Morphotaxonomic verification of the ‘balunos’ vine used in the artisanal budbud salt of Miag-ao, Iloilo, Philippines

Morphotaxonomic verification of the ‘balunos’ vine used in the artisanal budbud salt of Miag-ao, Iloilo, Philippines | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Morphotaxonomic verification of the ‘balunos’ vine used in the artisanal budbud salt of Miag-ao, Iloilo, Philippines Kim A. Alunan, Ma. Angela T. Magarzo, Justin Luis M. Tiu, Jonathan R. Matias This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9105928/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Vernacular names and folk classifications play a central role in how local communities recognize and transmit plant knowledge. The traditional budbud salt from Miag-ao, Iloilo uniquely uses extract from the balunos vine to enhance color, flavor and crystallization, yet the plant’s uncertain identity may hinder conservation efforts and intergenerational cultural transmission. Through morphological characterization, this study verifies balunos taxonomically and documents its ethnobotanical significance and cultural implications on the dying budbudan practice. Morphological markers identified balunos as Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng., a previously undocumented taxonomic attribution and novel ethnobotanical utilization. To date, no records have been found of plant extracts being used directly in artisanal salt-making worldwide, suggesting this study may be the first documented account of the practice. Historically bartered between asinderos and indigenous harvesters, balunos procurement is now limited to a single provider—rubbing salt into the wound and adding threats to budbud salt’s survival. Resolving this ambiguity safeguards artisanal quality and preserves biocultural heritage by linking indigenous nomenclature to precise taxonomy, as plant names carry cultural heritage but biodiversity loss imperils intergenerational knowledge. Verification of balunos bridges traditional practice with scientific taxonomy, reinforcing budbud salt’s authenticity. Further phytochemical analysis, expanded comparative ethnobotanical surveys, extensive cultural mapping, and mainstreaming to promote biodiversity conservation and cultural identity are recommended. budbud salt biocultural ethnobotany taxonomy Philippines Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. Introduction Plant names are shorthand identifiers carrying significant information. Like most organisms, plants generally have two names: a common or vernacular label and a scientific name. Scientific names are the only ones tied to herbarium type specimens, offering permanent, international clarity [1,2]. However, problems can still arise when that taxonomy is not agreed upon or when revisions are known only to a limited few [3,4]. On the other hand, common names can be more problematic, as they can vary by community, language, and time, especially when one word is used to refer to different entities [2]. For example, folk taxonomies and many indigenous and local knowledge systems operate on principles that diverge from the most popularly used frameworks, where a single name may serve as a generic term reflecting ecological, utilitarian, or symbolic grouping rather than strict phylogenetic proximity [1,5,6,7,8]. Aside from being a global biodiversity hotspot, the Philippine archipelago also embodies cultural richness through traditional practices, each rooted in geographic and historical circumstances. Such cultural practices highlight the deep ties between communities and their local environment, including the vital resources they provide [9]. Salt is an essential mineral nutrient for human and animal health, diet and industry [10,11,12]. Sourced from seawater, lakes, and rock deposits, salt is considered to be one of the most crucial cornerstones of human civilization, even comparable to oil. Salt produced using specific and intricate indigenous practices is referred to as artisanal salt [13]. In the Municipality of Miag-ao in the Province of Iloilo in Central Philippines, the traditional practice of salt-making is locally called budbudan , from the term budbud , meaning “to sprinkle” in Kinaray-a, which refers to the sprinkling of seawater into the sandy beach (Fig. 1 ). Historical records indicate that salt production in Miag-ao dates back to at least 1823, remaining largely local knowledge until it was first recorded in writing in 1979 in Elias N. Failagao’s “History of Miag-ao.” While each artisanal salt method reflects ingenuity and environmental adaptation, Miag-ao’s budbudan is characterized by its dependence on local materials: bamboo racks and sprinklers, sand from the beach, and critically—a vine called balunos . Towns in the nearby province of Antique also practice the same tradition, but the vine is what makes the budbud of Miag-ao unique (Fig. 2 ). Traditionally, salt farmers or asinderos (a play on asin , which means salt, and hacienderos or landed gentry) have long relied on its extract for the salt’s distinct flavor and appealing white color. The extract of this vine is added to the supersaturated saltwater called tuma by first wrapping the vine root with a fish net then whacking it using a wooden round-shaped mallet and wringing the wrapped plant material into the water (Fig. 2 ). A white extract is released into the seawater followed by the formation of froths. This process is done three times and currently does not have any specific, standard measurements. Despite the vine’s importance, the taxonomic identity of balunos remains unclear, with different accounts linking the term to several different species. Back in 2015, Jonathan Matias [24] conducted a survey to verify the species in Barangay Cavite, Miag-ao, as advised by the asinderos at the time, but they were not able to thoroughly document its morphological characteristics aside from its large leaves and climbing habit. The extirpation of species and the “silent extinction of taxonomists” due to the so-called taxonomic impediment are seriously worsening the shortage of important taxonomic knowledge of worldwide flora [14,15]. As industrial and climatic pressures cause the decline of traditional practices worldwide, a culturally sensitive and scientifically rigorous investigation is vital, not only to document and analyze the process and its actors, but also to verify the identity, morphology, and traditional application of its ingredients, in this case, the balunos . This contributes to both ethnobotanical scholarship and the urgent need of conserving intangible heritage [7,8]. Hence, failure to document the precise species identity could result in the loss of not just a traditional product, but a unique form of human-plant interaction [16]. Moreover, the overlapping usage of local names among taxonomically distinct species necessitates a precise verification of the vine’s identity. This paper presents a brief taxonomic synthesis and morphological evaluation of balunos and its ethnobotanical application. Its role in this cultural practice can reflect broader indigenous knowledge and biodiversity, including some insights on the role of language and vernacular labels in taxonomic studies. 2. Methodology 2.1 Literature Review Prior to field investigations, literature review was done to briefly outline the budbudan process and synthesize available published information about balunos . Then, surveys in the known areas with recorded presence of balunos vines were conducted to identify sampling sites for this study. The researchers were able to identify the harvester of the vine who served as the guide during the fieldwork. Informed consent was secured, cultural sensitivity in handling traditional knowledge was ensured and protocols for the respectful documentation of indigenous practices were appropriately adhered to. 2.2 Fieldwork and Morphological Analysis Before the field activity, permits were secured and consultations were done with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Office (DENR) VI, the Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office (MENRO) of Miag-ao, and Community Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO)-Guimbal. The researchers were able to single out the collection sites in Barangay Lanutan, Miag-ao, Province of Iloilo, Philippines (10°37'40.5"N 122°10'27.4"E) (Fig. 3 ) in June 2025. The sites were private agricultural lands at 70 m.a.s.l. near rice paddies and crop fields owned by the harvester-guide’s family. Geo-coordinates were recorded using a Garmin eTrex GPS device and photographs of the plant’s habitat, habit, and other morphological characters were taken using a mobile phone. Voucher specimens and fresh material were collected by the authors and stored in resealable bags for transport and further investigation in the laboratory. Qualitative and quantitative morphological data were recorded for the plant’s leaf, flower, fruit, and seed to distinguish candidate species. These specimens were identified by the corresponding author, crosschecked against available relevant literature and online databases [18,71], and confirmed by Dr. Pieter B. Pelser (Professor in Plant Systematics, University of Canterbury, New Zealand). Further, the specimens were dried, pressed, mounted in a herbarium sheet, and assigned accession numbers (i.e. SGF202501, SGF202502, SGF202503) by following standard protocols. The voucher specimens were deposited at the Sulu Garden Foundation Gallery of Natural History for future reference. Maps were generated using QGIS Desktop version 3.40.12. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Morpho-taxonomic Characterization and Utilization Many documents consistently describe balunos as a vine but with no mention of any particular plant species. Nevertheless, a considerable number of papers did associate the term to at least eight species, coming from four genera belonging to three different families (Table 1 ). However, it is important to note that Entada gigas (L.) Fawc. & Rendle has not been recorded to the Philippines [17], suggesting that the balunos mentioned by Quattrocchi [18] more likely refers to a different Entada species. In addition, Mangifera caesia Jack is more commonly known as baluno or bauno , which may mean that balunos may just be its variant and does not represent the species being studied in this paper. Therefore, only six plants were considered as candidate species to be the balunos of budbud salt prior to the survey in this paper. However, field observations revealed the habit and other morphological characteristics of the balunos vine. Many of these features do not match any of the candidate plants, and instead point to an entirely different species. The plants from all collection sites were identified on-site and upon further analysis as Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng. or ‘gac’ using various morphological markers (Fig. 4 ). M. cochinchinensis is reported as a very variable, widely distributed species [19]. In the current study, plants are dioecious herbaceous climbers with tendrils and tuberous roots. Stems are glabrous and older bark is distinctly pale. Unfortunately, only male flowers were documented in Site A, while fruits were observed only in Site B and C. Leaves in Site B and C were unlobed whereas in Site A they are tri-palmately lobed. Petioles are 5–6 cm long with 1–4 glands, and leaf margin is entire or slightly dentate. Flowers are somewhat hairy and solitary with conspicuous bract on stalk, and petals are cream to yellow, with the inner ones with dark blotch at base. Fruits are ovoid and orange to red when ripe. Seeds are numerous, brown or ash gray-black in color with a patchy pattern, and variable in shape and size. Table 1 Plants associated with the term balunos Species References Albizia retusa Benth. [20,21,22,23] Albizia saponaria (Lour.) Blume ex Miq. [24] Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr. [18,20,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33] Entada rheeidei Spreng. [34] Entada gigas (L.) Fawc. & Rendle a [18] Securidaca inappendiculata ssp. corymbosa (Turcz.) Meijden [35] Securidaca philipppinensis Chodat [20,36,37,38] Mangifera caesia Jack b [39] Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng. Present study Unidentified (as term only) [28,40,41,42,43,44,45,46] a This species is not present in the Philippines and more likely refers to a different Entada sp. b More commonly called baluno , which may suggest that balunos (Bik.) is more likely a variant and not a widespread name Aside from balunos , the species used in budbud is also locally known as tambalusan according to the harvester-guide, matching that of a page from the digital library on Philippine traditional knowledge on health where M. cochinchinensis is recorded with this name in Kinaray-a language [47]. M. cochinchinensis is also known in various parts of the Philippines as balbas-bakiro (Tagalog), buyok-buyok (Tagalog), libas (Ilokano), tabla (Manobo), tabolog (Cebuano), malabakan (Cebuano), parog-parog (Ilokano), sugod-sugod (Ilokano), and tabog-uak (Bikolano) [27,48,49]. M. cochinchinensis is a tropical liana also found in Assam, Bangladesh, Borneo, Cambodia, South-Central China, Southeast China, East Himalaya, India, Jawa, Laos, Malaya, Maluku, Myanmar, New Guinea, Queensland, Sulawesi, Sumatera, Taiwan, Thailand, Tibet, Vietnam [50]. The plant has long been used in many Asian cultures for food and medicine, even earning the name “the Fruit of Heaven” in Vietnam for its high nutritional value [51]. This cucurbit is known to be rich in carotenoids, such as β-carotene and lycopene, [52,53], high levels of α-tocopherol (vitamin E), polyunsaturated fatty acids [53,54,55], and important polyphenol compounds and flavonoids [56]. In Vietnam, ripe gac fruit is traditionally prepared as xôi gấc , where the aril is cooked in glutinous rice for tết (Vietnamese New Year) and wedding ceremonies [52]. In traditional medicine, Vietnamese people in rural areas often grind gac seeds and mix them with alcohol or vinegar to cure furuncles, swelling, hemorrhoids, and mumps [52]; while in China these seeds are called mubiezhi and are used to treat spleen and liver disorders, wounds, fluxes, hemorrhoids, bruises, boils, sores, scrofula, swelling, tinea, and pus [57,58]. Moreover, numerous biological activities of gac fruit have been documented, including its antioxidant [56,59,60,61,62], anticancer [63,64,65,66,67,68], and antimicrobial effects [69,70]. In the Philippines, it is found throughout the archipelago in low and medium elevation thickets and secondary forests [71]. Despite its presence in most parts of the country, it remains underutilized because of its seasonality and lack of research and promotion [72]. However, there are few records of its local use in the country. In Ilocos Region, particularly in Ilocos Norte, the young fruit is eaten as a vegetable and is usually added to dinengdeng , pinakbet or inabraw [73,74]. On the other hand, there is no recorded traditional utilization of the ripe fruit in the Philippines [74], other than being prepared as a juice blend consisting of honey, lemon, and fresh aril [75]. In contrast to other species associated with the term balunos , this is the only record of the name’s association with M. cochinchinensis and the first report of it being used in salt-making, representing a previously undocumented taxonomic attribution and novel ethnobotanical utilization. This study unfortunately cannot confirm that the balunos used by previous asinderos and those observed in 2015 are also M. cochinchinensis due to the polysemous nature of the term. Additional surveys should be done especially to the previous survey site in Barangay Cavite, and possibly in other areas in Miag-ao as well. 3.2 Biocultural Identity of Balunos Artisanal salt production remains an enduring symbol of the Philippines’ cultural and ecological wealth [76]. Accordingly, budbudan was once a vibrant industry, with salt farms found across the coastal areas of the town. However, the industry dwindled, and many asinderos have already stopped their operations. Today, the practice survives within only a handful of families and is considered to be at the brink of extinction. Currently, four asindero families remain active in Miag-ao, all of which have not seen fresh specimens of various parts of the balunos vine, as the material supplied to them consists solely of desiccated root parts (Fig. 2 d) rather than intact, living plant material. In several traditions, botanic materials are also used in the process of salt-making. These plant materials are usually used for filtering, brine concentration, or as ash for crystallization. For example, in the tultul salt of Guimaras, driftwood ash undergoes seawater percolation, then brine is cooked with coconut milk to yield salt blocks [77]. In the production of asin tibuok of Bohol, coconut husks are soaked in seawater, sun-dried, and burnt to ash, then leached and boiled in clay points to form “whole” salt eggs, imparted with smoky flavor [78]. In other countries like Paraguay, the Ayoreo people obtain salt from ash produced by burning the timber of the Indian salt tree ( Maytenus vitis-idaea Griseb.) and other plants [79]. Studies on salt substitutes derived from plants (PSS) are also becoming a promising, effective way to reduce sodium intake [80,81,82]. However, no other available records appear to exist of plant extracts being used directly in artisanal salt-making worldwide, apart from budbudan . This suggests that the present study may constitute the first documented account of such a practice and application. This study also revealed that balunos procurement is now limited to a single provider, who was the same harvester who guided the researchers. Historically, balunos was bartered between asinderos and indigenous Ati communities, trading vines for a sack of salt [83]. However, the Ati of Miag-ao and nearby areas have stopped coming down from the mountain for decades and are feared to have been displaced a long time ago. The harvesters from the previous survey in 2015 and the current sole harvester identified in this study are not part of any Indigenous Peoples (IP) groups. The current harvester-guide, a relative of the asindero family from Guibongan, Miag-ao, claims to be a direct descendant of the earliest budbud asinderos , which means that the knowledge in identifying the vine has been passed from generation to generation. Hence, the unique integration of this botanical component in budbud salt demonstrates deep ethnobotanical insight and is central to both the functional success of the salt-making process and the intergenerational transmission of indigenous knowledge. Comparable exchanges were also documented for asin tibuok , which was traded for rice or palay [84]. Currently, harvester- asindero trade continues, with collected vines exchanged for budbud salt in amounts determined by the asindero . According to the harvester, there is no definitive origin