Evaluation of Chemical and Elemental Analyses of Airborne Particulate Matter in Nigeria

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O Ewona, B. J Ekah, J. U Akwagiobe, S. O Udo, B. Rabiu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5105755/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This article evaluates air quality index (AQI) from toxic and heavy metal concentration across selected cities in Nigeria. Gravitational sedimentation method was used to collect air sediments to extract toxic and heavy metals present in airborne particulates. Funnel shaped collectors securely attached to clean empty containers were exposed in open spaces at designated locations within the city, for a period of nine months, covering the two major seasons in Nigeria (January to September, 2023). Airborne particles were allowed to settle naturally in the container along with rainwater. Samples from various points in a city were put together for laboratory analyses. This procedure was repeated in five other cities covering various geographical and climatic regions in Nigeria. The locations include: Benin, Lagos, Calabar in the South and Abuja, Enugu and kano in the North. The samples were analyzed for elemental concentration using spectroscopy. Data for PM 2.5 was donated by Penn State University purple air quality network in Nigeria. MATLAB, SPSS and MS excel software were used to prepare the data for analyses. Air quality indices for the studied locations were determined. The associated AQI colour codes reflect health concern levels. The results show maximum concentration values as follows: PM 2.5 (1350), Pb (566), Ni (458), and Mn (443) indicate hazardous levels, Cd (183) indicates unhealthy levels, Fe (130) and Cr (106) show unhealthy levels for sensitive groups, K (86) shows moderate levels, while elements compounds like NO 2 (32.83), Al (30), F (11), Cu (11.53), NO 3 (4.16), CO (3.13), and Zn (1.43) fall within safer levels. The results further reveal that the air in Benin carries hazardous levels for Ni (550) and Pb (400), While Kano reveals very unhealthy levels of Pb (800) and Ni (490) levels in the air; Abuja air also has high levels of Pb (600) and Ni (490), while Lagos has high levels of Ni (430). Enugu on the other hand presents extremely high values for Mn (1600), Pb (500), and Ni (310). Particulate matters sources of PM effects of PM Healthy life expectancy Life expectancy Air Quality Index Toxic elements and metals casinogenic elements Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Air Pollution: A Major Global Health Threat New findings underscore the profound effects of air pollution on global health. According to the Health Effects Institute's (HEI) Special Report on the State of Global Air (SOGA, 2020), air pollution ranks as the fourth most significant cause of premature death worldwide, making it responsible for nearly twelve percent of global fatalities. It reduces life expectancy by an average of 2.2 years, with around seven million deaths annually attributed to air pollution. In West Africa, more than 80% of urban residents are exposed to air quality levels that exceed the World Health Organization's (WHO, 2016) recommended limits. A study in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, led by Udo and Ewona and supported by TET Fund, has identified high levels of pollution in the area. The study utilized air quality assessments using gravity settling method for air sample collection (Udo et al., 2018b; 2018c; 2020b; 2020c; Ewona et al. ( 2021 ) and Ewona et al. ( 2022 ). According to the WHO (2020) and WHO (2021), cardiovascular diseases (CVDs ) (diseases caused or exacerbated by air pollution) are the leading cause of death globally. An estimated 17.9 million people died from CVDs in 2019, representing 32% of all global deaths. Of these deaths, 85% were due to heart attack and stroke. Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are diseases caused by air pollution, and are now considered to be the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. These diseases include conditions such as Parkinson's disease (progressive neurological disease that primarily affects movement), stroke, heart disease, various cancers, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease). NCDs affect numerous organ systems, including cardiovascular, neurological, and respiratory systems. There is increasing evidence that air pollution exacerbates the incidence and severity of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, as well as lung cancer, with potential impacts on other organs (Ewona et al. 2024; Udo, S. O. 2020; Ewona et al. 2013). Air pollution arises from a variety of natural and anthropogenic sources, with combustion being the primary contributor. The burning of fossil fuels and biomass for energy generation is a significant source of pollution from both indoor and outdoor environments. 1.2 Sources of Air Pollutants 1.2.1 Indoor Sources : Heating using contaminated fuels (such as coal, wood, or dung) Unvented stoves for cooking Burning of animal fur while cooking Tobacco smoke (smoking) Combustion during religious and cultural practices Use of kerosene stoves Use of incense and kerosene lamps Renovations and cleaning products (e.g., detergents, insecticides) Operation of electrical devices like printers 1.2.2 Outdoor Sources : Transportation Power generation Construction activities Industrial emissions Refuse burning Biomass burning Long-range atmospheric transport of pollutants Airborne pollutants include particulate matter (PM), specifically PM 2.5 and PM 10 , along with gaseous pollutants such as ammonia (NH 3 ), carbon monoxide (CO 2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), ground level ozone (O 3 ), and various organic air pollutants. These pollutants have severe negative effects on human health and the environment. Research by Tamuno et al. (2022) highlights that the visible presence of soot in Nigeria's Niger Delta region has resulted in increased respiratory infections. Air pollution is believed to be an escalating cause of illness and death in Nigeria, especially in regions like Rivers State, which is responsible for 60% of the country’s crude oil production (Whyte et al., 2020). There is an urgent need to investigate the sources of soot and develop strategies to mitigate its effects, along with public health initiatives to raise awareness about the health