Intergenerational Effects of Adversity on Adolescent Self-Efficacy: The Role of Parental Self-Regulation

Intergenerational Effects of Adversity on Adolescent Self-Efficacy: The Role of Parental Self-Regulation | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Intergenerational Effects of Adversity on Adolescent Self-Efficacy: The Role of Parental Self-Regulation Carys Chainey, Tallulah Wilson This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6814943/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Understanding the mechanisms underlying intergenerational cycles of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) may help support families to break these cycles. Parental self-efficacy is one potential mechanism, given its vulnerability to effects of ACEs and modifiability. This study explored whether parental ACEs affect parenting self-regulation, and in turn, adolescent self-efficacy. Data were drawn from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children K Cohort (N = 2,059 parent–adolescent dyads). Parallel mediation analyses with bootstrapping examined whether ACEs experienced by parents before age 18 were associated with adolescent self-efficacy at age 14–15 years, via parent self-regulation (personal agency and self-efficacy) measured when adolescents were aged 12–13 years. Greater parental ACEs were associated with lower adolescent self-efficacy, both directly and via lower parental self-efficacy. Lower parental personal agency was also associated with lower adolescent self-efficacy. Self-regulation may be a mechanism in the intergenerational transmission of adversity and a promising target for intervention. Adverse childhood experiences self-regulation self-efficacy adolescence parenting Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Self-regulation skills are critically important for enabling people to control their behaviour (Sanders et al., 2019). Parents with strong self-regulation may be better able to engage in effective parenting that subsequently supports their children’s self-regulation development (Sanders & Mazzucchelli, 2013). Where parents have experienced adversity in their childhood, however, their self-regulation may be impeded, thus contributing to intergenerational cycles wherein adversity affects functioning across generations (Miccoli et al., 2022). In order to support families to break these cycles, it is therefore important that the impact of adversity on self-regulation across generations be understood, and mechanisms of change identified. Adverse childhood experiences The growing body of literature on Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) indicates that the more types of adversity a child experiences, the greater their risk for such life course and intergenerational effects (Mersky et al., 2013). This literature focuses on ten types of maltreatment and household dysfunction (Kalmakis & Chandler, 2015): parental separation/divorce, household substance-use problems, household mental health conditions, witnessing domestic violence, the incarceration of a family member, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, and emotional and physical neglect (Felitti et al., 1998). Research has indicated that ACEs are common, with a survey of 51,945 adults from 21 countries finding the prevalence of any childhood adversity to be 38.8%, with 59.3%-66.2% of those individuals experiencing more than one (Kessler et al., 2010). The experience of childhood adversity may affect a person's stress response and their ability to self-regulate (Loman & Gunnar, 2010), contributing to risk for a wide range of poor health and wellbeing outcomes such as school attendance, educational attainment, and anti-social and violent behaviours (Bellis et al., 2018). Some of the poor outcomes that are strongly correlated with exposure to multiple ACEs potentially represent ACEs for the next generation (Hughes et al., 2018), such as substance abuse and mental illness (Schickedanz et al., 2021). Intergenerational impacts of adversity can therefore mean that adversities experienced by parents during their childhood may impact their own children’s well-being, via their effects on areas of parents’ functioning, such as their wellbeing, parenting, and self-regulation (Miccoli et al., 2022). In order to support families affected by adversity, it may be helpful to examine the mechanisms or routes through which adversity experienced in one generation may affect the next (Daines et al., 2021). Self-regulation may be one such important mechanism, as it is affected by adversity and is potentially modifiable (Keane & Evans, 2022; Rollins & Crandall, 2021). Parental self-regulation Self-regulation refers to how people learn to adjust their behaviour and become self-sufficient problem solvers over time and under varying circumstances (Sanders et al., 2019). Self-regulation in parents specifically relates to how skilled and efficacious they are at independently problem-solving, self-directing, and adapting parenting objectives and skills to a variety of childrearing factors over time (Karoly, 1993; Sanders et al., 2019). Sanders and Mazzucchelli (2013) developed a five-domain model of parents’ self-regulation, to guide interventions to support positive parenting. The model consists of 1) self-management and 2) problem-solving skills, whereby parents are able to establish specific objectives for their children, evaluate and analyse their interactions, and choose and execute change strategies; 3) self-sufficiency, in the sense that they possess the personal resources, knowledge, and abilities to parent well with little or no help from others; 4) a sense of agency, the feeling that they have influence over their child's and their own behaviour; as well as 5) self-efficacy, the trust that they can successfully apply behaviour change strategies and consequently achieve positive results (Sanders & Mazzucchelli, 2013). Parents’ level of self-regulation can be influenced by personal, environmental, and behavioural factors (Bandura, 1991). Parents’ ability to self-regulate may be harmed by the changes in brain structure and function caused by the trauma and stress of repeated childhood adversity (Rollins & Crandall, 2021). On the other hand, if a person has a wide range of favourable experiences, this may benefit the development of their self-regulation (Rollins & Crandall, 2021). Even in adults with four or more ACEs, positive childhood experiences may provide the potential for more resilient functioning and reduce or eliminate the link between ACEs and unfavourable outcomes (Bellis et al., 2018; Narayan et al., 2021). Parents who endured abuse as a child but were able to draw on protective factors from supportive people are less likely to do the same to their children (Narayan et al., 2021) by building a foundation of competence that promotes success across development. This allows them to provide their children with greater resources and better parenting (Narayan et al., 2021). Parents may also draw on support from sources such as evidence-based parenting programs, which have been shown to be effective in helping parents to develop stronger self-regulation (Doyle et al., 2022; Sanders & Mazzucchelli, 2013). Self-regulation is a common target for parenting interventions because parent’s ability to self-regulate their behaviour is a crucial component of maintaining effective, supportive, non-abusive parenting practices that benefit children's healthy development (Sanders & Mazzucchelli, 2013). Intergenerational continuity of self-regulation may therefore occur, whereby parents who have good self-regulation are better able to use parenting practices that support their children to develop good self-regulation capabilities such as self-management, self-sufficiency, and self-efficacy (Sanders & Mazzucchelli, 2013). Adolescent self-efficacy Bandura (1977) identified self-efficacy, the belief an individual has in their ability to carry out a behaviour, as being highly influential in changing behaviour. It can predict how much effort a person will put into learning and applying a behaviour, how persistent they will be, and how hard they will work to overcome adversities (Lazaro et al., 2019). As self-efficacy directly impacts goals, assumptions, and behaviour, it has a positive association with performance (Afifah & Indriwardhani, 2021). High self-efficacy can promote perceptions of tranquillity when tackling challenging tasks and activities (Iroegbu, 2015), and lead to more active involvement (Schunk, 1989). On the other hand, poor self-efficacy can lead people to imagine that tasks are harder than they actually are, which can lead to anxiety, depression, a limited perspective of how to approach a situation (Iroegbu, 2015), and withdrawal (Schunk, 1989). As a result, low self-efficacy can negatively affect a range of outcomes, including academic achievement, emotional wellbeing, and social relationships (Iroegbu, 2015; Waddington, 2023). Adolescence is a particularly important period for the development of self-efficacy, as young people face new academic, social, and identity-related challenges that require greater autonomy and self-direction (Arnett, 2013; Benson, 2007). During this stage, cognitive and emotional capacities are still developing, and self-efficacy beliefs formed in adolescence may have lasting implications for engagement, resilience, and mental health (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Understanding the factors that shape self-efficacy during adolescence is therefore critical for identifying how to support positive developmental trajectories and reduce vulnerability to poor outcomes. Social learning theory posits that adolescents may be supported to develop strong self-efficacy by modelling behaviours and attitudes by important people in adolescents’ lives (Bandura, 1977). Adolescents may therefore be supported to develop strong self-efficacy if their parents expose them to new challenges and experiences, positive role models, and realistic expectations (Schunk & Meece, 2006), and if they are involved in their children’s education (Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994; Marchant et al., 2001). Attachment-promoting parental behaviours (e.g., responsiveness, warmth, sensitivity, and encouragement of autonomy) may also promote adolescent self-regulation (Karreman et al., 2006). Parents with high levels of self-efficacy are more likely to encourage their offspring to engage in self-directed activities (Lin, 2003), and children's self-efficacy beliefs may therefore be significantly influenced by their parents' level of self-efficacy (Lynch, 2002). Parents who feel they have control over their children's development may be more proactive and successful in fostering their children’s abilities (Schneewind & Pfeiffer, 1995). Mondell and Tyler (1981) found that parents with high levels of self-efficacy offered more direct assistance, gave fewer orders, and displayed more positive emotions while interacting with their children. Such actions may mediate a child's perception of their competence and that of their parents. Individual differences in self-efficacy, however, may also be influenced by heritability factors (Waaktaar & Torgersen, 2013), however, the evidence of genetic influence varies across studies (Bullers & Prescott, 2001; Greven et al., 2009). Therefore, potential generational links of self-efficacy are likely through genetic, modelling, and teaching pathways. Parents’ own levels of self-regulation may therefore be critically important for the development of their adolescents’ self-efficacy. As parents' childhood adversities may negatively impact their self-regulation skills, however, this may be an important mechanism by which adversity affects multiple generations. By understanding how parents’ adversities and self-regulation may affect their adolescent children's self-efficacy, it may be possible to identify targets for support for families affected by current and historic adversity and help to interrupt the intergenerational effects of childhood adversity. The current paper The current paper explores the impact of parent’s adverse childhood experiences on their self-regulation and, subsequently, on their adolescent children’s self-efficacy. It investigates household dysfunction and maltreatment adversities listed in the ACEs framework (Felitti et al., 1998), and their cumulative impact on parents’ self-regulation and adolescents’ self-efficacy. Incarceration and emotional neglect ACEs were not included, as well as three aspects of self-regulation (problem solving, self-sufficiency, and self-management) due to a lack of data availability in the dataset utilised. However, the current paper will provide novel insights, as although the role of individual ACEs on