story explaining how their elders first adopted balunos for salt-making. However, traditional knowledge on using balunos as natural soap or shampoo has been taught to them when they were young. Ever since, the plant has been distinguished by its smooth leaves, and distinct white stem. Moreover, it was noted that balunos grows widely, especially in dense forest patches and agricultural lands. Collection can occur year-round, but demand remains low, with harvesting typically undertaken only upon request, mostly during budbudan season. Pricing is also not standardized, as they feel reluctant to assign monetary value to a plant that grows abundantly; hence, vines are instead exchanged directly for salt. 3.3 Language and vernacular labels Literature review shows that the term balunos appears in at least six known Philippine languages: Bicolano [20,21], Cebuano [85], Hanunuo-Mangyan [35], Hiligaynon, Inabaknon [86], and Kinaray-a (present study). Some papers also link the term to unspecified Visayan language/s (20,27,28]. The term also appears as a place name, specifically in Barangay Balunos, Anilao, Iloilo, but its origins cannot be verified as of the writing of this paper. Lastly, the term also appears to have at least two orthographic variants: balonos [25,26,27,29,30], and balones [28,34]. Naming practices across cultures have encoded observations of plant morphology, ecology, color, taste, or procedural origin, resulting in names being shared by several unrelated entities and highlighting persistent difficulties in reconciling folk versus scientific naming [7]. As with balunos , several related or unrelated plants may have aggregated based on perceived morphology (as vines) and utility (as plant-based detergent/soaps/shampoos). Moreover, there is also a possibility that other species in other languages are linked to the term. Although found to be applied broadly to many species, balunos is predominantly linked with Entada species. This may imply what is referred to as specific-folk generic polysemy [87] or taxonomic polysemy [88], where a polysemous term can refer to both a subgeneric taxon (in this case, groups of taxa) and to one of its superordinate taxa (e.g. E. phaseoloides ) [8]. Moreover, following Berlin’s second principle of nomenclature [89], we propose assigning a primary complex name to the vine used in budbudan , such as balunos-budbud or balunos-asin , to specifically refer to M. cochinchinensis . 3.4 Biochemical Role in Salt-making In an attempt to show and provide an observation on the role of balunos in the salt-making process, a preliminary assay was also done by Matias [24] by comparing supersaturated salt with extract to that without it by sun-drying in half-cut bamboo. Results show that budbud prepared without the vine extract failed to aggregate into large crystals; but with extract, traditional cubic crystals formed (Fig. 5 ). Without balunos , the salt microcrystals appear irregular, powdery and poorly defined, which implies its importance in the overall chemistry of the budbud salt. Moreover, the asinderos say that the vine makes the salt dissolve better for cooking and gives it its special taste. Some also say that the extract makes the salt whiter, a feature favorable to customers. In addition to the froth, Matias [24] also observed that the addition of balunos increases the viscosity of the supersaturated water. Many biochemicals may cause this change in liquid behavior, but some saponins, in particular, can influence viscosity [90,91], and have been documented to be present in M. cochinchinensis and almost all candidate species in this study [92,93,94,95,96,97,98]. This is further solidified by the study of Iwamoto et al. [99] and Kawamura et al. [100], where they recorded high concentrations of momordins, a type of saponin, in the roots of M. cochinchinensis , the part being used in budbudan . In addition, according to DeFilipps and Krupnick [101], the root is used as a substitute for soap and also to kill head lice. Interestingly, the spiky exterior of gac fruit has been recorded to have been used as a comb to remove head lice, hence the Ilokano local name sugod-sugod , which is derived from the root word suyod , meaning “lice comb” [74]. The surfactant nature of plant-derived saponins also allows them to remove impurities [102], which could explain why balunos is believed to contribute to producing whiter salt. Historically, the burning of plant material to make ash was how lye, a hydroxyl form of potassic salt used in soap manufacture, was made [103,104]. Many plant oils have also been used in traditional and modern soap-making practices [105]. These observations and ethnobotanical records strongly suggest that there is a need to conduct biochemistry studies on the extract and its mechanisms during salt-making. 3.5 Broader implications on Conservation and Heritage Like the budbudan of Miag-ao, many traditional practices around the world face numerous challenges despite a legacy of artisanal expertise. Hence, artisanal knowledge must be documented, showcased, and conserved–especially as the number of workers declines and with it the family histories and traditions tied to salt-making (Fig. 6 ). Species misidentification in the context of traditional practices and biomedical research can have broad ramifications [106]. Misidentification of culturally-important plants ultimately causes non-transmission of correct species knowledge, which may erode cultural practices and resilience, especially as artisans transition to commercial or more “standard” materials [107,108]. This loss extends beyond economics, and poses harm to heritage and cultural value. Hence, the decline of budbudan and similar artisanal practices is both a biodiversity and cultural crisis, and there is a strong need to recognize the intrinsic value of traditional ecological knowledge. However, there is a scarcity of information focusing on indigenous knowledge of biodiversity, particularly in developing countries, such as the Philippines, where such knowledge is highly concentrated [109]. This causes significant knowledge erosion, especially when fading artisanal practices, reduction of local dialects or migration exacerbate atrophy of terminological precision [110] Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Field surveys and specimen collection were conducted in full compliance with institutional, national, and international guidelines for plant research with no need for further affirmation. The primary collection site in Barangay Lanutan, Miag-ao is a privately owned agricultural land, where the vines are growing in the wild. Access and sampling were carried out with the landowners’ permission and guidance. Additional consultations and permissions were also secured from the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Office (DENR) VI, the Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office (MENRO) of Miag-ao, and the Community Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO)-Guimbal. This study did not involve members of Indigenous Peoples (IP) communities, and no minors were included. All participants provided informed consent prior to participation, and confidentiality was maintained throughout the research process. The Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng. plants were identified by Kim A. Alunan and confirmed by Dr. Pieter B. Pelser (Professor of Plant Systematics, University of Canterbury, New Zealand). The species being studied is not listed under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and DENR Administrative Order 2017-11 Updated List of Threatened Philippine Plants and their Categories. Voucher specimens (collectors: K.A. Alunan & M.A.T. Magarzo; accession numbers: SGF202501, SGF202502 and SGF202503) have been deposited at the Sulu Garden Foundation Gallery of Natural History (Miag-ao, Iloilo, Philippines). Consent for publication Participants consented to the submission of findings for the journal article publications. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Funding No funding was received. Author Contribution K.A.A. and M.A.T.M initiated and led the project, designed and coordinated fieldwork, and wrote the primary manuscript; J.R.M provided technical support and contributed critical review and revisions; J.L.M.T. managed logistics and produced documentation used for site mapping and figures. All authors participated in data interpretation, reviewed drafts, and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement We are deeply grateful to the asinderos of De Paul Artisanal Salt Manufacturing led by Mrs. Lorlie Noblezada, and the Fabon Family for their generous support, hospitality, and for sharing invaluable knowledge of the budbudan practice. We acknowledge the contributions of our on-the-job trainees from University of San Agustin, University of the Philippines Visayas, and Sorsogon State University for field assistance and logistical support during data collection. We also appreciate the assistance and the cooperation of the DENR Regional Office VI, MENRO-Miag-ao and CENRO-Guimbal for permitting and guidance. We would also like to thank Dr Pieter Pelser of Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines and University of Canterbury for his assistance in confirming the identity of the specimens. Finally, we extend our gratitude to the local communities of Miag‑ao for entrusting us with their knowledge and for helping preserve this living cultural heritage. Data Availability The authors declare that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper. Should any raw data files be needed in another format they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References Kennedy JB, Kukla R, Paterson T. Scientific Names Are Ambiguous as Identifiers for Biological Taxa: Their Context and Definition Are Required for Accurate Data Integration. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 2005 Jan 1;80–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/11530084_8 Dauncey EA, Irving J, Allkin R, Robinson N. Common mistakes when using plant names and how to avoid them. European Journal of Integrative Medicine. 2016 Oct;8(5):597–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eujim.2016.09.005 Remsen D. The use and limits of scientific names in biological informatics. 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Magarzo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Sulu Garden Foundation, Inc.","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ma.","middleName":"Angela T.","lastName":"Magarzo","suffix":""},{"id":614445319,"identity":"24afa9d6-9dd7-445d-a6a8-f45b75b77396","order_by":2,"name":"Justin Luis M. Tiu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Sulu Garden Foundation, Inc.","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Justin","middleName":"Luis M.","lastName":"Tiu","suffix":""},{"id":614445320,"identity":"526817a1-0ce2-4cda-972f-ae715d2d3858","order_by":3,"name":"Jonathan R. Matias","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Sulu Garden Foundation, Inc.","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jonathan","middleName":"R.","lastName":"Matias","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-12 14:25:26","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9105928/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9105928/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":105972153,"identity":"6f8147ea-db51-427b-a102-94b535ada3e3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-02 03:56:12","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5828441,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe traditional \u003cem\u003ebudbudan \u003c/em\u003eprocess of Miag-ao, Iloilo: [\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e] The beach is cleaned and raked to create grooves on the sand to increase the surface area exposed to the sun. [\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e] Seawater is transferred to the prepared sand by carrying a 10-foot-long bamboo (\u003cem\u003ebayong\u003c/em\u003e). [\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e] When the sand is supersaturated with salt, asinderos shovel the sand-salt mix into sacks or bamboo baskets and pile it on the \u003cem\u003epasabakan \u003c/em\u003emound, and spray fresh seawater to wash the salt into an adjacent collection pond called \u003cem\u003elapok.\u003c/em\u003e[\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e] The supersaturated seawater or \u003cem\u003etuma \u003c/em\u003ecollected in the secondary basin called \u003cem\u003ekam-aw \u003c/em\u003emust be mixed with \u003cem\u003ebalunos \u003c/em\u003evine extract. [\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e] After mixing, the \u003cem\u003easindero \u003c/em\u003euses a wooden pitcher called \u003cem\u003egarung \u003c/em\u003efitted with a coconut husk spout to collect the brine in a \u003cem\u003ebayong\u003c/em\u003e, then carries and precisely waters the half-cut bamboo racks or \u003cem\u003eduyduyan \u003c/em\u003eeach day until the sun dries the salt for harvest. [\u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e] Harvesting is mostly done by women of all ages scraping the formed salt from concave bamboo using a specially made bamboo scraper called \u003cem\u003epurunpun\u003c/em\u003e (Photos first published online by Matias [24] at www.sulugarden.com)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9105928/v1/ab47b2a6cb71a10d5fc5b207.png"},{"id":105972155,"identity":"8dea359e-f6f4-4f37-b751-1af396521481","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-02 03:56:12","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":7597514,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAdding \u003cem\u003ebalunos \u003c/em\u003eextract to the supersaturated seawater: [\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e] Whacking the \u003cem\u003ebalunos \u003c/em\u003ewrapped in a fish net [\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e] Wringing the plant material to release the extract [\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e] Mixing the seawater using a bamboo pitcher or \u003cem\u003egarung \u003c/em\u003eto make sure the extract is spread evenly [\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e] \u003cem\u003eBalunos \u003c/em\u003eroot [\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e] Froth after the \u003cem\u003ebalunos \u003c/em\u003eextract is added\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9105928/v1/831e6567f91423b68814ef82.png"},{"id":105972152,"identity":"2e5b1cdb-54e6-4883-86bb-0c59177ffe25","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-02 03:56:12","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":388800,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCollection sites of the \u003cem\u003ebalunos \u003c/em\u003evine: the pink bounded area represents Barangay Lanutan, Miag-ao, Iloilo, and the three yellow stars are the three collection sites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9105928/v1/2ef0c0ea17d1b921692a1ace.png"},{"id":105972140,"identity":"756e54be-43e8-4a19-8988-bb24f580d765","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-02 03:56:10","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5889195,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMomordica cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e (Lour.) Spreng. [\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e] Vines on an unidentified host tree [\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e] Distinctly pale bark [\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e] Root harvested for \u003cem\u003ebudbud \u003c/em\u003esalt production [\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e] Cross-section of root [\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e] Leaf and buds [\u003cstrong\u003ef\u003c/strong\u003e] Inner petals with dark blotch at the base [\u003cstrong\u003eg\u003c/strong\u003e] Outer petals. [\u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003e] Androecium with sepals, frontal view [\u003cstrong\u003ei\u003c/strong\u003e] Ripe fruit, opened, side view [\u003cstrong\u003ej\u003c/strong\u003e] Ripe fruits, side view [\u003cstrong\u003ek\u003c/strong\u003e] Seeds [\u003cstrong\u003el\u003c/strong\u003e] Male flower [\u003cstrong\u003em\u003c/strong\u003e] Tri-palmately lobed leaves in Site A [\u003cstrong\u003en\u003c/strong\u003e] Shoot showing fruit and unlobed leaves of a specimen from Site B\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9105928/v1/9b126c18bbada093bbbca429.png"},{"id":106093773,"identity":"67daa708-6630-4abd-b760-c553a032eefb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 11:39:05","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2714314,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePreliminary experiment by Matias [24] showing the difference in the physical properties of \u003cem\u003ebudbud \u003c/em\u003esalt with and without the vine extract (Photos first published online by Matias [24] at www.sulugarden.com)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9105928/v1/ae160c0fc59daa0e4ff03da2.png"},{"id":105972141,"identity":"bae26f9c-23f8-4438-82d7-6f1b07c7c1c3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-02 03:56:11","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":11944709,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePromoting \u003cem\u003ebudbudan \u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003ebudbud \u003c/em\u003esalt: [\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e] “The Art of Farming \u003cem\u003eBudbud \u003c/em\u003eSalt”\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eat the Sulu Garden Foundation History and Heritage Gallery [\u003cstrong\u003eb-c\u003c/strong\u003e] Sharing the present study and introducing fresh \u003cem\u003eM. cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e to the \u003cem\u003easinderos\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9105928/v1/5b9c7c4a76a1187ce9f0a02b.png"},{"id":106095774,"identity":"13fed5f7-6a28-4c86-8ca3-1d5ce83e80d3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 11:50:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":49310356,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9105928/v1/46a6e28b-5f95-4a7b-afbc-2f81c839cd53.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Morphotaxonomic verification of the ‘balunos’ vine used in the artisanal budbud salt of Miag-ao, Iloilo, Philippines","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlant names are shorthand identifiers carrying significant information. Like most organisms, plants generally have two names: a common or vernacular label and a scientific name. Scientific names are the only ones tied to herbarium type specimens, offering permanent, international clarity [1,2]. However, problems can still arise when that taxonomy is not agreed upon or when revisions are known only to a limited few [3,4]. On the other hand, common names can be more problematic, as they can vary by community, language, and time, especially when one word is used to refer to different entities [2]. For example, folk taxonomies and many indigenous and local knowledge systems operate on principles that diverge from the most popularly used frameworks, where a single name may serve as a generic term reflecting ecological, utilitarian, or symbolic grouping rather than strict phylogenetic proximity [1,5,6,7,8].