risks associated with particulate matter. Particulate matter pollution poses a serious health risk, especially at high concentrations. The size of particulate matter influences its persistence in the atmosphere and its deposition in the human respiratory system. Burning solid fuels such as coal and biomass is a major source of anthropogenic particulate matter. Chlorine gas is another harmful pollutant, with even small exposures leading to serious health issues such as; pulmonary edema (excess fluid in the lungs), pneumonitis (inflammation of lung tissue), emphysema (air sack within the lungs loses its elasticity), bronchitis (inflammation of the brachial tube. The air ways that carry air to and from the lungs), and irritation of the eyes, throat, and nose. Additionally, particulate matter significantly contributes to climate change and poses health risks. In the upper atmosphere, it alters the Earth's radiation balance and cloud formation, while in the lower atmosphere, it reduces visibility and disrupts biogeochemical cycles (natural process that recycles elements and nutrients essential for life). The most significant health impacts are observed in ambient air, where particulate matter detrimentally affects human health (Arideep, 2017). 1.3 Emission Sources and Exposure The study investigates the concentration of PM 10 and its potentially toxic elements (PTEs) from different road networks in Ibadan, Nigeria, and assesses the associated human health risks. PM 10 samples were collected during the harmattan period from national highway roads (NHR), inner-city major roads (ICR), and remote roads (RRD). Results obtained from the analysis showed that PM 10 concentrations exceeded World Health Organization (W.H.O), United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and United Kingdom Environmental Protection Agency (UKEPA) standards by more than threefold. Key toxic elements such as Ba, Cd, Cu, La, Mn, Pb, and V were highest at National High Road, while Al, Fe, Mo, and Zn were highest at Inner-City Major Roads (ICR). The study's principal component analysis (PCA) linked specific elements to both exhaust and non-exhaust emissions. The enrichment factor (EF) analysis indicated moderate to very high enrichment of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in NHR and Inner-City Major Roads (ICR), with Al, Fe, and Mn being less enriched. The hazard quotient (HQ) and carcinogenic risk (CR) for key elements remained within permissible levels (Kolawole and Olatunji, 2023). Air pollution is a globally recognized issue driven by various discharge sources, both natural and man-made, largely due to industrialization. According to the WHO, it states that combustion processes for energy generation are the primary contributors to air pollution. This includes burning fossil fuels in unvented heating and cooking stoves, as well as tobacco combustion for cultural / religious practices. Other outdoor combustion sources include transportation, biomass burning, industrial activities, power generation, and agricultural waste burning, particularly in urban settings (US EPA, 2010, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020, Ewona et al.2021). Air pollution is linked to numerous health issues. PM 2.5 exposure is associated with human mortality (incidence of death within a population), morbidity (rate of disease, illness or health condition within a population), asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (lung disease characterized by air flow obstruction), pulmonary fibrosis, cancer, type 2 diabetes (insufficient insulin in the body to produce enough glucose can enter the body cell), and neurodegenerative diseases (disorder characterized by dead nerve cells or neurons in the brain). Developed countries have made advancements in addressing these challenges due to access to environmental quality data, while developing countries continue to struggle with insufficient records (Abulude et al., 2022; Ekah, 2023, Ewona et al.2022). The effects of air pollution include premature mortality and various diseases such as coronary heart disease (blockage in coronary tube), type 2 diabetes, breast cancer, and colon cancer (Slezakova et al., 2018). 1.4 Air Quality Guidelines In developing nations like Nigeria, adhering to WHO air quality guidelines is particularly crucial due to the high vulnerability of populations to pollution-related health issues. As these countries often face rapid urbanization and industrialization, maintaining updated air quality guidelines (AQGs) can help protect public health, especially for vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly. Regularly updated guidelines can guide policies and interventions to address local pollution challenges, ensuring that measures to reduce pollutants like PM and ozone are based on the latest scientific evidence. This approach helps mitigate health risks and supports sustainable development in these rapidly growing economies. To reduce air pollution emissions, it is essential to improve public transportation systems and promote non-motorized modes of transport, such as cycling, walking, and the use of horse-drawn vehicles. Planting trees along major roadways can help trap and absorb pollutants, while discouraging the use of older vehicles that emit higher levels of pollutants is also crucial (Tunde et al., 2022) BRIEF EXPLANATION ABOUT AIR QUALITY INDEX (AQI) The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a tool used to communicate the quality of the air in a particular area to the public. It simplifies a range of data on various pollutants into a single number and colour-coded system that is easy to understand. The AQI provides information about how clean or polluted the air is and what associated health effects might be a concern for the population. TABLE 1 AQI FOR PARTICULATE MATTER, TOXIC ELEMENTS AND HEAVY METALS AND HEALTH CONCERN LEVEL AQI Value AQI annual colour code Health Concern Level Air Pollution Level 0-50 Green Good/satisfactory Level 1 51-100 Yellow Moderate/ acceptable Level 2 101-150 Orange Unhealthy for sensitive groups Level 3 151-200 Red Unhealthy Level 4 201-300 Purple Very Unhealthy Level 5 301-above Maroon Hazardous Level 6 (USEPA, 2012; W.H.O, 2012) Table 1 represents AQI as prepared by W.H.O. This guideline specify concentration limits for elements and particulate matter. Countries often use this guidelines to develop their own AQI systems which translate pollutant concentrations into index score that indicates the level of health risk. The AQI is estimated by the expression in Eq. 1 below; AQI = \(\:\frac{Concentration}{W.H.O\:standard}\times\:100\) 1 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Life Expectancy and Health Issues: A Global Perspective This study examines the health risks associated with trace elements in drinking water and food, focusing on various regions in Nigeria. Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) such as goiter were prevalent in areas underlain by metamorphic and younger granite rocks, while sedimentary terrains exhibit lower incidences. Dental fluorosis, resulting from excessive fluoride ingestion, affected populations in both crystalline and sedimentary regions, with no cases reported from coastal areas. Mining and mineral processing activities increased the exposure of trace elements to the environment, releasing them into soils and water bodies. The Jos Plateau in north-central Nigeria experienced abnormally high natural radiation levels, particularly radon gas, and elevated radiation from cassiterite mill tailings, correlating with rising lung cancer rates in the area. Preliminary hydrogeochemical studies revealed high concentrations of potentially harmful elements (PHE) like lead, copper, zinc, and mercury in soils and water near sulfide mineralization and urban centers. The study further highlighted the evolving understanding of the relationship between trace elements and health issues in Nigeria, calling for intensified research by geoscientists in collaboration with community health professionals to better address these environmental health concerns (Lar, 2013 ). Heavy metal contamination in food crops is an increasingly recognized global health concern, as it leads to toxicity and various diseases in both humans and animals through the consumption of contaminated soil and crops. In Nigeria, this issue is extra demanding due to the country's large population which is estimated at 182 million, which is exposed to environmental pollution stemming from the accumulation of heavy metals in the environment and food sources. Heavy metals, defined by their atomic densities exceeding 4 g/cm³, include elements such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), silver (Ag), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and platinum (Pt). The contamination of food crops by these metals is a serious health hazard because of their uptake by plants and subsequent accumulation in the food chain, which has been linked to adverse health outcomes, including cancer, a disease currently on the rise in Nigeria. Multiple sources contribute to the presence of heavy metals in the environment. Natural processes release these metals into the food, air, and water, while human activities significantly exacerbate the contamination. The use of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides in agriculture, along with practices such as irrigation, are major contributors. Additionally, industrial activities, automobile emissions, cigarette smoking, paint production, and improper waste disposal further increase the levels of these harmful metals in the environment. Evidence from studies indicates that vegetables and other food crops in Nigeria are contaminated with heavy metals, underscoring the urgent need for communities in highly polluted areas to reduce their consumption of these food items. Continuous monitoring of heavy metal levels in food crops is essential to mitigate the health risks associated with this contamination (Onakpa et al. 2018 ). Raquel et al. ( 2016 ) studied the global mortality burden linked to anthropogenic ozone and PM 2.5 using a global chemical transport model. Their simulations for 2005 estimated that 2.23 million deaths annually can be attributed to anthropogenic PM 2.5 , with East Asia exhibiting the highest mortality rates. The study revealed significant contributions from the residential and commercial sectors and recommended air pollution control strategies tailored to specific regions. Elisaveta et al. ( 2013 ) provided an overview of particulate matter (PM) pollution in Africa, discussing published monitoring studies, identifying major themes, highlighting data gaps, and proposing strategies to tackle particulate air pollution in rapidly urbanizing cities. Frank et al. ( 2020 ) addressed the necessity of protecting human health from PM pollution generated by various sources, including household biomass combustion, wildfires, desert dust storms, and urban air pollution in growing megacities. Their article emphasized the importance of implementing protective measures for populations in these urban environments and discusses the economic and behavioral challenges linked to sustainable energy use. Key focus areas include regions with high concentrations of airborne particles, effective public awareness campaigns, and empowering communities to improve health and air quality. Ala’a (2021) evaluated PM 2.5 and PM 10 concentration levels in Karbala, Iraq, over a 20-day period from June 1 to July 20, 2015. The study found that concentrations exceeded WHO recommendations, with PM 2.5 levels above the guideline by 16% and PM 10 by 12%. It suggested that reducing PM 2.5 density to as low as 3 µg/m³ could significantly lower the risks associated with long-term exposure to lung cancer and cardiopulmonary mortality. In Pretoria West, South Africa, Oyewale et al. (2022) assessed health risks posed by PM 10 , sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O 3 ) using hourly ambient pollution data from 2014. Their findings indicated that while normal exposure levels generally do not present significant health risks, chronic exposure to PM 10 , NO 2 , and SO 2 could adversely affect sensitive populations, particularly infants and children. A study assessing PM 2.5 levels in Nairobi identified seven monitoring sites based on land use types, employing low-cost sensors and cyclone samplers for measurement. Results showed that PM 2.5 concentrations peaked in industrial areas (111.87 µg/m³) and were lowest in forested areas (21.25 µg/m³). Daily variations in PM 2.5 levels correlated with human activities and atmospheric conditions, indicating differing exposure risks among residents in various land use settings (Caroline et al. 2021). Airborne particulate matter posed a significant environmental