self-regulation is known, the cumulative impact is not. Similarly, while the impact of individual aspects of self-regulation on child’s self-efficacy have been studied, they are yet to be studied together or in the context of parents’ ACEs. A greater understanding of how ACEs affect parental self-regulation and adolescent self-efficacy may enable better support for both the parents that have been impacted, and their adolescents. Hypotheses It was hypothesised that parent’s ACES, via its effect on their self-regulation, will, directly and indirectly, influence their adolescent child’s self-efficacy, whereby experiencing a greater number of adversities will be associated with lower levels of self-efficacy and personal agency, which will consequently be correlated with lower self-efficacy in their adolescent children. Figure 1 displays the hypothesised mediating relationship of parents’ self-regulation on the relationship between parents’ ACES and their adolescent children’s self-efficacy. Methods Design The hypothesis was investigated using data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC), collected bi-annually from a nationally representative cohort of children and their parents. The LSAC researchers gained informed consent from all participants. Any procedure involving people complies with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and any later revisions or similar ethical guidelines. Due to the current study's minimal risk and use of non-identifiable secondary data, an official waiver of ethical approval was issued by a university human research ethics committee (Clearance number 2022/HE000665). The Australian Data Archive (ADA) provided access to the LSAC dataset (Reference number: 500215). Sample The current study uses data from the LSAC K cohort waves 2, 5, 6, and 7. Data from one adolescent and their primary caregiver (Parent 1) were included in each case. The final analytic dataset included 2,059 adolescents aged between the ages of 14 and 15 at wave 6, and their primary caregiver (mother or father). Adolescents’ gender was roughly evenly divided (51% male), with somewhat more 14-year-olds than 15-year-olds (60% vs. 40%, respectively). The age range for parents was 30 to 73 years ( M = 43.95, SD = 4.82), with a largely female gender split (95.1% female). Most parents (81.6%) obtained education beyond high school and were employed (83.5%). The majority lived in major cities (62.9%), spoke English at home (93.5%), and were not Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islanders (98.7%). Families in the sample lived in all Australian states and territories and geographical regions with different socioeconomic statuses in roughly equal numbers. Measures The measures were sourced from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, obtaining information on parents’ ACEs (waves 2 and 7), parents’ self-regulation (wave 5), adolescents’ self-efficacy (wave 6), and demographic characteristics for adolescents (wave 5) and parents (wave 6). Parents’ ACEs Data on parents’ ACEs were retrospectively collected at waves 2 and 7 from the primary caregiver. Eight adversities were measured: parental separation, domestic violence, parental substance use, parental mental illness, neglect, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse. For each adversity experienced, parents were assigned a score of 1. Scores were summed to provide an overall ACE score ranging from 0 to 8, representing how many of the eight ACEs they had experienced during their childhood. Definitions were as follows. Parental separation = parents were separated, divorced or never lived together before they were aged 18. Domestic violence = father physically abused their mother or their mother physically abused their father. Substance use problems = mother (or mother figure) or father (or father figure) had trouble with drinking or other drug use. Mental illness = mother (or mother figure) or father (or father figure) suffered from nervous, emotional trouble or depression. Neglect = they were frequently left alone to look after themselves. Sexual abuse = being raped, sexually assaulted, or sexually abused by someone in their family living in the household. Emotional abuse = verbally abused, ridiculed, or humiliated by a parent. Physical abuse = receiving frequent beatings or too much physical punishment (e.g., hitting, smacking). Self-regulation Self-regulation was measured according to the domain model of self-regulation created by Sanders and Mazzucchelli (2013). Self-efficacy and personal agency were available within the LSAC data. Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was measured using a global rating of parenting self-efficacy measured by one modified item taken from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (National Centre for Education Statistics, 2004). The item asked the parent to rate their ability as a parent on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not very good) to 5 (a very good parent). Higher scores indicate better self-rated global parenting skills. Personal agency. Personal agency was measured using one item adapted from the theoretical work of Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) and other studies, such as Wong and Hughes (2006). The measure on a 4-point Likert scale asked parents how well they believe they can make a difference in study child’s success at school, with responses ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (disagree). For the current study, scores were reversed such that higher scores indicate more personal agency. Adolescents’ self-efficacy Adolescents’ self-efficacy was measured with items from the general self-concept sub-scale of the Marsh Self-Description Questionnaire (Marsh, 1990). Of the subscale’s ten items, only the five items positively worded were included in the LSAC questionnaires. Items included statements such as, “most things I do, I do well”. Responses range from 1 (false) to 5 (true). An average score was calculated, with higher scores indicating better self-efficacy. The scale was previously found to have high internal reliability in wave 3 of the LSAC K cohort, α = .84 (McCormack et al., 2011). In this sample, the internal consistency was also high, α = .88. Demographic characteristics The demographic characteristics utilised were adolescents’ age and gender; and parent’s age, gender, education (less than year 12, year 12, more than year 12), Indigenous status, state/territory of residence, area socioeconomic status (SES; measured using the Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas, Index of Relative Socio-economic Advantage and Disadvantage, with deciles collapsed into high SES (top 5 deciles) and low SES (bottom 5 deciles)), remoteness (Major City, Other), and household language (English, Other). Analysis Plan Response distributions were examined for range restrictions that would impact analyses. Bivariate relationships were conducted to detect shared variance and guide the interpretation of the results from multivariate analyses. Normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity were checked to see if the assumptions of regression were met. Parent self-regulation variables were mean-centred to adjust for normality violations and reduce multicollinearity. Parallel mediation analysis was carried out utilising model 4 of the PROCESS macro for SPSS 27. In order to establish confidence intervals for each mediation pathway and further mitigate the potential effects of non-normal distributions on the indirect paths, bootstrapping was performed. Results SPSS version 27 was used to examine, clean and analyse the data. All continuous variables underwent missing values analysis per Tabachnick et al. (2007) methods. A total of 1,909 participants were excluded as they were missing all data across each wave. A further 150 participants were removed as they were inadequately assessed, with more than 50% missing values. Less than 5% of the total data were missing, indicating that they were missing completely at random and unlikely to bias estimations. Therefore, the missing subscale values were estimated using expectation maximisation. Descriptive Analysis Adversity Over half of the parents sampled (55%, N =1049) had faced at least one of the eight measured adversities (domestic violence, emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, parental separation/divorce, household mental health condition, or household problematic substance use). Of those who experienced childhood adversity, 21% had experienced one type, 14% had experienced two types, 9% had experienced three types, and 14% had experienced four or more ACEs. Household mental health condition (27%) was the most prevalent adversity faced by parents who experienced one, two, or three adversities. Domestic violence was the most prevalent (19%) for those who experienced four or more adversities. Of the eight adversities, household mental health issue was the most frequently encountered (31%), with those that experienced adversity, 34% experienced mental health as a singular adversity and 41% in concurrence with other ACEs. Domestic violence was the next most common adversity, with 24% of parents sampled having experienced it. Of those that experienced adversity, 10% experienced domestic violence as a singular adversity and 38% in concurrence with other adversities. The least common adversity was physical abuse, with 9% of all parents sampled having experienced this. Of those that experienced adversity, 1.6% experienced physical abuse as a singular adversity and 14% in concurrence with other ACEs. For further insight on the adversities that the sample's respondents faced, see Figure 2. Parents’ self-regulation Scores on the parent’s self-regulation measures ranged across the entire scales. Although scores were slightly kurtotic and skewed, the values were within the acceptable range of -2 to +2; therefore, they were unlikely to impact the analyses substantially. Participants reported generally high levels of self-efficacy and personal agency. Adolescent’s self-efficacy Adolescents’ self-efficacy scores ranged across the entire scale (e.g., 1 to 5), with a median score of 4. Scores were slightly negatively skewed, reporting towards the higher half of the scale. However, the values were within the acceptable range of -2 to +2 and, therefore, unlikely to impact the analyses substantially (George, 2011). Bivariate Associations Bivariate associations indicated higher levels of adversity, parental self-efficacy and adolescent self-efficacy were significantly related with one another. Higher parental self-efficacy scores were associated with higher parental personal agency scores. The summary of all bivariate associations is presented in Supplementary Table 1. Do Parents Childhood Adversities Influence their Children’s Self-efficacy via their Parenting Self-regulation? Parallel mediation analysis tested the hypothesis, predicting that parents’ ACEs will have an impact on their child's self-efficacy both directly and indirectly through the parenting self-regulation components of personal agency, self-sufficiency, and self-efficacy; controlling for demographic characteristics. Bootstrapping was used to calculate 95% upper and lower confidence intervals with 10,000 samples. Figure 3 illustrates these pathways visually, and detailed parallel mediation coefficients can be found in Table 4. Parental ACEs were not significantly associated with personal agency ( a 1 = -.003, p = .739), but higher parental personal agency was significantly associated with higher adolescent self-efficacy ( b 1 = .07, p = .014). Higher parental ACEs were significantly related to lower parental self-efficacy ( a 2 = -.06, p <.001), which was subsequently associated with lower adolescent self-efficacy ( b 2 = .12, p <.001). A significant total effect indicated higher levels of parental ACEs are related to lower levels of adolescent self-efficacy, before accounting for the mediators, c = -.04, SE = .01, p = .001, 95% CI [-.06, -.02]. The total effect remained significant once the mediators were included, indicating partial mediation, c’ = -.03, SE = .01, p = .004, 95% CI [-.05, -.01]. The total indirect effect was also significant, ab = -.01, SE = .002, 95% CI [-.01, -.003]. The indirect effect of parental ACEs on adolescent self-efficacy via personal agency was therefore not significant, a 1 b 1 = .00, SE = .001, 95% CI [-.002, .001]. The indirect effect via self-efficacy was significant, a 2 b 2 = -.01, SE = .002, 95% CI [-.01, -.003]. Table 4 Results of the Mediated Regression to Predict Adolescent’s Self-efficacy with Parent’s ACEs and Parental Self-regulation (Mediator) Personal Agency (Mediator) Self-efficacy (DV) Adolescent Self-efficacy path B SE p path B SE p path B SE p Personal Agency b 1 