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAside from being a global biodiversity hotspot, the Philippine archipelago also embodies cultural richness through traditional practices, each rooted in geographic and historical circumstances. Such cultural practices highlight the deep ties between communities and their local environment, including the vital resources they provide [9]. Salt is an essential mineral nutrient for human and animal health, diet and industry [10,11,12]. Sourced from seawater, lakes, and rock deposits, salt is considered to be one of the most crucial cornerstones of human civilization, even comparable to oil. Salt produced using specific and intricate indigenous practices is referred to as artisanal salt [13]. In the Municipality of Miag-ao in the Province of Iloilo in Central Philippines, the traditional practice of salt-making is locally called \u003cem\u003ebudbudan\u003c/em\u003e, from the term \u003cem\u003ebudbud\u003c/em\u003e, meaning \u0026ldquo;to sprinkle\u0026rdquo; in Kinaray-a, which refers to the sprinkling of seawater into the sandy beach (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Historical records indicate that salt production in Miag-ao dates back to at least 1823, remaining largely local knowledge until it was first recorded in writing in 1979 in Elias N. Failagao\u0026rsquo;s \u0026ldquo;History of Miag-ao.\u0026rdquo; While each artisanal salt method reflects ingenuity and environmental adaptation, Miag-ao\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ebudbudan\u003c/em\u003e is characterized by its dependence on local materials: bamboo racks and sprinklers, sand from the beach, and critically\u0026mdash;a vine called \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e. Towns in the nearby province of Antique also practice the same tradition, but the vine is what makes the \u003cem\u003ebudbud\u003c/em\u003e of Miag-ao unique (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditionally, salt farmers or \u003cem\u003easinderos\u003c/em\u003e (a play on \u003cem\u003easin\u003c/em\u003e, which means salt, and \u003cem\u003ehacienderos\u003c/em\u003e or landed gentry) have long relied on its extract for the salt\u0026rsquo;s distinct flavor and appealing white color. The extract of this vine is added to the supersaturated saltwater called \u003cem\u003etuma\u003c/em\u003e by first wrapping the vine root with a fish net then whacking it using a wooden round-shaped mallet and wringing the wrapped plant material into the water (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). A white extract is released into the seawater followed by the formation of froths. This process is done three times and currently does not have any specific, standard measurements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the vine\u0026rsquo;s importance, the taxonomic identity of \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e remains unclear, with different accounts linking the term to several different species. Back in 2015, Jonathan Matias [24] conducted a survey to verify the species in Barangay Cavite, Miag-ao, as advised by the \u003cem\u003easinderos\u003c/em\u003e at the time, but they were not able to thoroughly document its morphological characteristics aside from its large leaves and climbing habit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe extirpation of species and the \u0026ldquo;silent extinction of taxonomists\u0026rdquo; due to the so-called taxonomic impediment are seriously worsening the shortage of important taxonomic knowledge of worldwide flora [14,15]. As industrial and climatic pressures cause the decline of traditional practices worldwide, a culturally sensitive and scientifically rigorous investigation is vital, not only to document and analyze the process and its actors, but also to verify the identity, morphology, and traditional application of its ingredients, in this case, the \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e. This contributes to both ethnobotanical scholarship and the urgent need of conserving intangible heritage [7,8]. Hence, failure to document the precise species identity could result in the loss of not just a traditional product, but a unique form of human-plant interaction [16]. Moreover, the overlapping usage of local names among taxonomically distinct species necessitates a precise verification of the vine\u0026rsquo;s identity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis paper presents a brief taxonomic synthesis and morphological evaluation of \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e and its ethnobotanical application. Its role in this cultural practice can reflect broader indigenous knowledge and biodiversity, including some insights on the role of language and vernacular labels in taxonomic studies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Literature Review\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior to field investigations, literature review was done to briefly outline the \u003cem\u003ebudbudan\u003c/em\u003e process and synthesize available published information about \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e. Then, surveys in the known areas with recorded presence of \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e vines were conducted to identify sampling sites for this study. The researchers were able to identify the harvester of the vine who served as the guide during the fieldwork. Informed consent was secured, cultural sensitivity in handling traditional knowledge was ensured and protocols for the respectful documentation of indigenous practices were appropriately adhered to.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Fieldwork and Morphological Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Before the field activity, permits were secured and consultations were done with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Office (DENR) VI, the Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office (MENRO) of Miag-ao, and Community Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO)-Guimbal. The researchers were able to single out the collection sites in Barangay Lanutan, Miag-ao, Province of Iloilo, Philippines (10\u0026deg;37'40.5\"N 122\u0026deg;10'27.4\"E) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) in June 2025. The sites were private agricultural lands at 70 m.a.s.l. near rice paddies and crop fields owned by the harvester-guide\u0026rsquo;s family. Geo-coordinates were recorded using a Garmin eTrex GPS device and photographs of the plant\u0026rsquo;s habitat, habit, and other morphological characters were taken using a mobile phone. Voucher specimens and fresh material were collected by the authors and stored in resealable bags for transport and further investigation in the laboratory. Qualitative and quantitative morphological data were recorded for the plant\u0026rsquo;s leaf, flower, fruit, and seed to distinguish candidate species. These specimens were identified by the corresponding author, crosschecked against available relevant literature and online databases [18,71], and confirmed by Dr. Pieter B. Pelser (Professor in Plant Systematics, University of Canterbury, New Zealand). Further, the specimens were dried, pressed, mounted in a herbarium sheet, and assigned accession numbers (i.e. SGF202501, SGF202502, SGF202503) by following standard protocols. The voucher specimens were deposited at the Sulu Garden Foundation Gallery of Natural History for future reference. Maps were generated using QGIS Desktop version 3.40.12.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Morpho-taxonomic Characterization and Utilization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany documents consistently describe \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e as a vine but with no mention of any particular plant species. Nevertheless, a considerable number of papers did associate the term to at least eight species, coming from four genera belonging to three different families (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). However, it is important to note that \u003cem\u003eEntada gigas\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Fawc. \u0026amp; Rendle has not been recorded to the Philippines [17], suggesting that the \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e mentioned by Quattrocchi [18] more likely refers to a different \u003cem\u003eEntada\u003c/em\u003e species. In addition, \u003cem\u003eMangifera caesia\u003c/em\u003e Jack is more commonly known as \u003cem\u003ebaluno\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003ebauno\u003c/em\u003e, which may mean that \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e may just be its variant and does not represent the species being studied in this paper. Therefore, only six plants were considered as candidate species to be the \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e of \u003cem\u003ebudbud\u003c/em\u003e salt prior to the survey