southeast Asian ethnic migration corridor—regions closely connected to his lineage and characterized by rich ethnic diversity and complex historical evolution. Within this framework, he has conducted studies on Indigenous dietary biodiversity, breastfeeding and postpartum dietary practices, climate adaptation, and food fermentation. Dr. Wang collaborates with international organizations including the FAO, UNESCO, and the International Union of Nutritional Sciences.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Pastoralism. FAO Policy Support and Governance Gateway. 2025a [cited 2025 Nov 16]. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.fao.org/policy-support/policy-themes/pastoralism/en/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.fao.org/policy-support/policy-themes/pastoralism/en/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUniversity of Massachusetts Amherst. Pastoralism. 2021 Jan 25. 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BIO Web Conf. 2024;120:01059. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1051/bioconf/202412001059\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1051/bioconf/202412001059\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-ethnobiology-and-ethnomedicine","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jeet","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine](http://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13002","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13002/3","title":"Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine","twitterHandle":"@ethnobiomed","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Nomadic People, Pastoralism, Traditional Food Systems, Indigenous Ingredients, Central Asia, World Nomadic Year, Nutrition Transition","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8673843/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8673843/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Eurasian steppe has sustained nomadic pastoralism for millennia, yet the traditional food systems of Kazakh and Kyrgyz peoples remain poorly documented. Scholarship has emphasized meat and milk, overlooking diverse wild edibles historically consumed, despite high burdens of non-communicable diseases and micronutrient deficiencies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn August 2024, research was conducted in Tekes County, Xinjiang, using ethnobotanical and Indigenous food system approaches. Data were gathered through questionnaires, free listing, market surveys, and guided fieldwork. Thirty participants\u0026mdash;including elders, vendors, and doctors from Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Han, Uighur, Mongol, and Hui groups\u0026mdash;were interviewed until saturation. Transcripts in Mandarin were thematically analyzed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeventy-eight non-animal-based ingredients were identified: 62 wild fruits and vegetables, 8 mushrooms, 3 honeys, and 5 edible soils. Wild plants were consumed as fruits, jams, or teas, with tea-like preparation most common. Half had medicinal functions, notably reducing blood pressure and alleviating internal heat. Barriers included climate change, environmental degradation, tourism, and lifestyle shifts. Interaction with Han and Hui groups expanded local plant and fish knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study offers the first systematic documentation of non-animal-based foods in the Central Asian steppe. These underutilized ingredients could alleviate disease burdens and improve nutrition. Recognizing Indigenous knowledge and integrating traditional foods are vital for sustainable food systems and planetary health.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"TraditionalNon-animal-based Food Ingredients Consumed by the Nomadic Kazakh and Kyrgyz Peoples in the Eurasian Steppe in Tekes, Xinjiang, China","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-28 19:10:21","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8673843/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-01T21:19:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-22T18:17:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-14T13:43:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"301707142612689478477464188693797600752","date":"2026-01-27T18:19:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"39713977404270784836311561928850269052","date":"2026-01-27T10:31:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"76050885798583215467061079711019431445","date":"2026-01-27T07:19:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-27T05:30:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-27T05:29:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-01-27T02:59:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine","date":"2026-01-23T01:11:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-ethnobiology-and-ethnomedicine","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jeet","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine](http://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13002","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13002/3","title":"Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine","twitterHandle":"@ethnobiomed","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"97fac1b0-ec0a-4ba9-94e5-de58d19398a4","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 28th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-01T12:23:05+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-28 19:10:21","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8673843","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8673843","identity":"rs-8673843","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}