0.07 0.03 .014 Self-efficacy b 2 0.12 0.02 <.001 Parental ACEs a 1 -0.003 0.01 .739 a 2 -0.06 0.01 <.001 c’ -0.03 0.01 .004 Area remoteness 0.00 0.03 .969 -0.02 0.04 .706 0.06 0.03 .075 Household language -0.08 0.05 .119 -0.01 0.08 .887 0.03 0.06 .637 Area SES -0.02 0.03 .561 0.00 0.04 .917 0.04 0.03 .236 Parent gender 0.04 0.06 .546 -0.01 0.09 .903 0.06 0.07 .447 Parent age 0.00 0.00 .130 0.00 0.00 .99 0.00 0.00 .387 Adolescent gender -0.02 0.03 .395 -0.06 0.04 .099 -0.11 0.03 <.001 Adolescent age -0.01 0.03 .623 -0.04 0.04 .266 0.03 0.03 .321 Parent education Less than 12 years -0.13 0.06 .029 -0.03 0.08 .767 0.04 0.07 .609 More than 12 years 0.12 0.04 .009 0.06 0.06 .338 0.11 0.05 .044 Parent employment 0.04 0.03 .25 0.02 0.05 .671 0.06 0.04 .152 Constant 4.59 0.59 <.001 4.59 0.59 <.001 2.94 0.51 <.001 R 2 = .02 R 2 = .01 R 2 = .05 F (11, 2031) = 4.10, p <.001 F (11, 2031) = 2.60, p = .003 F (13, 2029) = 7.42, p < .001 Discussion The study aimed to examine how adversity during childhood affects parents’ self-regulation and the implications that this can have for their adolescent children's self-efficacy. As self-regulation and self-efficacy are central to functioning across a range of domains, understanding these relationships may provide valuable insights on how to interrupt intergenerational cycles of adversity. The focal hypothesis was that a greater number of parent ACEs would be associated with lower levels of self-efficacy and personal agency in parents, which subsequently would be associated with lower self-efficacy in their adolescent children. The hypothesis was partially supported, with parents’ ACEs having significant adolescents’ self-efficacy directly and indirectly via parents’ self-efficacy. Parents’ personal agency had independent supportive effects on adolescents’ self-efficacy. The observed significant negative impact of parents’ ACEs on their self-efficacy is reinforced by existing research showing childhood maltreatment negatively influencing self-efficacy (Cohrdes & Mauz, 2020 ), and a parent's own developmental history can influence their beliefs and parental expectations (Caldwell et al., 2011 ). High levels of victimisation may therefore lead to fewer effective coping mechanisms and reduced parental self-efficacy (Masten et al., 1999 ). The current results add to the extant literature, indicating that the cumulative effect of abuse victimisation and/or household dysfunction can also have a negative effect on parental self-efficacy. This underscores the potential value of parenting supports that explicitly target self-efficacy enhancement for parents with a history of adversity, such as those grounded in self-regulation frameworks (Sanders & Mazzucchelli, 2013 ). Given that self-efficacy is modifiable, these findings suggest that interventions tailored to build self-belief and competence in parenting could be an important strategy in breaking cycles of adversity. A positive association between parent self-efficacy and adolescent self-efficacy was also found, as hypothesised. This supports previous evidence that children's self-efficacy beliefs are significantly influenced by their parents' level of self-efficacy (Lynch, 2002 ), through parents being more proactive and successful in fostering their children’s abilities (Schneewind & Pfeiffer, 1995 ), and giving more direct assistance and warmth (Mondell & Tyler, 1981 ). Self-efficacy may also be genetically heritable (Waaktaar & Torgersen, 2013 ), although some studies have found environmental effects, rather than genetics, explain the majority of variation in adolescent self-efficacy (Bullers & Prescott, 2001 ; Greven et al., 2009 ). Therefore, potential generational links of self-efficacy are likely through genetic, modelling, and teaching pathways. The current findings add to the extant literature by contextualising the intergenerational transmission of self-efficacy, as itself potentially affected by parents’ past adversity. The evident intertwining of the cycles of adversity and self-efficacy highlight the interplay of varied influences on the functioning of families over time. Parents’ personal agency was also linked with greater self-efficacy in adolescents. Previous research has primarily focused on the related concept of parental school involvement and adolescent self-efficacy, in both theories and empirical research (Fan & Williams, 2010 ). Parents who perceive themselves as influential in their child’s education may be more likely to engage in behaviours that foster autonomy, motivation, and confidence, which are key contributors to adolescent self-efficacy. This aligns with social learning theory, which emphasises the importance of modelling and reinforcement from key figures in an adolescent’s environment (Bandura, 1977 ). While the current measure of personal agency was limited to the academic domain, the positive association with adolescent self-efficacy suggests that parental beliefs about influence, even in specific contexts, may shape adolescents’ broader sense of capability. In contrast, no significant relationship was found between parents’ ACEs and personal agency. Personal agency in this study was measured in regards to how well the parents believed they could make a difference in their child’s success in school. While this reflects one important domain of parenting agency, it may not fully capture broader dimensions of parents’ sense of control or goal-directed behaviour, particularly in relation to everyday parenting challenges or emotional regulation. It is possible that the experience of childhood adversity influences some facets of personal agency more than others, or that its impact is mediated by contextual and relational factors not captured here. For instance, supportive adult relationships or educational attainment may buffer the effects of adversity (Narayan et al., 2018 ). Future research should therefore explore the contribution of positive experiences, alongside ACEs, in influencing parental personal agency, and conceptualise parental personal agency in multi-dimensional terms, to enable the context of ACEs and potential barriers to parental personal agency to be better understood. Overall Model As hypothesised, parents’ ACEs had a significant negative direct effect on adolescents’ self-efficacy. This indicates ACEs’ intergenerational impact may reach the adolescent children of parents who have experienced ACEs. The overall model demonstrates the negative effect the experience of ACEs has on parents’ self-regulation, which consequently decreases adolescents’ self-efficacy. This finding reinforces (Bandura, 1991 ) assertion that self-efficacy is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by contextual and relational experiences—factors that are often disrupted by ACEs. It also supports ecological and developmental models that highlight the importance of parental psychological resources in shaping parenting behaviour and child development outcomes (e.g., Belsky’s process model of parenting; 1984). As it is not always possible to prevent adversities children may face, to enhance possible outcomes and lessen the chance of maintaining a cycle of adversity and unfavourable results across generations, it is essential to consider how to bring about change after the fact. Since self-regulation is evidently an important element of the cycle of adversity, increasing this may help families achieve better outcomes in the future. The findings therefore support a dual focus on early intervention for families at risk of ACE exposure, as well as restorative or resilience-building approaches for parents and families who have already experienced adversity. Programs that cultivate parenting self-efficacy may play a particularly important role in mitigating the developmental consequences for adolescents, during this critical period of identity formation and autonomy development. Strengths and limitations The study's use of the LSAC has several important methodological advantages. Firstly, utilising several informants minimised potential mono-operational bias as participants answered questions about their own experiences. The data, intended to represent the Australian population, increased the generalisability of the findings. Due to the large sample size, confidence in the sample effects is improved. Almost half (42%) of the parents had not experienced any childhood adversities; therefore, it is possible that the current findings cannot be applied to groups with high degrees of adversity. However, this study’s rates of childhood adversities reflect those found in other research (Dong et al., 2003 ) and are, therefore, a likely accurate representation of ACE prevalence in the general population. The study's use of parallel mediation for the analysis was another significant strength, which offered the ability to examine various concurrent routes for the effect of parents’ ACEs on adolescents’ self-efficacy. Despite this, the study does have some limitations. Although the LSAC offered a breadth of data on 8 of the 10 ACEs, data was not available on emotional neglect and incarceration of a family member. Australia has relatively low rates of parental incarceration, with approximately 5% of all children experiencing parental incarceration (Quilty, 2005 ). However, this disproportionally affects Indigenous children, with 20% experiencing parental incarceration (Quilty, 2005 ). Due to the low number of Indigenous participants in the LSAC data, future research is warranted on the effect of incarceration on Indigenous families and communities. The study may also have benefited from the inclusion of emotional neglect, as rates of emotional neglect in childhood is relatively unknown in Australia, due to a lack of reliable data (Price-Robertson et al., 2010 ). Secondly, social desirability bias may have led to under-reporting of ACEs and over-reporting of parental self-regulation and adolescent self-efficacy. As ACEs were retrospectively self-reported recall bias may have also caused unreliable results, however, the retrospective measure of ACEs measures is often viewed as a strength and is a common method for evaluating adverse childhood experiences (Dong et al., 2004 ; Hardt & Rutter, 2004 ). Furthermore, as parental personal agency and self-efficacy were each measured with a single item, there are no items to compensate for incomplete or inaccurately measured items. Finally, due to the low number of fathers in the dataset, future studies may benefit from looking into self-regulation with a larger number of fathers to see if the same effects are found. Conclusion This study highlights parenting self-efficacy as a key mechanism linking parents’ adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) with their adolescent children’s self-efficacy. While ACEs were associated with lower parenting self-efficacy, they were not linked to personal agency, suggesting different dimensions of self-regulation may be affected in distinct ways. Given self-efficacy is modifiable, parenting interventions that enhance confidence and competence may help disrupt intergenerational cycles of adversity. Future research should examine other protective factors, explore diverse family contexts, and use more comprehensive measures of self-regulation to guide the development of equitable, effective support for families affected by adversity. Declarations Author Contributions Carys Chainey: Conceptualisation; Methodology; Formal Analysis; Writing – Original Draft; Writing – Review & Editing; Supervision; Project Administration; Visualisation. Tallulah Wilson: Formal Analysis; Investigation; Data Curation; Writing – Original Draft; Writing – Review & Editing; Visualisation. Declaration of Interest Statements The Parenting and Family Support Centre is partly funded by royalties stemming from published resources of the Triple P – Positive Parenting Program, which is developed and owned by The University of Queensland (UQ). Royalties are also distributed to the Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences at UQ and contributory authors of published Triple P resources. Triple P International (TPI) Pty Ltd is a private company licensed by UniQuest Pty Ltd on behalf of UQ, to publish and disseminate Triple P worldwide. The authors of this report have no share or ownership of TPI. TPI had no involvement in the study design, collection, analysis or interpretation of data, or writing of this report. Author Chainey is employed by, and Author Wilson was a student at, The University of Queensland at the Parenting and Family Support Centre. Acknowledgements This research was partially supported by the Australian Government through the Australian Research Council's Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course (Project ID CE200100025). Data Availability Access to data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children may be requested from the Australian Government Department of Social Services: https://www.dss.gov.au/long-term-research/accessing-our-datasets. References Afifah, L., & Indriwardhani, S. P. (2021). Students’ self-efficacy in learning foreign language during the COVID-19 pandemic. KnE Social Sciences , 235–241-235–241. https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v5i3.8545 Arnett, J. J. (2013). Adolescence and emerging adulthood (5th ed.). Pearson Education UK. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory . Prentice Hall. https://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn948969 Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. 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Infant and Child Development: An International Journal of Research and Practice , 15 (6), 561-579. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.478 Keane, K., & Evans, R. R. (2022). Exploring the Relationship Between Modifiable Protective Factors and Mental Health Issues Among Children Experiencing Adverse Childhood Experiences Using a Resilience Framework. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma , 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.597935 Kessler, R. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alhamzawi, A. O., Alonso, J., & Angermeyer, M. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. The British Journal of Psychiatry , 197 (5), 378-385. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.080499 Lazaro, R. T., Reina-Guerra, S. G., & Quiben, M. (2019). Umphred's Neurological Rehabilitation-E-Book . Elsevier Health Sciences. Lin, C.-H. (2003). Intergenerational parallelism of self-efficacy: Moderating variables, mediating variables, and common antecedents . Texas A&M University. Loman, M. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2010). Early experience and the development of stress reactivity and regulation in children. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews , 34 (6), 867-876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.05.007 Lynch, J. (2002). Parents’ self‐efficacy beliefs, parents’ gender, children’s reader self‐perceptions, reading achievement and gender. Journal of Research in reading , 25 (1), 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.00158 Marchant, G. J., Paulson, S. E., & Rothlisberg, B. A. (2001). Relations of middle school students' perceptions of family and school contexts with academic achievement. Psychology in the Schools , 38 (6), 505-519. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.1039 Marsh, H. W. (1990). Self Description Questionnaire-I. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology . https://doi.org/10.1037/t01843-000 Masten, A. S., Hubbard, J. J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N., & Ramirez, M. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology , 11 (1), 143-169. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579499001996 McCormack, J., Harrison, L. J., McLeod, S., & McAllister, L. (2011). A nationally representative study of the association between communication impairment at 4–5 years and children’s life activities at 7–9 years. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2011/10-0155) Mersky, J., Topitzes, J., & Reynolds, A. (2013). Impacts of adverse childhood experiences on health, mental health, and substance use in early adulthood: A cohort study of an urban, minority sample in the US. Child Abuse and Neglect , 37 (11), 917-925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.07.011 Miccoli, A., Song, J., Romanowicz, M., Howie, F., Simar, S., & Lynch, B. A. (2022). Impact of Parental Adverse Childhood Experiences on Offspring Development in Early Head Start: Parental Adversity and Offspring Development. Journal of Primary Care & Community Health , 13 , 21501319221084165. https://doi.org/10.1177/21501319221084165 Mondell, S., & Tyler, F. B. (1981). Parental competence and styles of problem solving/play behavior with children. Developmental Psychology , 17 (1), 73. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.17.1.73 Narayan, A. J., Lieberman, A. F., & Masten, A. S. (2021). Intergenerational transmission and prevention of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Clinical Psychology Review , 85 , 101997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.101997 Narayan, A. J., Rivera, L. M., Bernstein, R. E., Harris, W. W., & Lieberman, A. F. (2018). Positive childhood experiences predict less psychopathology and stress in pregnant women with childhood adversity: A pilot study of the benevolent childhood experiences (BCEs) scale. Child Abuse and Neglect , 78 , 19-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.022 Price-Robertson, R., Bromfield, L., & Vassallo, S. (2010). Prevalence matters: Estimating the extent of child maltreatment in Australia. Developing Practice: The Child, Youth and Family Work Journal (26), 12-20. https://doi.org/10.3316/informit.458427973479515 Quilty, S. (2005). The Magnitude of Experience of Parental Incarceration in Australia. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law , 12 (1), 256-257. https://doi.org/10.1375/pplt.2005.12.1.256 Rollins, E. M., & Crandall, A. (2021). Self-Regulation and Shame as Mediators Between Childhood Experiences and Young Adult Health. Frontiers in Psychiatry , 12 , 520. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.649911 Sanders, M. R., & Mazzucchelli, T. G. (2013). The promotion of self-regulation through parenting interventions. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review , 16 (1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-013-0129-z Sanders, M. R., Turner, K. M. T., & Metzler, C. W. (2019). Applying self-regulation principles in the delivery of parenting interventions. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review , 22 (1), 24-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00287-z Schickedanz, A., Escarce, J. J., Halfon, N., Sastry, N., & Chung, P. J. (2021). Intergenerational Associations between Parents’ and Children’s Adverse Childhood Experience Scores. Children , 8 (9), 747. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8090747 Schneewind, K. A., & Pfeiffer, P. (1995). Impact of family processes on control beliefs. Self-efficacy in changing societies , 114-148. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527692.006 Schunk, D. H. (1989). Self-efficacy and achievement behaviors. Educational Psychology Review , 1 (3), 173-208. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01320134 Schunk, D. H., & Meece, J. L. (2006). Self-efficacy development in adolescence. Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents , 5 (1), 71-96. Waaktaar, T., & Torgersen, S. (2013). Self-efficacy is mainly genetic, not learned: a multiple-rater twin study on the causal structure of general self-efficacy in young people. Twin Research and Human Genetics , 16 (3), 651-660. https://doi.org/10.1017/thg.2013.25 Waddington, J. (2023). Self-efficacy. ELT Journal , 77 (2), 237-240. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccac046 Wong, S. W., & Hughes, J. N. (2006). Ethnicity and language contributions to dimensions of parent involvement. School Psychology Review , 35 (4), 645-662. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2006.12087968 Additional Declarations Competing interest reported. The Parenting and Family Support Centre is partly funded by royalties stemming from published resources of the Triple P – Positive Parenting Program, which is developed and owned by The University of Queensland (UQ). Royalties are also distributed to the Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences at UQ and contributory authors of published Triple P resources. Triple P International (TPI) Pty Ltd is a private company licensed by UniQuest Pty Ltd on behalf of UQ, to publish and disseminate Triple P worldwide. The authors of this report have no share or ownership of TPI. TPI had no involvement in the study design, collection, analysis or interpretation of data, or writing of this report. Author Chainey is employed by, and Author Wilson was a student at, The University of Queensland at the Parenting and Family Support Centre. Supplementary Files ACEsandselfregulationSupplementaryTables20250509.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 01 Apr, 2026 Reviews received at journal 23 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 05 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 02 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 16 Aug, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 14 Aug, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 09 Jun, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 04 Jun, 2025 First submitted to journal 03 Jun, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6814943","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":501303462,"identity":"4f598496-9f52-463b-b23e-ca6ac2105352","order_by":0,"name":"Carys Chainey","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA3UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACNgYGAyDF3gDiMJOihecASVpAQCKBSC38DczPHvwouCNncPON4Q2GCuvEBvYzBni1SBxgMzfsMXhmbHA7x9iC4Ux6YgNPDn4tBgw8bBI8BocTN9zOMZNgbDuc2MBAhBbJPwaH6zfcPAPU8g+ohf8NYS3SQFsSDG7wALU0ALVIELBF4jCbmbSMwWHDmWfSii0SjqUbt0k8K8Crhb+9+Znkmz+H5fmOH95440ONtWw/f/IGvFrgEaFwABo1bPjVIwH5BqAWolWPglEwCkbBiAIAcZ1Acmd5XhMAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"The University of Queensland","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Carys","middleName":"","lastName":"Chainey","suffix":""},{"id":501303463,"identity":"7fb13d80-b23f-4c53-b4d6-1b1b03deffdb","order_by":1,"name":"Tallulah Wilson","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The University of Queensland","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tallulah","middleName":"","lastName":"Wilson","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-04 00:23:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6814943/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6814943/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89654106,"identity":"cd53116f-c8e1-4f0a-b9f9-7011c74a35ff","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 10:15:38","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74194,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHypothesised Model: Parental Personal Agency and Self-efficacy as Mediators of the Relationship Between Parental ACEs and Adolescent Self-efficacy\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6814943/v1/569e7222176c17b4986fc43a.png"},{"id":89654113,"identity":"31552f0a-7dc0-4b7d-9226-8877f3d5011e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 10:15:38","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":136933,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of Parental Experience of each ACE Type, by the Number of ACEs Experienced\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6814943/v1/6077812db3117b8db4d4216d.png"},{"id":89655271,"identity":"96451955-aadc-4600-abaf-8efecf821c64","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 10:23:38","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":112945,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResults: Parent’s Self-regulation as a Mediator of the Relationship Between Parental ACEs and their Adolescent’s Self-efficacy\u003cbr\u003e\nPaths are conveyed as unstandardised regression coefficients as proposed by Hayes (2013). \u003cbr\u003e\n* \u003cem\u003ep \u0026lt; \u003c/em\u003e.05; ** \u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .01; *** \u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6814943/v1/c9c24e132a5c0b1385b792a5.png"},{"id":89656840,"identity":"3ae945de-1351-4c64-9ac4-bc7c13fe4b73","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 10:31:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1059674,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6814943/v1/41e105f5-5c14-49e1-a1b5-54b8f99fb030.pdf"},{"id":89654105,"identity":"e88ba933-35e1-4e83-8c8e-e9ee6bc75712","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 10:15:38","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":25001,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"ACEsandselfregulationSupplementaryTables20250509.