in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, field observations revealed the habit and other morphological characteristics of the \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e vine. Many of these features do not match any of the candidate plants, and instead point to an entirely different species. The plants from all collection sites were identified on-site and upon further analysis as \u003cem\u003eMomordica cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e (Lour.) Spreng. or \u0026lsquo;gac\u0026rsquo; using various morphological markers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eM. cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e is reported as a very variable, widely distributed species [19]. In the current study, plants are dioecious herbaceous climbers with tendrils and tuberous roots. Stems are glabrous and older bark is distinctly pale. Unfortunately, only male flowers were documented in Site A, while fruits were observed only in Site B and C. Leaves in Site B and C were unlobed whereas in Site A they are tri-palmately lobed. Petioles are 5\u0026ndash;6 cm long with 1\u0026ndash;4 glands, and leaf margin is entire or slightly dentate. Flowers are somewhat hairy and solitary with conspicuous bract on stalk, and petals are cream to yellow, with the inner ones with dark blotch at base. Fruits are ovoid and orange to red when ripe. Seeds are numerous, brown or ash gray-black in color with a patchy pattern, and variable in shape and size.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlants associated with the term \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia retusa\u003c/em\u003e Benth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[20,21,22,23]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia saponaria\u003c/em\u003e (Lour.) Blume ex Miq.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[24]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntada phaseoloides\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Merr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[18,20,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntada rheeidei\u003c/em\u003e Spreng.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[34]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEntada gigas\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Fawc. \u0026amp; Rendle \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[18]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSecuridaca inappendiculata\u003c/em\u003e ssp. \u003cem\u003ecorymbosa\u003c/em\u003e (Turcz.) Meijden\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[35]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSecuridaca philipppinensis\u003c/em\u003e Chodat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[20,36,37,38]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMangifera caesia\u003c/em\u003e Jack \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[39]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMomordica cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e (Lour.) Spreng.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePresent study\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnidentified (as term only)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[28,40,41,42,43,44,45,46]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e This species is not present in the Philippines and more likely refers to a different \u003cem\u003eEntada\u003c/em\u003e sp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e More commonly called \u003cem\u003ebaluno\u003c/em\u003e, which may suggest that \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e (Bik.) is more likely a variant and not a widespread name\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAside from \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e, the species used in \u003cem\u003ebudbud\u003c/em\u003e is also locally known as \u003cem\u003etambalusan\u003c/em\u003e according to the harvester-guide, matching that of a page from the digital library on Philippine traditional knowledge on health where \u003cem\u003eM. cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e is recorded with this name in Kinaray-a language [47]. \u003cem\u003eM. cochinchinensis is\u003c/em\u003e also known in various parts of the Philippines as \u003cem\u003ebalbas-bakiro\u003c/em\u003e (Tagalog), \u003cem\u003ebuyok-buyok\u003c/em\u003e (Tagalog), \u003cem\u003elibas\u003c/em\u003e (Ilokano), \u003cem\u003etabla\u003c/em\u003e (Manobo), \u003cem\u003etabolog\u003c/em\u003e (Cebuano), \u003cem\u003emalabakan\u003c/em\u003e (Cebuano), \u003cem\u003eparog-parog\u003c/em\u003e (Ilokano), \u003cem\u003esugod-sugod\u003c/em\u003e (Ilokano), and \u003cem\u003etabog-uak\u003c/em\u003e (Bikolano) [27,48,49].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eM. cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e is a tropical liana also found in Assam, Bangladesh, Borneo, Cambodia, South-Central China, Southeast China, East Himalaya, India, Jawa, Laos, Malaya, Maluku, Myanmar, New Guinea, Queensland, Sulawesi, Sumatera, Taiwan, Thailand, Tibet, Vietnam [50]. The plant has long been used in many Asian cultures for food and medicine, even earning the name \u0026ldquo;the Fruit of Heaven\u0026rdquo; in Vietnam for its high nutritional value [51]. This cucurbit is known to be rich in carotenoids, such as β-carotene and lycopene, [52,53], high levels of α-tocopherol (vitamin E), polyunsaturated fatty acids [53,54,55], and important polyphenol compounds and flavonoids [56]. In Vietnam, ripe gac fruit is traditionally prepared as \u003cem\u003ex\u0026ocirc;i gấc\u003c/em\u003e, where the aril is cooked in glutinous rice for \u003cem\u003etết\u003c/em\u003e (Vietnamese New Year) and wedding ceremonies [52]. In traditional medicine, Vietnamese people in rural areas often grind gac seeds and mix them with alcohol or vinegar to cure furuncles, swelling, hemorrhoids, and mumps [52]; while in China these seeds are called \u003cem\u003emubiezhi\u003c/em\u003e and are used to treat spleen and liver disorders, wounds, fluxes, hemorrhoids, bruises, boils, sores, scrofula, swelling, tinea, and pus [57,58]. Moreover, numerous biological activities of gac fruit have been documented, including its antioxidant [56,59,60,61,62], anticancer [63,64,65,66,67,68], and antimicrobial effects [69,70].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Philippines, it is found throughout the archipelago in low and medium elevation thickets and secondary forests [71]. Despite its presence in most parts of the country, it remains underutilized because of its seasonality and lack of research and promotion [72]. However, there are few records of its local use in the country. In Ilocos Region, particularly in Ilocos Norte, the young fruit is eaten as a vegetable and is usually added to \u003cem\u003edinengdeng\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003epinakbet\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003einabraw\u003c/em\u003e [73,74]. On the other hand, there is no recorded traditional utilization of the ripe fruit in the Philippines [74], other than being prepared as a juice blend consisting of honey, lemon, and fresh aril [75].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast to other species associated with the term \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e, this is the only record of the name\u0026rsquo;s association with \u003cem\u003eM. cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e and the first report of it being used in salt-making, representing a previously undocumented taxonomic attribution and novel ethnobotanical utilization. This study unfortunately cannot confirm that the \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e used by previous \u003cem\u003easinderos\u003c/em\u003e and those observed in 2015 are also \u003cem\u003eM. cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e due to the polysemous nature of the term. Additional surveys should be done especially to the previous survey site in Barangay Cavite, and possibly in other areas in Miag-ao as well.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Biocultural Identity of \u003cem\u003eBalunos\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eArtisanal salt production remains an enduring symbol of the Philippines\u0026rsquo; cultural and ecological wealth [76]. Accordingly, \u003cem\u003ebudbudan\u003c/em\u003e was once a vibrant industry, with salt farms found across the coastal areas of the town. However, the industry dwindled, and many \u003cem\u003easinderos\u003c/em\u003e have already stopped their operations. Today, the practice survives within only a handful of families and is considered to be at the brink of extinction. Currently, four \u003cem\u003easindero\u003c/em\u003e families remain active in Miag-ao, all of which have not seen fresh specimens of various parts of the \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e vine, as the material supplied to them consists solely of desiccated root parts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ed) rather than intact, living plant material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn several traditions, botanic materials are also used in the process of salt-making. These plant materials are usually used for filtering, brine concentration, or as ash for crystallization. For example, in the \u003cem\u003etultul\u003c/em\u003e salt of Guimaras, driftwood ash undergoes seawater percolation, then brine is cooked with coconut milk to yield salt blocks [77]. In the production of \u003cem\u003easin tibuok\u003c/em\u003e of Bohol, coconut husks are soaked in seawater, sun-dried, and burnt to ash, then leached and boiled in clay points to form \u0026ldquo;whole\u0026rdquo; salt eggs, imparted with smoky flavor [78]. In other countries like Paraguay, the Ayoreo people obtain salt from ash produced by burning the timber of the Indian salt tree (\u003cem\u003eMaytenus vitis-idaea\u003c/em\u003e Griseb.) and other plants [79]. Studies on salt substitutes derived from plants (PSS) are also becoming a promising, effective way to reduce sodium intake [80,81,82]. However, no other available records appear to exist of plant extracts being used directly in artisanal salt-making worldwide, apart from \u003cem\u003ebudbudan\u003c/em\u003e. This suggests that the present study may constitute the first documented account of such a practice and application.