challenge worldwide, primarily due to its adverse effects on health and the environment. Many developing nations are working to establish standards for particulate matter to mitigate its impacts. Jimoda ( 2012 ) critically evaluated how particulate matter affects air quality, human health, and damages to materials, vegetation, soil, and water bodies. Gurusamy et al. (2021) investigated the impact of Saharan dust events on particulate matter concentrations in Mexico, comparing data from days affected by Saharan dust to non-Saharan days. Their findings indicated significant increases in PM 10 and PM 2.5 levels during dust events, highlighting correlations with COVID-19 case numbers and underscoring the need for improved air quality measures in the post-pandemic context. These studies indicated that sand dust contributed to particulate matter levels, raising concerns about its health effects in Korea. Research showed that particulate matter can infiltrate the respiratory system through various mechanisms, resulting in oxidative stress, inflammation, and heightened risks for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, including lung cancer. The article further suggested that effective management strategies are essential to mitigate particulate matter exposure and its associated health risks (Jun, 2016). This research has showed that ambient air pollution, including particulate matter and gaseous pollutants, constitutes a major environmental risk factor for health. Particulate matter comprises a mixture of small particles and droplets that contain various components such as acids, metals, and soil. Numerous studies have linked particulate matter inhalation to a range of health issues, including asthma, lung cancer, and cardiovascular diseases (An-Soo, 2014). An investigation into the effects of air pollution on urban competitiveness in Africa revealed that PM 2.5 levels negatively affect firm performance regarding employment and productivity growth. The data suggested an initially positive relationship between pollution and productivity, which turns negative as pollution levels rise, identifying specific thresholds for significant effects (Donkelaar et al., 2016). In Bosnia and Herzegovina, ambient PM 2.5 pollution is responsible for a considerable proportion of deaths, with estimates suggesting that reducing PM levels could significantly enhance life expectancy in impacted cities (Vlatka et al., 2020). Virginia et al. (2021) employed data envelopment analysis to compare health systems across 140 countries concerning life expectancy, estimating potential improvements based on current efficiency levels. Their analysis suggested that lower unemployment and income inequality could enhance life expectancy without necessitating increased healthcare expenditures. Moreover, a study investigating life expectancy determinants in the world's most polluted nations found that environmental degradation poses a health threat. In contrast, health expenditure, access to clean water, and improved sanitation positively influence life expectancy. The results illuminated various causal relationships between carbon emissions and life expectancy (Mohammad et al., 2022). Lastly, a comprehensive review of global healthcare data revealed strong correlations between causes of death, healthcare quality, and socio-economic factors. This study enriches the existing literature by analyzing global trends in mortality causes and regional disparities, suggesting that socio-economic conditions significantly impact health outcomes (Simona-Andree et al., 2021). 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 MATERIALS Materials used for the research include field data for toxic elements. Software used for statistical analysis include: Origin and MS excel. Funnels, petri dish, sellotapes, writing markers, plastic containers used for field work. 3.2 METHOD Six locations were selected across the country to reflect the geology and climatic zones of the Nigeria. This includes: Benin, Kano, Abuja, Lagos, Enugu and Calabar. Gravitational settling method was adopted for data collection, allowing airborne particles to settle naturally into the container along with rainwater. Funnels were securely attached to clean, empty containers, which were placed outdoors for a duration of nine months, from January to September 2023 at different sample locations to collect airborne particles and the samples collected were grouped as single locations across different geographical locations in Nigeria. Subsequently, the samples were treated and moved to air quality control laboratory for spectroscopic analysis During the spectroscopic analysis, the sediments extracted from the liquid were dried through heating. The analysis focused on the following elements: arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), manganese (Mn), ammonia (NH 3 ), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), chloride (Cl), aluminum (Al), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), potassium (K), nitrite (NO 2 ), nitrate (NO 3 ), and fluoride (Fl). Additionally, the salinity and conductivity of the collected liquid samples were tested. All results were compiled and organized into tables. The detailed analysis for each element is presented below. 4.0 RESULTS OF ANALYSIS Table Fig. 1 represents average AQI for particulate matter 2.5, toxic and carcinogenic elements such as; Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F, for the following cities; Benin, (Kano), (Abuja), (Lagos), (Enugu), Calabar across Nigeria. The AQI colour codes are reflected on the bars indicating the health concern and air pollution levels. It was observed from the figure that PM 2.5 , Pb, Ni, Mn reflected a colour code of maroon signifying hazardous nature, Cd had red colour code signifying unhealthy air AQI, Fe and Cr, orange colour code signifying a unhealthy condition for some group of people, K had yellow colour code which is moderate and other elements such as Al, CO, Cu, Zn, NO 2 , NO 3 and F had green colour code which is rated as good/satisfactory for human consumption. PM 2.5 had an AQI of 1350, which was the highest compared to other pollutants. PM 2.5 according to the health concern level is Hazardous to humans and could possibly lead to health issues such as; Higher risk of heart attack due to inflammation and stress on the cardiovascular system, Stroke : Increased risk of strokes