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6814943/v1/ffa1049f322f146e33fd7c65.docx"}],"financialInterests":"Competing interest reported. The Parenting and Family Support Centre is partly funded by royalties stemming from published resources of the Triple P – Positive Parenting Program, which is developed and owned by The University of Queensland (UQ). Royalties are also distributed to the Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences at UQ and contributory authors of published Triple P resources. Triple P International (TPI) Pty Ltd is a private company licensed by UniQuest Pty Ltd on behalf of UQ, to publish and disseminate Triple P worldwide. The authors of this report have no share or ownership of TPI. TPI had no involvement in the study design, collection, analysis or interpretation of data, or writing of this report. Author Chainey is employed by, and Author Wilson was a student at, The University of Queensland at the Parenting and Family Support Centre.","formattedTitle":"Intergenerational Effects of Adversity on Adolescent Self-Efficacy: The Role of Parental Self-Regulation","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSelf-regulation skills are critically important for enabling people to control their behaviour (Sanders et al., 2019). Parents with strong self-regulation may be better able to engage in effective parenting that subsequently supports their children\u0026rsquo;s self-regulation development (Sanders \u0026amp; Mazzucchelli, 2013). Where parents have experienced adversity in their childhood, however, their self-regulation may be impeded, thus contributing to intergenerational cycles wherein adversity affects functioning across generations (Miccoli et al., 2022). In order to support families to break these cycles, it is therefore important that the impact of adversity on self-regulation across generations be understood, and mechanisms of change identified.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAdverse childhood experiences\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe growing body of literature on Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) indicates that the more types of adversity a child experiences, the greater their risk for such life course and intergenerational effects\u0026nbsp;(Mersky et al., 2013).\u0026nbsp;This literature focuses on ten types of\u0026nbsp;maltreatment and household dysfunction\u0026nbsp;(Kalmakis \u0026amp; Chandler, 2015): parental separation/divorce, household substance-use problems, household mental health conditions, witnessing domestic violence, the incarceration of a family member, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, and emotional and physical neglect (Felitti et al., 1998). Research has indicated that ACEs are common, with a survey of 51,945 adults from 21 countries finding the prevalence of any childhood adversity to be 38.8%, with 59.3%-66.2% of those individuals experiencing more than one (Kessler et al., 2010). The experience of childhood adversity may affect a person\u0026apos;s stress response and their ability to self-regulate (Loman \u0026amp; Gunnar, 2010), contributing to risk for a wide range of poor health and wellbeing outcomes such as school attendance, educational attainment, and anti-social and violent behaviours (Bellis et al., 2018). Some of the poor outcomes that are strongly correlated with exposure to multiple ACEs potentially represent ACEs for the next generation (Hughes et al., 2018), such as substance abuse and mental illness (Schickedanz et al., 2021). Intergenerational impacts of adversity can therefore mean that adversities experienced by parents during their childhood may impact their own children\u0026rsquo;s well-being, via their effects on areas of parents\u0026rsquo; functioning, such as their wellbeing, parenting, and self-regulation (Miccoli et al., 2022). In order to support families affected by adversity, it may be helpful to examine the mechanisms or routes through which adversity experienced in one generation may affect the next (Daines et al., 2021). Self-regulation may be one such important mechanism, as it is affected by adversity and is potentially modifiable (Keane \u0026amp; Evans, 2022; Rollins \u0026amp; Crandall, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eParental self-regulation\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-regulation refers to how people learn to adjust their behaviour and become self-sufficient problem solvers over time and under varying circumstances (Sanders et al., 2019). Self-regulation in parents specifically relates to how skilled and efficacious they are at independently problem-solving, self-directing, and adapting parenting objectives and skills to a variety of childrearing factors over time (Karoly, 1993; Sanders et al., 2019). Sanders and Mazzucchelli (2013) developed a five-domain model of parents\u0026rsquo; self-regulation, to guide interventions to support positive parenting. The model consists of 1) self-management and 2) problem-solving skills, whereby parents are able to establish specific objectives for their children, evaluate and analyse their interactions, and choose and execute change strategies; 3) self-sufficiency, in the sense that they possess the personal resources, knowledge, and abilities to parent well with little or no help from others; 4) a sense of agency, the feeling that they have influence over their child\u0026apos;s and their own behaviour; as well as 5) self-efficacy, the trust that they can successfully apply behaviour change strategies and consequently achieve positive results (Sanders \u0026amp; Mazzucchelli, 2013). Parents\u0026rsquo; level of self-regulation can be influenced by personal, environmental, and behavioural factors (Bandura, 1991). Parents\u0026rsquo; ability to self-regulate may be harmed by the changes in brain structure and function caused by the trauma and stress of repeated childhood adversity (Rollins \u0026amp; Crandall, 2021). On the other hand, if a person has a wide range of favourable experiences, this may benefit the development of their self-regulation (Rollins \u0026amp; Crandall, 2021). Even in adults with four or more ACEs, positive childhood experiences may provide the potential for more resilient functioning and reduce or eliminate the link between ACEs and unfavourable outcomes (Bellis et al., 2018; Narayan et al., 2021). Parents who endured abuse as a child but were able to draw on protective factors from supportive people are less likely to do the same to their children (Narayan et al., 2021) by building a foundation of competence that promotes success across development. This allows them to provide their children with greater resources and better parenting (Narayan et al., 2021). Parents may also draw on support from sources such as evidence-based parenting programs, which have been shown to be effective in helping parents to develop stronger self-regulation (Doyle et al., 2022; Sanders \u0026amp; Mazzucchelli, 2013). Self-regulation is a common target for parenting interventions because parent\u0026rsquo;s ability to self-regulate their behaviour is a crucial component of maintaining effective, supportive, non-abusive parenting practices that benefit children\u0026apos;s healthy development (Sanders \u0026amp; Mazzucchelli, 2013).\u0026nbsp;Intergenerational continuity of self-regulation may therefore occur, whereby parents who have good self-regulation are better able to use parenting practices that support their children to develop good self-regulation capabilities such as self-management, self-sufficiency, and self-efficacy (Sanders \u0026amp; Mazzucchelli, 2013).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAdolescent self-efficacy\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBandura (1977) identified self-efficacy, the belief an individual has in their ability to carry out a behaviour, as being highly influential in changing behaviour. It can predict how much effort a person will put into learning and applying a behaviour, how persistent they will be, and how hard they will work to overcome adversities (Lazaro et al., 2019). As self-efficacy directly impacts goals, assumptions, and behaviour, it has a positive association with performance (Afifah \u0026amp; Indriwardhani, 2021). High self-efficacy can promote perceptions of tranquillity when tackling challenging tasks and activities (Iroegbu, 2015), and lead to more active involvement (Schunk, 1989). On the other hand, poor self-efficacy can lead people to imagine that tasks are harder than they actually are, which can lead to anxiety, depression, a limited perspective of how to approach a situation (Iroegbu, 2015), and withdrawal (Schunk, 1989). As a result, low self-efficacy can negatively affect a range of outcomes, including academic achievement, emotional wellbeing, and social relationships (Iroegbu, 2015; Waddington, 2023). Adolescence is a particularly important period for the development of self-efficacy, as young people face new academic, social, and identity-related challenges that require greater autonomy and self-direction (Arnett, 2013; Benson, 2007). During this stage, cognitive and emotional capacities are still developing, and self-efficacy beliefs formed in adolescence may have lasting implications for engagement, resilience, and mental health (Schunk \u0026amp; Meece, 2006). Understanding the factors that shape self-efficacy during adolescence is therefore critical for identifying how to support positive developmental trajectories and reduce vulnerability to poor outcomes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial learning theory posits that adolescents may be supported to develop strong self-efficacy by modelling behaviours and attitudes by important people in adolescents\u0026rsquo; lives (Bandura, 1977). Adolescents may therefore be supported to develop strong self-efficacy if their parents expose them to new challenges and experiences, positive role models, and realistic expectations (Schunk \u0026amp; Meece, 2006), and if they are involved in their children\u0026rsquo;s education (Grolnick \u0026amp; Slowiaczek, 1994; Marchant et al., 2001). Attachment-promoting parental behaviours (e.g., responsiveness, warmth, sensitivity, and encouragement of autonomy) may also promote adolescent self-regulation (Karreman et al., 2006). Parents with high levels of self-efficacy are more likely to encourage their offspring to engage in self-directed activities (Lin, 2003), and children\u0026apos;s self-efficacy beliefs may therefore be significantly influenced by their parents\u0026apos; level of self-efficacy (Lynch, 2002). Parents who feel they have control over their children\u0026apos;s development may be more proactive and successful in fostering their children\u0026rsquo;s abilities (Schneewind \u0026amp; Pfeiffer, 1995). Mondell and Tyler (1981) found that parents with high levels of self-efficacy offered more direct assistance, gave fewer orders, and displayed more positive emotions while interacting with their children. Such actions may mediate a child\u0026apos;s perception of their competence and that of their parents. Individual differences in self-efficacy, however, may also be influenced by heritability factors (Waaktaar \u0026amp; Torgersen, 2013), however, the evidence of genetic influence varies across studies (Bullers \u0026amp; Prescott, 2001; Greven et al., 2009). Therefore, potential generational links of self-efficacy are likely through genetic, modelling, and teaching pathways.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParents\u0026rsquo; own levels of self-regulation may therefore be critically important for the development of their adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy. \u0026nbsp;As parents\u0026apos; childhood adversities may negatively impact their self-regulation skills, however, this may be an important mechanism by which adversity affects multiple generations. By understanding how parents\u0026rsquo; adversities and self-regulation may affect their adolescent children\u0026apos;s self-efficacy, it may be possible to identify targets for support for families affected by current and historic adversity and help to interrupt the intergenerational effects of childhood adversity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eThe current paper\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current paper explores the impact of parent\u0026rsquo;s adverse childhood experiences on their self-regulation and, subsequently, on their adolescent children\u0026rsquo;s self-efficacy. It investigates household dysfunction and maltreatment adversities listed in the ACEs framework (Felitti et al., 1998), and their cumulative impact on parents\u0026rsquo; self-regulation and adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy. Incarceration and emotional neglect ACEs were not included, as well as three aspects of self-regulation (problem solving, self-sufficiency, and self-management) due to a lack of data availability in the dataset utilised. However, the current paper will provide novel insights, as although the role of individual ACEs on self-regulation is known, the cumulative impact is not. Similarly, while the impact of individual aspects of self-regulation on child\u0026rsquo;s self-efficacy have been studied, they are yet to be studied together or in the context of parents\u0026rsquo; ACEs. A greater understanding of how ACEs affect parental self-regulation and adolescent self-efficacy may enable better support for both the parents that have been impacted, and their adolescents.