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also revealed that \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e procurement is now limited to a single provider, who was the same harvester who guided the researchers. Historically, \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e was bartered between \u003cem\u003easinderos\u003c/em\u003e and indigenous Ati communities, trading vines for a sack of salt [83]. However, the Ati of Miag-ao and nearby areas have stopped coming down from the mountain for decades and are feared to have been displaced a long time ago. The harvesters from the previous survey in 2015 and the current sole harvester identified in this study are not part of any Indigenous Peoples (IP) groups. The current harvester-guide, a relative of the \u003cem\u003easindero\u003c/em\u003e family from Guibongan, Miag-ao, claims to be a direct descendant of the earliest \u003cem\u003ebudbud asinderos\u003c/em\u003e, which means that the knowledge in identifying the vine has been passed from generation to generation. Hence, the unique integration of this botanical component in \u003cem\u003ebudbud\u003c/em\u003e salt demonstrates deep ethnobotanical insight and is central to both the functional success of the salt-making process and the intergenerational transmission of indigenous knowledge. Comparable exchanges were also documented for \u003cem\u003easin tibuok\u003c/em\u003e, which was traded for rice or \u003cem\u003epalay\u003c/em\u003e [84].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrently, harvester-\u003cem\u003easindero\u003c/em\u003e trade continues, with collected vines exchanged for \u003cem\u003ebudbud\u003c/em\u003e salt in amounts determined by the \u003cem\u003easindero\u003c/em\u003e. According to the harvester, there is no definitive origin story explaining how their elders first adopted \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e for salt-making. However, traditional knowledge on using \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e as natural soap or shampoo has been taught to them when they were young. Ever since, the plant has been distinguished by its smooth leaves, and distinct white stem. Moreover, it was noted that \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e grows widely, especially in dense forest patches and agricultural lands. Collection can occur year-round, but demand remains low, with harvesting typically undertaken only upon request, mostly during \u003cem\u003ebudbudan\u003c/em\u003e season. Pricing is also not standardized, as they feel reluctant to assign monetary value to a plant that grows abundantly; hence, vines are instead exchanged directly for salt.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Language and vernacular labels\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiterature review shows that the term \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e appears in at least six known Philippine languages: Bicolano [20,21], Cebuano [85], Hanunuo-Mangyan [35], Hiligaynon, Inabaknon [86], and Kinaray-a (present study). Some papers also link the term to unspecified Visayan language/s (20,27,28]. The term also appears as a place name, specifically in Barangay Balunos, Anilao, Iloilo, but its origins cannot be verified as of the writing of this paper. Lastly, the term also appears to have at least two orthographic variants: \u003cem\u003ebalonos\u003c/em\u003e [25,26,27,29,30], and \u003cem\u003ebalones\u003c/em\u003e [28,34].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNaming practices across cultures have encoded observations of plant morphology, ecology, color, taste, or procedural origin, resulting in names being shared by several unrelated entities and highlighting persistent difficulties in reconciling folk versus scientific naming [7]. As with \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e, several related or unrelated plants may have aggregated based on perceived morphology (as vines) and utility (as plant-based detergent/soaps/shampoos). Moreover, there is also a possibility that other species in other languages are linked to the term.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough found to be applied broadly to many species, \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e is predominantly linked with \u003cem\u003eEntada\u003c/em\u003e species. This may imply what is referred to as specific-folk generic polysemy [87] or taxonomic polysemy [88], where a polysemous term can refer to both a subgeneric taxon (in this case, groups of taxa) and to one of its superordinate taxa (e.g. \u003cem\u003eE. phaseoloides\u003c/em\u003e) [8]. Moreover, following Berlin\u0026rsquo;s second principle of nomenclature [89], we propose assigning a primary complex name to the vine used in \u003cem\u003ebudbudan\u003c/em\u003e, such as \u003cem\u003ebalunos-budbud\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003ebalunos-asin\u003c/em\u003e, to specifically refer to \u003cem\u003eM. cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Biochemical Role in Salt-making\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn an attempt to show and provide an observation on the role of \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e in the salt-making process, a preliminary assay was also done by Matias [24] by comparing supersaturated salt with extract to that without it by sun-drying in half-cut bamboo. Results show that \u003cem\u003ebudbud\u003c/em\u003e prepared without the vine extract failed to aggregate into large crystals; but with extract, traditional cubic crystals formed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Without \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e, the salt microcrystals appear irregular, powdery and poorly defined, which implies its importance in the overall chemistry of the \u003cem\u003ebudbud\u003c/em\u003e salt. Moreover, the \u003cem\u003easinderos\u003c/em\u003e say that the vine makes the salt dissolve better for cooking and gives it its special taste. Some also say that the extract makes the salt whiter, a feature favorable to customers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the froth, Matias [24] also observed that the addition of \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e increases the viscosity of the supersaturated water. Many biochemicals may cause this change in liquid behavior, but some saponins, in particular, can influence viscosity [90,91], and have been documented to be present in \u003cem\u003eM. cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e and almost all candidate species in this study [92,93,94,95,96,97,98]. This is further solidified by the study of Iwamoto et al. [99] and Kawamura et al. [100], where they recorded high concentrations of momordins, a type of saponin, in the roots of \u003cem\u003eM. cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e, the part being used in \u003cem\u003ebudbudan\u003c/em\u003e. In addition, according to DeFilipps and Krupnick [101], the root is used as a substitute for soap and also to kill head lice. Interestingly, the spiky exterior of gac fruit has been recorded to have been used as a comb to remove head lice, hence the Ilokano local name \u003cem\u003esugod-sugod\u003c/em\u003e, which is derived from the root word \u003cem\u003esuyod\u003c/em\u003e, meaning \u0026ldquo;lice comb\u0026rdquo; [74].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe surfactant nature of plant-derived saponins also allows them to remove impurities [102], which could explain why \u003cem\u003ebalunos\u003c/em\u003e is believed to contribute to producing whiter salt. Historically, the burning of plant material to make ash was how lye, a hydroxyl form of potassic salt used in soap manufacture, was made [103,104]. Many plant oils have also been used in traditional and modern soap-making practices [105]. These observations and ethnobotanical records strongly suggest that there is a need to conduct biochemistry studies on the extract and its mechanisms during salt-making.