Hypertension : Elevated blood pressure Atherosclerosis : Acceleration of atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). Others Vulnerable Populations such as children and the elderly. Children are more susceptible due to developing lungs and higher activity levels leading to greater exposure. The elderly are more likely to suffer severe health impacts due to preexisting health conditions. Excessive exposure to PM 2.5 can result in; increased risk of health problems, with heart disease, respiratory conditions, diabetes, asthma and low birth rate. Cadmium (Cd) had an AQI of 183, indicating a very unhealthy health concern. Increased exposure to cadmium might result in the following effects; kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested. Lead (Pb) had an AQI of 566, an indication of hazardous effects on humans. Chronic lead exposure even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits (impairment or decline in mental functions such as memory, attention, problem-solving, reasoning). Nickel (Ni) had an AQI of 458 when computed, which could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of Acute exposure to (Ni) might lead to the following : irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure to (Ni) might result in the following : chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys problems. Manganese (Mn) had an AQI of 443, which is could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level in Table 1 . Possible effects of exposure to (Mn) include; Neurological Symptoms : Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitive Impairment : High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues : Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage : Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function. Chromium (Cr) has an AQI of 106, which is unhealthy to some group of people by health concern table specification. Excessive exposure to chromium could be highly toxic to humans which may lead to lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis and nasal irritation or ulcer. Direct contact with the skin can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions. Excessive exposure to chromium can lead to kidney damage and liver effects, stomach pain, DNA damage, birth defects and fertility issues. Iron (Fe) has an AQI of 130, which is unhealthy for some sensitive group as specified by the WHO health concern level. However, excessive exposure to iron can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, liver damage, cirrhosis, increased risk of liver cancer, heart issues such as irregular heartbeats, heart failure and other cardiovascular problems, diabetes, genetic consequences like hemochromatosis (high absorption of iron), promote growth of bacteria and pathogens and increase risk of infections. Potassium (K) has an AQI of 86, which is moderate and acceptable as specified by WHO health concern level. Potassium is crucial for various physiological functions, including: Fluid Balance : Potassium helps regulate fluid balance in the body and is essential for maintaining proper hydration levels, Nerve Function : It is important for proper nerve function, including muscle contractions and signal transmission, Heart Health : Potassium supports healthy heart function by helping to regulate blood pressure and reducing the risk of stroke and heart disease, Muscle Function : It aids in muscle contraction and prevents muscle cramps and weakness, Bone Health : Potassium helps in maintaining bone health by reducing the loss of calcium from the body, Kidney Function : It assists in proper kidney function and helps prevent kidney stones, Blood Pressure Regulation : Adequate potassium intake helps balance sodium levels and reduces blood pressure. NO 2 has an AQI of 32.83 which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by WHO health concern. Nitrites (NO₂⁻) are compounds that are used primarily in food preservation such as processed meats, drinking water, food additives, food Safety. Aluminum (Al) has an AQI of 30, which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by WHO health concern. Aluminum is a compound used in antacids and vaccines. It is used in water treatment and to remove impurities. Floride (F) has an AQI of 11 which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by W.H.O health concern. F is beneficial to Dental Health and Prevents of Tooth Decay , Reduction of Cavities : Regular use of fluoride can reduce the incidence of cavities, especially in children. Copper (Cu) has an AQI of 11.53, which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by W.H.O health concern. Cu is essential for cellular energy production, iron metabolism and formation of hemoglobin, connective tissues (synthesis of collagen and elastin), nervous system (role of synthesis of neurotransmitters including dopamine and serotonin). Cu supports the immune system and helps in the development and maintenance of immune cells and protects cells from oxidative damage. NO 3 has an AQI of 4.16 which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by WHO health concern. Nitrates themselves are have positive effects through their dietary sources: Cardiovascular Health : Nitrates from vegetables can convert to nitric oxide in the body, which helps to relax blood vessels and improve blood flow. This can contribute to lower blood pressure and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, Athletic Performance : Nitrate-rich foods, particularly beetroot, have been shown to enhance exercise performance and endurance by improving oxygen utilization and reducing the oxygen cost of exercise, Nutrient Supply : Vegetables high in nitrates also provide other essential nutrients, including vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, which are beneficial for overall health. CO has an AQI of 3.13 which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by W.H.O health concern. sources like soil and through food chain. Cobalt is important in vitamin B12 component which is essential for the production of red blood cells, DNA synthesis and proper neurological function. In cellular function, cobalt is vital for the formation of red blood cells and maintenance of nerve cells. It plays a role in the metabolism of fatty acids. Zinc (Zn) has an AQI of 1.43, which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by W.H.O health concern. Zinc at moderate limit is essential