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eHypotheses\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt was hypothesised that parent\u0026rsquo;s ACES, via its effect on their self-regulation, will, directly and indirectly, influence their adolescent child\u0026rsquo;s self-efficacy, whereby experiencing a greater number of adversities will be associated with lower levels of self-efficacy and personal agency, which will consequently be correlated with lower self-efficacy in their adolescent children. Figure 1 displays the hypothesised mediating relationship of parents\u0026rsquo; self-regulation on the relationship between parents\u0026rsquo; ACES and their adolescent children\u0026rsquo;s self-efficacy.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003ch2\u003eDesign\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe hypothesis was investigated using data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC), collected bi-annually from a nationally representative cohort of children and their parents. The LSAC researchers gained informed consent from all participants.\u0026nbsp;Any\u0026nbsp;procedure involving people complies with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and any later revisions or similar ethical guidelines. Due to the current study\u0026apos;s minimal risk and use of non-identifiable secondary data, an official waiver of ethical approval was issued by a university human research ethics committee (Clearance number 2022/HE000665). The Australian Data Archive (ADA) provided access to the LSAC dataset (Reference\u0026nbsp;number: 500215).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eSample\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current study uses data from the LSAC K cohort waves 2, 5, 6, and 7. Data from one adolescent and their primary caregiver (Parent 1) were included in each case. The final analytic dataset included 2,059 adolescents aged between the ages of 14 and 15 at wave 6, and their primary caregiver (mother or father).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdolescents\u0026rsquo; gender was roughly evenly divided (51% male), with somewhat more 14-year-olds than 15-year-olds (60% vs. 40%, respectively). The age range for parents was 30 to 73 years (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e = 43.95, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 4.82), with a largely female gender split (95.1% female). Most parents (81.6%) obtained education beyond high school and were employed (83.5%). The majority lived in major cities (62.9%), spoke English at home (93.5%), and were not Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islanders (98.7%). Families in the sample lived in all Australian states and territories and geographical regions with different socioeconomic statuses in roughly equal numbers.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe measures were sourced from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, obtaining information on parents\u0026rsquo; ACEs (waves 2 and 7), parents\u0026rsquo; self-regulation (wave 5), adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy (wave 6), and demographic characteristics for adolescents (wave 5) and parents (wave 6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParents\u0026rsquo; ACEs\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData on parents\u0026rsquo; ACEs were retrospectively collected at waves 2 and 7 from the primary caregiver. Eight adversities were measured: parental separation, domestic violence, parental substance use, parental mental illness, neglect, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse. For each adversity experienced, parents were assigned a score of 1. Scores were summed to provide an overall ACE score ranging from 0 to 8, representing how many of the eight ACEs they had experienced during their childhood. Definitions were as follows. Parental separation = parents were separated, divorced or never lived together before they were aged 18. Domestic violence = father physically abused their mother or their mother physically abused their father. Substance use problems = mother (or mother figure) or father (or father figure) had trouble with drinking or other drug use. Mental illness = mother (or mother figure) or father (or father figure) suffered from nervous, emotional trouble or depression. Neglect = they were frequently left alone to look after themselves. Sexual abuse = being raped, sexually assaulted, or sexually abused by someone in their family living in the household. Emotional abuse = verbally abused, ridiculed, or humiliated by a parent. Physical abuse = receiving frequent beatings or too much physical punishment (e.g., hitting, smacking).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSelf-regulation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-regulation was measured according to the domain model of self-regulation created by Sanders and Mazzucchelli (2013). Self-efficacy and personal agency were available within the LSAC data.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSelf-efficacy.\u003c/strong\u003e Self-efficacy was measured using a global rating of parenting self-efficacy measured by one modified item taken from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (National Centre for Education Statistics, 2004). The item asked the parent to rate their ability as a parent on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not very good) to 5 (a very good parent). Higher scores indicate better self-rated global parenting skills.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePersonal agency.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePersonal agency was measured using one item adapted from the theoretical work of Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) and other studies, such as Wong and Hughes (2006). The measure on a 4-point Likert scale asked parents how well they believe they can make a difference in study child\u0026rsquo;s success at school, with responses ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (disagree). For the current study, scores were reversed such that higher scores indicate more personal agency.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAdolescents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdolescents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy was measured with items from the general self-concept sub-scale of the Marsh Self-Description Questionnaire (Marsh, 1990). Of the subscale\u0026rsquo;s ten items, only the five items positively worded were included in the LSAC questionnaires. Items included statements such as, \u0026ldquo;most things I do, I do well\u0026rdquo;. Responses range from 1 (false) to 5 (true). An average score was calculated, with higher scores indicating better self-efficacy. The scale was previously found to have high internal reliability in wave 3 of the LSAC K cohort,\u0026nbsp;\u0026alpha; = .84 (McCormack et al., 2011). In this sample, the internal consistency was also high,\u0026nbsp;\u0026alpha; = .88.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDemographic characteristics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe demographic characteristics utilised were adolescents\u0026rsquo; age and gender; and parent\u0026rsquo;s age, gender, education (less than year 12, year 12, more than year 12), Indigenous status, state/territory of residence, area socioeconomic status (SES; measured using the Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas, Index of Relative Socio-economic Advantage and Disadvantage, with deciles collapsed into high SES (top 5 deciles) and low SES (bottom 5 deciles)), remoteness (Major City, Other), and household language (English, Other).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAnalysis Plan\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResponse distributions were examined for range restrictions that would impact analyses. Bivariate relationships were conducted to detect shared variance and guide the interpretation of the results from multivariate analyses. Normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity were checked to see if the assumptions of regression were met. Parent self-regulation variables were mean-centred to adjust for normality violations and reduce multicollinearity. Parallel mediation analysis was carried out utilising model 4 of the PROCESS macro for SPSS 27. In order to establish confidence intervals for each mediation pathway and further mitigate the potential effects of non-normal distributions on the indirect paths, bootstrapping was performed.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eSPSS version 27 was used to examine, clean and analyse the data. All continuous variables underwent missing values analysis per Tabachnick et al. (2007) methods. A total of 1,909 participants were excluded as they were missing all data across each wave. A further 150 participants were removed as they were inadequately assessed, with more than 50% missing values. Less than 5% of the total data were missing, indicating that they were missing completely at random and unlikely to bias estimations. Therefore, the missing subscale values were estimated using expectation maximisation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDescriptive Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAdversity\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOver half of the parents sampled (55%,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;N\u003c/em\u003e =1049) had faced at least one of the eight measured adversities (domestic violence, emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, parental separation/divorce, household mental health condition, or household problematic substance use). Of those who experienced childhood adversity, 21% had experienced one type, 14% had experienced two types, 9% had experienced three types, and 14% had experienced four or more ACEs.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHousehold mental health condition (27%) was the most prevalent adversity faced by parents who experienced one, two, or three adversities. Domestic violence was the most prevalent (19%) for those who experienced four or more adversities. Of the eight adversities, household mental health issue was the most frequently encountered (31%), with those that experienced adversity, 34% experienced mental health as a singular adversity and 41% in concurrence with other ACEs. Domestic violence was the next most common adversity, with 24% of parents sampled having experienced it. Of those that experienced adversity, 10% experienced domestic violence as a singular adversity and 38% in concurrence with other adversities. The least common adversity was physical abuse, with 9% of all parents sampled having experienced this. Of those that experienced adversity, 1.6% experienced physical abuse as a singular adversity and 14% in concurrence with other ACEs. For further insight on the adversities that the sample\u0026apos;s respondents faced, see Figure 2.\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParents\u0026rsquo; self-regulation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eScores on the parent\u0026rsquo;s self-regulation measures ranged across the entire scales. Although scores were slightly kurtotic and skewed, the values were within the acceptable range of -2 to +2; therefore, they were unlikely to impact the analyses substantially. Participants reported generally high levels of self-efficacy and personal agency.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAdolescent\u0026rsquo;s self-efficacy\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdolescents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy scores ranged across the entire scale (e.g., 1 to 5), with a median score of 4. Scores were slightly negatively skewed, reporting towards the higher half of the scale. However, the values were within the acceptable range of -2 to +2 and, therefore, unlikely to impact the analyses substantially (George, 2011).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eBivariate Associations\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBivariate associations indicated higher levels of adversity, parental self-efficacy and adolescent self-efficacy were significantly related with one another. Higher parental self-efficacy scores were associated with higher parental personal agency scores. The summary of all bivariate associations is presented in Supplementary Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDo Parents Childhood Adversities Influence their Children\u0026rsquo;s Self-efficacy via their Parenting Self-regulation?