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Broader implications on Conservation and Heritage\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLike the \u003cem\u003ebudbudan\u003c/em\u003e of Miag-ao, many traditional practices around the world face numerous challenges despite a legacy of artisanal expertise. Hence, artisanal knowledge must be documented, showcased, and conserved\u0026ndash;especially as the number of workers declines and with it the family histories and traditions tied to salt-making (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies misidentification in the context of traditional practices and biomedical research can have broad ramifications [106]. Misidentification of culturally-important plants ultimately causes non-transmission of correct species knowledge, which may erode cultural practices and resilience, especially as artisans transition to commercial or more \u0026ldquo;standard\u0026rdquo; materials [107,108]. This loss extends beyond economics, and poses harm to heritage and cultural value. Hence, the decline of \u003cem\u003ebudbudan\u003c/em\u003e and similar artisanal practices is both a biodiversity and cultural crisis, and there is a strong need to recognize the intrinsic value of traditional ecological knowledge. However, there is a scarcity of information focusing on indigenous knowledge of biodiversity, particularly in developing countries, such as the Philippines, where such knowledge is highly concentrated [109]. This causes significant knowledge erosion, especially when fading artisanal practices, reduction of local dialects or migration exacerbate atrophy of terminological precision [110]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e Field surveys and specimen collection were conducted in full compliance with institutional, national, and international guidelines for plant research with no need for further affirmation. The primary collection site in Barangay Lanutan, Miag-ao is a privately owned agricultural land, where the vines are growing in the wild. Access and sampling were carried out with the landowners\u0026rsquo; permission and guidance. Additional consultations and permissions were also secured from the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Office (DENR) VI, the Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office (MENRO) of Miag-ao, and the Community Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO)-Guimbal. This study did not involve members of Indigenous Peoples (IP) communities, and no minors were included. All participants provided informed consent prior to participation, and confidentiality was maintained throughout the research process. The \u003cem\u003eMomordica cochinchinensis\u003c/em\u003e (Lour.) Spreng. plants were identified by Kim A. Alunan and confirmed by Dr. Pieter B. Pelser (Professor of Plant Systematics, University of Canterbury, New Zealand). The species being studied is not listed under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and DENR Administrative Order 2017-11 Updated List of Threatened Philippine Plants and their Categories. Voucher specimens (collectors: K.A. Alunan \u0026amp; M.A.T. Magarzo; accession numbers: SGF202501, SGF202502 and SGF202503) have been deposited at the Sulu Garden Foundation Gallery of Natural History (Miag-ao, Iloilo, Philippines).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants consented to the submission of findings for the journal article publications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo funding was received.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eK.A.A. and M.A.T.M initiated and led the project, designed and coordinated fieldwork, and wrote the primary manuscript; J.R.M provided technical support and contributed critical review and revisions; J.L.M.T. managed logistics and produced documentation used for site mapping and figures. All authors participated in data interpretation, reviewed drafts, and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe are deeply grateful to the asinderos of De Paul Artisanal Salt Manufacturing led by Mrs. Lorlie Noblezada, and the Fabon Family for their generous support, hospitality, and for sharing invaluable knowledge of the budbudan practice. We acknowledge the contributions of our on-the-job trainees from University of San Agustin, University of the Philippines Visayas, and Sorsogon State University for field assistance and logistical support during data collection. We also appreciate the assistance and the cooperation of the DENR Regional Office VI, MENRO-Miag-ao and CENRO-Guimbal for permitting and guidance. We would also like to thank Dr Pieter Pelser of Co\u0026rsquo;s Digital Flora of the Philippines and University of Canterbury for his assistance in confirming the identity of the specimens. Finally, we extend our gratitude to the local communities of Miag‑ao for entrusting us with their knowledge and for helping preserve this living cultural heritage.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper. Should any raw data files be needed in another format they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKennedy JB, Kukla R, Paterson T. Scientific Names Are Ambiguous as Identifiers for Biological Taxa: Their Context and Definition Are Required for Accurate Data Integration. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 2005 Jan 1;80\u0026ndash;95. https://doi.org/10.1007/11530084_8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDauncey EA, Irving J, Allkin R, Robinson N. Common mistakes when using plant names and how to avoid them. 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PLOS ONE. 2018 Apr 5;13(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195440\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-plants","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Plants](https://link.springer.com/journal/44372)","snPcode":"44372","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44372/3","title":"Discover Plants","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"budbud salt, biocultural, ethnobotany, taxonomy, Philippines","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9105928/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9105928/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Vernacular names and folk classifications play a central role in how local communities recognize and transmit plant knowledge. The traditional budbud salt from Miag-ao, Iloilo uniquely uses extract from the balunos vine to enhance color, flavor and crystallization, yet the plant’s uncertain identity may hinder conservation efforts and intergenerational cultural transmission. Through morphological characterization, this study verifies balunos taxonomically and documents its ethnobotanical significance and cultural implications on the dying budbudan practice. Morphological markers identified balunos as Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng., a previously undocumented taxonomic attribution and novel ethnobotanical utilization. To date, no records have been found of plant extracts being used directly in artisanal salt-making worldwide, suggesting this study may be the first documented account of the practice. Historically bartered between asinderos and indigenous harvesters, balunos procurement is now limited to a single provider—rubbing salt into the wound and adding threats to budbud salt’s survival. Resolving this ambiguity safeguards artisanal quality and preserves biocultural heritage by linking indigenous nomenclature to precise taxonomy, as plant names carry cultural heritage but biodiversity loss imperils intergenerational knowledge. Verification of balunos bridges traditional practice with scientific taxonomy, reinforcing budbud salt’s authenticity. Further phytochemical analysis, expanded comparative ethnobotanical surveys, extensive cultural mapping, and mainstreaming to promote biodiversity conservation and cultural identity are recommended.","manuscriptTitle":"Morphotaxonomic verification of the ‘balunos’ vine used in the artisanal budbud salt of Miag-ao, Iloilo, Philippines","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-02 03:55:51","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9105928/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-06T08:55:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"18214628453791491135197984104730739508","date":"2026-05-06T07:33:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-22T09:07:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"236574942757561175496438066524892984516","date":"2026-04-21T12:53:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"235680542902975518683826044727864198491","date":"2026-04-16T09:20:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-16T08:28:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-27T15:46:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-19T18:48:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-18T23:55:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Plants","date":"2026-03-18T15:43:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-plants","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Plants](https://link.springer.com/journal/44372)","snPcode":"44372","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44372/3","title":"Discover Plants","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"589d08ee-c6d6-404b-b3fc-9868f912b17d","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 2nd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-06T08:55:48+00:00","index":66,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"18214628453791491135197984104730739508","date":"2026-05-06T07:33:27+00:00","index":65,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-16T08:40:19+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-02 03:55:51","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9105928","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9105928","identity":"rs-9105928","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}