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParallel mediation analysis tested the hypothesis, predicting that parents\u0026rsquo; ACEs will have an impact on their child\u0026apos;s self-efficacy both directly and indirectly through the parenting self-regulation components of personal agency, self-sufficiency, and self-efficacy; controlling for demographic characteristics. Bootstrapping was used to calculate 95% upper and lower confidence intervals with 10,000 samples. Figure 3 illustrates these pathways visually, and detailed parallel mediation coefficients can be found in Table 4.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParental ACEs were not significantly associated with personal agency (\u003cem\u003ea\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = -.003, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .739), but higher parental personal agency was significantly associated with higher adolescent self-efficacy (\u003cem\u003eb\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = .07, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .014). \u0026nbsp;Higher parental ACEs were significantly related to lower parental self-efficacy (\u003cem\u003ea\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = -.06, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;.001), which was subsequently associated with lower adolescent self-efficacy (\u003cem\u003eb\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = .12, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;.001). A significant total effect indicated higher levels of parental ACEs are related to lower levels of adolescent self-efficacy, before accounting for the mediators, \u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e = -.04, SE = .01, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .001, 95% CI [-.06, -.02]. The total effect remained significant once the mediators were included, indicating partial mediation,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;c\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e = -.03, SE = .01, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .004, 95% CI [-.05, -.01]. The total indirect effect was also significant, \u003cem\u003eab\u003c/em\u003e = -.01, SE = .002, 95% CI [-.01, -.003]. The indirect effect of parental ACEs on adolescent self-efficacy via personal agency was therefore not significant, \u003cem\u003ea\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003eb\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e =\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e.00, SE = .001, 95% CI [-.002, .001]. The indirect effect via self-efficacy was significant, \u003cem\u003ea\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eb\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = -.01, SE = .002, 95% CI [-.01, -.003].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4 Results of the Mediated Regression to Predict Adolescent\u0026rsquo;s Self-efficacy with Parent\u0026rsquo;s ACEs and Parental Self-regulation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"92%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Mediator)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Personal Agency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 26px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Mediator)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Self-efficacy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 29px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(DV)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Adolescent Self-efficacy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epath\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epath\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epath\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePersonal Agency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eb\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-efficacy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eb\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParental ACEs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ea\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.739\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ea\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ec\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArea remoteness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.969\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.706\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.075\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHousehold language\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.119\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.887\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.637\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArea SES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.561\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.917\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.236\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent gender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.546\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.903\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.447\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent age\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.130\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.387\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdolescent gender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.395\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.099\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdolescent age\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.623\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.266\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.321\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Less than 12 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.029\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.767\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.609\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; More than 12 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.338\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParent employment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.671\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.152\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e = .02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 26px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e = .01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 29px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e = .05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e (11, 2031) = 4.10, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 26px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(11, 2031) = 2.60, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"7\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 29px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e (13, 2029) = 7.42, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study aimed to examine how adversity during childhood affects parents\u0026rsquo; self-regulation and the implications that this can have for their adolescent children's self-efficacy. As self-regulation and self-efficacy are central to functioning across a range of domains, understanding these relationships may provide valuable insights on how to interrupt intergenerational cycles of adversity. The focal hypothesis was that a greater number of parent ACEs would be associated with lower levels of self-efficacy and personal agency in parents, which subsequently would be associated with lower self-efficacy in their adolescent children. The hypothesis was partially supported, with parents\u0026rsquo; ACEs having significant adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy directly and indirectly via parents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy. Parents\u0026rsquo; personal agency had independent supportive effects on adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe observed significant negative impact of parents\u0026rsquo; ACEs on their self-efficacy is reinforced by existing research showing childhood maltreatment negatively influencing self-efficacy (Cohrdes \u0026amp; Mauz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and a parent's own developmental history can influence their beliefs and parental expectations (Caldwell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). High levels of victimisation may therefore lead to fewer effective coping mechanisms and reduced parental self-efficacy (Masten et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). The current results add to the extant literature, indicating that the cumulative effect of abuse victimisation and/or household dysfunction can also have a negative effect on parental self-efficacy. This underscores the potential value of parenting supports that explicitly target self-efficacy enhancement for parents with a history of adversity, such as those grounded in self-regulation frameworks (Sanders \u0026amp; Mazzucchelli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Given that self-efficacy is modifiable, these findings suggest that interventions tailored to build self-belief and competence in parenting could be an important strategy in breaking cycles of adversity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA positive association between parent self-efficacy and adolescent self-efficacy was also found, as hypothesised. This supports previous evidence that children's self-efficacy beliefs are significantly influenced by their parents' level of self-efficacy (Lynch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), through parents being more proactive and successful in fostering their children\u0026rsquo;s abilities (Schneewind \u0026amp; Pfeiffer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e), and giving more direct assistance and warmth (Mondell \u0026amp; Tyler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e). Self-efficacy may also be genetically heritable (Waaktaar \u0026amp; Torgersen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), although some studies have found environmental effects, rather than genetics, explain the majority of variation in adolescent self-efficacy (Bullers \u0026amp; Prescott, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Greven et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, potential generational links of self-efficacy are likely through genetic, modelling, and teaching pathways. The current findings add to the extant literature by contextualising the intergenerational transmission of self-efficacy, as itself potentially affected by parents\u0026rsquo; past adversity. The evident intertwining of the cycles of adversity and self-efficacy highlight the interplay of varied influences on the functioning of families over time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParents\u0026rsquo; personal agency was also linked with greater self-efficacy in adolescents. Previous research has primarily focused on the related concept of parental school involvement and adolescent self-efficacy, in both theories and empirical research (Fan \u0026amp; Williams, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Parents who perceive themselves as influential in their child\u0026rsquo;s education may be more likely to engage in behaviours that foster autonomy, motivation, and confidence, which are key contributors to adolescent self-efficacy. This aligns with social learning theory, which emphasises the importance of modelling and reinforcement from key figures in an adolescent\u0026rsquo;s environment (Bandura, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e). While the current measure of personal agency was limited to the academic domain, the positive association with adolescent self-efficacy suggests that parental beliefs about influence, even in specific contexts, may shape adolescents\u0026rsquo; broader sense of capability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, no significant relationship was found between parents\u0026rsquo; ACEs and personal agency. Personal agency in this study was measured in regards to how well the parents believed they could make a difference in their child\u0026rsquo;s success in school. While this reflects one important domain of parenting agency, it may not fully capture broader dimensions of parents\u0026rsquo; sense of control or goal-directed behaviour, particularly in relation to everyday parenting challenges or emotional regulation. It is possible that the experience of childhood adversity influences some facets of personal agency more than others, or that its impact is mediated by contextual and relational factors not captured here. For instance, supportive adult relationships or educational attainment may buffer the effects of adversity (Narayan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Future research should therefore explore the contribution of positive experiences, alongside ACEs, in influencing parental personal agency, and conceptualise parental personal agency in multi-dimensional terms, to enable the context of ACEs and potential barriers to parental personal agency to be better understood.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eOverall Model\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs hypothesised, parents\u0026rsquo; ACEs had a significant negative direct effect on adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy. This indicates ACEs\u0026rsquo; intergenerational impact may reach the adolescent children of parents who have experienced ACEs. The overall model demonstrates the negative effect the experience of ACEs has on parents\u0026rsquo; self-regulation, which consequently decreases adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy. This finding reinforces (Bandura, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e) assertion that self-efficacy is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by contextual and relational experiences\u0026mdash;factors that are often disrupted by ACEs. It also supports ecological and developmental models that highlight the importance of parental psychological resources in shaping parenting behaviour and child development outcomes (e.g., Belsky\u0026rsquo;s process model of parenting; 1984). As it is not always possible to prevent adversities children may face, to enhance possible outcomes and lessen the chance of maintaining a cycle of adversity and unfavourable results across generations, it is essential to consider how to bring about change after the fact. Since self-regulation is evidently an important element of the cycle of adversity, increasing this may help families achieve better outcomes in the future. The findings therefore support a dual focus on early intervention for families at risk of ACE exposure, as well as restorative or resilience-building approaches for parents and families who have already experienced adversity. Programs that cultivate parenting self-efficacy may play a particularly important role in mitigating the developmental consequences for adolescents, during this critical period of identity formation and autonomy development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStrengths and limitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study's use of the LSAC has several important methodological advantages. Firstly, utilising several informants minimised potential mono-operational bias as participants answered questions about their own experiences. The data, intended to represent the Australian population, increased the generalisability of the findings. Due to the large sample size, confidence in the sample effects is improved. Almost half (42%) of the parents had not experienced any childhood adversities; therefore, it is possible that the current findings cannot be applied to groups with high degrees of adversity. However, this study\u0026rsquo;s rates of childhood adversities reflect those found in other research (Dong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) and are, therefore, a likely accurate representation of ACE prevalence in the general population. The study's use of parallel mediation for the analysis was another significant strength, which offered the ability to examine various concurrent routes for the effect of parents\u0026rsquo; ACEs on adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite this, the study does have some limitations. Although the LSAC offered a breadth of data on 8 of the 10 ACEs, data was not available on emotional neglect and incarceration of a family member. Australia has relatively low rates of parental incarceration, with approximately 5% of all children experiencing parental incarceration (Quilty, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). However, this disproportionally affects Indigenous children, with 20% experiencing parental incarceration (Quilty, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Due to the low number of Indigenous participants in the LSAC data, future research is warranted on the effect of incarceration on Indigenous families and communities. The study may also have benefited from the inclusion of emotional neglect, as rates of emotional neglect in childhood is relatively unknown in Australia, due to a lack of reliable data (Price-Robertson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Secondly, social desirability bias may have led to under-reporting of ACEs and over-reporting of parental self-regulation and adolescent self-efficacy. As ACEs were retrospectively self-reported recall bias may have also caused unreliable results, however, the retrospective measure of ACEs measures is often viewed as a strength and is a common method for evaluating adverse childhood experiences (Dong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Hardt \u0026amp; Rutter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, as parental personal agency and self-efficacy were each measured with a single item, there are no items to compensate for incomplete or inaccurately measured items. Finally, due to the low number of fathers in the dataset, future studies may benefit from looking into self-regulation with a larger number of fathers to see if the same effects are found.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights parenting self-efficacy as a key mechanism linking parents\u0026rsquo; adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) with their adolescent children\u0026rsquo;s self-efficacy. While ACEs were associated with lower parenting self-efficacy, they were not linked to personal agency, suggesting different dimensions of self-regulation may be affected in distinct ways. Given self-efficacy is modifiable, parenting interventions that enhance confidence and competence may help disrupt intergenerational cycles of adversity. Future research should examine other protective factors, explore diverse family contexts, and use more comprehensive measures of self-regulation to guide the development of equitable, effective support for families affected by adversity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCarys Chainey: Conceptualisation; Methodology; Formal Analysis; Writing \u0026ndash; Original Draft; Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing; Supervision; Project Administration; Visualisation.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Tallulah Wilson: Formal Analysis; Investigation; Data Curation; Writing \u0026ndash; Original Draft; Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualisation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDeclaration of Interest Statements\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Parenting and Family Support Centre is partly funded by royalties stemming from published resources of the Triple P \u0026ndash; Positive Parenting Program, which is developed and owned by The University of Queensland (UQ). Royalties are also distributed to the Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences at UQ and contributory authors of published Triple P resources. Triple P International (TPI) Pty Ltd is a private company licensed by UniQuest Pty Ltd on behalf of UQ, to publish and disseminate Triple P worldwide. The authors of this report have no share or ownership of TPI. TPI had no involvement in the study design, collection, analysis or interpretation of data, or writing of this report. Author Chainey is employed by, and Author Wilson was a student at, The University of Queensland at the Parenting and Family Support Centre.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was partially supported by the Australian Government through the Australian Research Council\u0026apos;s Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course (Project ID CE200100025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccess to data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children may be requested from the Australian Government Department of Social Services: https://www.dss.gov.au/long-term-research/accessing-our-datasets.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAfifah, L., \u0026amp; Indriwardhani, S. P. (2021). 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Ethnicity and language contributions to dimensions of parent involvement. \u003cem\u003eSchool Psychology Review\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;35\u003c/em\u003e(4), 645-662. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2006.12087968 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"child-psychiatry-and-human-development","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"chud","sideBox":"Learn more about [Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development](http://link.springer.com/journal/10578)","snPcode":"10578","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10578/3","title":"Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Adverse childhood experiences, self-regulation, self-efficacy, adolescence, parenting","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6814943/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6814943/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding the mechanisms underlying intergenerational cycles of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) may help support families to break these cycles. Parental self-efficacy is one potential mechanism, given its vulnerability to effects of ACEs and modifiability. This study explored whether parental ACEs affect parenting self-regulation, and in turn, adolescent self-efficacy. Data were drawn from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children K Cohort (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2,059 parent\u0026ndash;adolescent dyads). Parallel mediation analyses with bootstrapping examined whether ACEs experienced by parents before age 18 were associated with adolescent self-efficacy at age 14\u0026ndash;15 years, via parent self-regulation (personal agency and self-efficacy) measured when adolescents were aged 12\u0026ndash;13 years. Greater parental ACEs were associated with lower adolescent self-efficacy, both directly and via lower parental self-efficacy. Lower parental personal agency was also associated with lower adolescent self-efficacy. Self-regulation may be a mechanism in the intergenerational transmission of adversity and a promising target for intervention.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Intergenerational Effects of Adversity on Adolescent Self-Efficacy: The Role of Parental Self-Regulation","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-22 10:15:33","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6814943/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-04-01T11:35:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-23T11:05:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"172104321896656923191067076650144132173","date":"2026-02-02T08:31:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"66480926154410073281185032483968636221","date":"2025-10-05T14:20:08+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-02T18:19:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"258669184264127903126013890192967568828","date":"2025-08-16T15:00:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-14T07:46:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-10T00:01:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-05T02:38:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development","date":"2025-06-04T00:14:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"child-psychiatry-and-human-development","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"chud","sideBox":"Learn more about [Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development](http://link.springer.com/journal/10578)","snPcode":"10578","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10578/3","title":"Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"005f6e00-8695-4cda-9c88-92a0166eaa15","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-01T11:42:01+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-22 10:15:33","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6814943","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6814943","identity":"rs-6814943","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}