for numerous bodily functions, including: strengthening the human body immune system, helping to fight off bacteria and viruses. It is essential in Wound Healing and good skin health, Protein and DNA Synthesis: Zinc is involved in the creation of proteins and DNA, the genetic material in cells, Growth and Development: It is essential for proper growth and development during pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence, Enzyme Function: Zinc acts as a cofactor for over 300 enzymes, supporting various metabolic processes, Taste and Smell: Zinc is important for maintaining the sense of taste and smell, Cell Division: It plays a role in cell division and replication, Cognitive Function: Adequate zinc levels are associated with better cognitive performance. Figure 2 to 7 represents results of AQI for heavy metals and toxic within the following cities in Nigeria; Benin, Kano, Abuja, Lagos, Enugu, Cross River. The elements include; Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F, Na. The observation is written below the figures. The Maroon coloured plot signifies hazardous health concern, Purple is very unfriendly, Red is unhealthy, Orange is unhealthy to sensitive groups, Moderate/ acceptable and Green is good /satisfactory. Figure 2 represents a representation of AQI in Benin city, Edo, state Nigeria for the following elements; Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F, and Na. results reveal that AQI for Ni and Pb were 550 and 400 respectively which indicates Hazardous health condition and it is represented with maroon colour. Mn had AQI of 160, which falls under unhealthy health condition. Cd had an AQI of 133 which falls under unhealth health concern as stipulated by W. H.O. Cr, Fe, K, and Na are represented with yellow bars with AQI of 100, 96.6, 82.8, 53; indicating a moderate and acceptable AQI in Benin. Others such as; Al, Co, Cu, Zn, NO 2 , NO 3 ; had AQI of 4.6, 6.9,0.8. 32, 3, 6.6 individually, which were within the good/ moderate health condition level. Long-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys. Excessive exposure to Ni could result in; Acute Toxicity: which could lead to skin irritation, allergic reactions and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis. It could lead to Chronic Toxicity: severe health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage. Dermatitis: can cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as "nickel itch." Potential effects of manganese toxicity include: Neurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitive Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function. Cadmium (Cd) can cause serious health issues such as kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested. FIGURE 3 AQI OF HEAVY METALS AND ELEMENTS IN KANU STATE Figure 3 is a representation of AQI for the following elements; Cd, Ni Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, No2, No3, F and Na, in Kano state, Nigeria. The results show very high AQI of Pb followed by Ni Which is 800 and 490 respectively which is hazardous to residents occupying these cities. Cadmium had AQI of 233.3 which could be very unfriendly to residents. Mn and Fe could be unhealthy to humans with AQI OF 200 and 170 respectively. K had AQI of 105.5 indicating a unhealthy health condition. Al, Co, Cu, Zn, No2, NO3, F, Na were within the range of 0 to 100 which is classified as good/ satisfactory or moderate. Long-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys. Excessive exposure to Ni could result in; Acute Toxicity which could lead to skin irritation, allergic reactions, and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis. Chronic Toxicity severe health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage. Dermatitis can cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as "nickel itch." Effects of Excess Manganese (Mn) While manganese is essential, excess intake can lead to toxicity, especially in individuals with impaired liver function. Potential effects of manganese toxicity include: Neurological Symptoms Excessive manganese consumption can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitive Impairment High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function. Excessive exposure chromium (Cr) could be highly toxic to the humans which may lead to lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis and nasal irritation or ulcer. Direct contact with the skin can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions. Excessive exposure to chromium can lead to kidney damage and liver effects, stomach pain, DNA damage, birth defects and fertility issues. However, excessive exposure to iron (Fe) can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, liver damage, cirrhosis, increased risk of liver cancer, heart issues such as irregular heartbeats, heart failure and other cardiovascular problems, diabetes. Excess iron in the body can lead to genetic consequences like hemochromatosis (high absorption of iron), promote growth of bacteria and pathogens and increase risk of infections. Cadmium (Cd) is a metal that is chemically similar to zinc and mercury. They are primarily used in batteries, pigments, coatings and electroplating. They are highly toxic and can cause serious health issues such as kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested. Cadmium is a metal which has no known beneficial function to the human body. It is toxin to both plants and animals. It is usually concentrated in the kidney and liver of the human body. Manganese (Mn) could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of exposure include; Neurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitiv e Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function. Figure 4 depicts AQI in Abuja, Nigeria for the following elements, Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F, and Na. result uncovers that AQI of Pb and Ni were hazardous with numerical value of 600 and 490 individually. Cd, Mn, and Fe had a unhealthy AQI of the order 166.6, 200 and 160 respectively. Other elements such as; Cr, Al, Co, Cu, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F and Na had a moderate or good AQI which was within the range of 0 .4 to 80.3. Long-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys. Manganese (Mn) can be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of exposure include; Neurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitive Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function. Increased exposure to cadmium (Cd) might result in the following effects; kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested. However, excessive exposure to iron Fe can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, liver damage, cirrhosis, increased risk of liver cancer, heart issues such as irregular heartbeats, heart failure and other cardiovascular problems, diabetes. Excess iron in the body can lead to genetic consequences like hemochromatosis (high absorption of iron), promote growth of bacteria and pathogens and increase risk of infections. Excessive exposure to Ni could result in; Acute Toxicity: which could lead to skin irritation, allergic reactions, and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis. Chronic Toxicity : severe health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage. Dermatitis : can cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as "nickel itch." FIGURE 5 AQI OF HEAVY METALS AND ELEMENTS IN LAGOS STATE Figure 5 indicates AQI for Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F, and Na. in Lagos ,Nigeria. results shows that Ni had highest amount of AQI which is 430 then followed by Pb with 300 and Mn with 240. Ni is classified to be hazadous as specified by W.H.O AQI standard while Pb and Mn falls under very unhealthy health condition. Cd had AQI of 200 which is unhealthy while Cr and Fe had AQI of 110 and 103.3 indicating heath condition which is unhealthy to some sensitive group of people. Al, CO, Cu, Zn, NO 2 , NO 3 , F and Na has air quality index within the range 94.2 to 0.40 which lie between the moderate region and the satisfactory region. However, excessive exposure to iron (Fe) can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, liver damage, cirrhosis, increased risk of liver cancer, heart issues such as irregular heartbeats, heart failure and other cardiovascular problems, diabetes. Excess iron in the body can lead to genetic consequences like hemochromatosis (high absorption of iron), promote growth of bacteria and pathogens and increase risk of infections. Long-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys. Mn in excess could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of exposure include; Neurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitive Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function. Excessive exposure to Ni can result in; Acute Toxicity: High levels of nickel exposure can cause skin irritation, allergic reactions, and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis. Chronic Toxicity: Long-term exposure to high levels of nickel can lead to more severe health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage. Dermatitis: Prolonged skin contact with nickel-containing products can cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as "nickel itch." Increased exposure to cadmium might result in the following effects; kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested. Excessive exposure chromium (Cr) could be highly toxic to the humans which may lead to lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis and nasal irritation or ulcer. Direct contact with the skin can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions. Excessive exposure to chromium can lead to kidney damage and liver effects, stomach pain, DNA damage, birth defects and fertility issues. Figure 6 reveals AQI for Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F, and Na. in Enugu ,Nigeria. Result suggests that Mn had highest AQI with numerical value of 1600 followed by Pb with AQI of 500 and Ni with AQI of 310. Mn, Pb and Ni is in the hazadous region which could have unncessary negative effects on humans. Cd had AQI of 166 with is classified as unhealthy to human exposure while Fe had AQI of 120 which Is unhealthy to few people who are susceptible. Cr, Al, Co, Cu, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F and Na was in the range ; 100 to 0.415 which is acceptable or satisfactory to humans. An Increased exposure to cadmium might result in the following effects; kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested. Effects of Ni if in Excess Acute Toxicity: High levels of nickel exposure can cause skin irritation, allergic reactions, and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis. Chronic Toxicity: Long-term exposure to high levels of nickel can lead to more severe health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage. Dermatitis: Prolonged skin contact with nickel-containing products can cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as "nickel itch." Long-term exposure to Lead (Pb) even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys. Manganese (Mn) could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of exposure include; Neurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitive Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function. Figure 7 shows AQI for the following; Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F, and Na in Calabar, Cross River state, Nigeria.. Result suggests that Pb had highest AQI with numerical value of 800 followed by Ni with AQI OF 480 in the hazadous region. Mn had AQI of 260 which is classified as very unhealthy to residents. Cd had AQI of 200 which is unhealthy as well. Fe and Cr had AQI of 133.3 and 120 which is unhealthy to some sensitive group of people. Other elements such as; Al, Co, Cu, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F, Na were within the good region or moderate region. Manganese (Mn) could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of exposure include; Neurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitive Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function. Long-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure : chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys. Excessive exposure to Ni can result in the following: Acute Toxicity : High levels of nickel exposure can cause skin irritation, allergic reactions, and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis. Chronic Toxicity : Long-term exposure to high levels of nickel can lead to more severe health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage. Dermatitis : Prolonged skin contact with nickel-containing products can cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as "nickel itch." Excessive exposure to chromium (Cr) could be highly toxic to the humans which may lead to lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis and nasal irritation or ulcer. Direct contact with the skin can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions. Excessive exposure to chromium can lead to kidney damage and liver effects, stomach pain, DNA damage, birth defects and fertility issues. However, excessive exposure to iron (Fe) can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, liver damage, cirrhosis, increased risk of liver cancer, heart issues such as irregular heartbeats, heart failure and other cardiovascular problems, diabetes. Excess iron in the body can lead to genetic consequences like hemochromatosis (high absorption of iron), promote growth of bacteria and pathogens and increase risk of infections. Long-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure : chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys. 4.1 DISCUSSION The World Health Organization (WHO) has established guidelines specifying concentration limits for various elements and particulate matter to develop Air Quality Index (AQI) systems, which translate pollutant concentrations into index scores indicating health risks. In Nigeria, cities such as Benin (Edo State), Kano, Abuja, Lagos, Enugu, and Calabar (Cross River) have been assessed for AQI levels of particulate matter (PM 2.5 ), toxic elements (Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F), and other elements. The AQI color codes reflect health concern levels, where PM 2.5 , Pb, Ni, and Mn show hazardous maroon levels, Cd indicates unhealthy red levels, Fe and Cr present unhealthy orange levels for sensitive groups, K shows moderate yellow levels, and elements like Al, Co, Cu, Zn, NO 2 , NO 3 , and F show good green levels. The highest AQI for PM 2.5 (1350) suggests severe health risks, including cardiovascular issues and respiratory conditions. Cd (183) and Pb (566) present very unhealthy and hazardous levels, respectively, with potential effects such as kidney damage, developmental issues in children, and chronic health problems in adults. Ni (458) and Mn (443) are also hazardous, potentially causing respiratory distress and neurological issues. Fe (130) and Cr (106) show unhealthy levels for sensitive groups, while K (86) is moderate. Other elements like NO 2 (32.83), Al (30), F (11), Cu (11.53), NO 3 (4.16), CO (3.13), and Zn (1.43) fall within the good range, indicating minimal health risks at those concentrations. Specific city data further emphasize the varying AQI levels and associated health risks, with Benin showing hazardous levels for Ni and Pb, Kano revealing very unhealthy Pb and Ni levels, Abuja highlighting hazardous Pb and Ni, Lagos indicating hazardous Ni, and Enugu presenting extremely high AQI for Mn, Pb, and Ni, all necessitating urgent attention to mitigate adverse health impacts. 4.2 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 4.2.1 Summary The World Health Organization (WHO) has established guidelines for air quality, using concentration limits of various elements and particulate matter to create the Air Quality Index (AQI). In Nigeria, cities such as Benin, Kano, Abuja, Lagos, Enugu, and Calabar have been assessed for AQI levels of PM 2.5 , toxic elements (Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO 2 , NO 3 , F), and other elements. The AQI levels are represented by colour codes indicating health risks, with PM 2.5 , Pb, Ni, and Mn showing the most hazardous levels, followed by Cd, Fe, and Cr. Elements like Al, Co, Cu, Zn, NO2, NO3, and F are within the good range. Specific city data reveal varying AQI levels and associated health risks, with significant concerns in Benin, Kano, Abuja, Lagos, and Enugu due to high levels of hazardous elements. 4.2.2 Conclusion The AQI assessments indicate severe health risks in several Nigerian cities due to high levels of PM 2.5 , Pb, Ni, and Mn. Immediate actions are required to mitigate these risks, especially in cities like Benin, Kano, Abuja, Lagos, and Enugu, where the AQI for certain elements is alarmingly high. Effective measures and interventions are essential to improve air quality and protect public health in these areas. 4.3 Funding Declaration : The authors of this article gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Nigerian National Research Fund through the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND), which enabled the successful completion of this project. 4.3.1 Acknowledgements: We wish to express our gratitude to Penn State University for providing data on air quality over Nigeria. We also recognize the Centre for Atmospheric Research (CAR) at the National Space Research Development Agency (NASRDA) in Nigeria for their technical support. Special thanks are also extended to OPENAQ, an American-based organization, for donating low-cost air quality monitoring sensors in support of this project. 4.3.2 Consent to participate and publish I, Professor Igwe O. Ewona hereby give my consent to be one of a Co-author of “EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER IN NIGERIA” having made useful contributions to the article. There is no ethical issue since this does not have to do with human or animal products or specimens. I, B. J. Ekah , consent to being involved in the research titled “EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER IN NIGERIA” I fully understand the purpose of the research and confirm that my participation was voluntary. I contributed to the study ethically and in an informed manner. I, U. J. Akwagiobe , willingly agree to participate in the study titled “EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER IN NIGERIA” . I was made aware of all aspects of the research and choose to take part voluntarily. My participation was ethical, and I played an active role in the research process. I, Prof. S. O. Udo hereby affirm my consent to participate in the research titled “EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER IN NIGERIA” . I was provided with the necessary information about the study and I partook in the research voluntarily. My involvement was ethical and meaningful. I, Prof. B. Rabiu , acknowledge that I gave my informed consent to participate in the research titled “EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER IN NIGERIA” . I understand the research’s nature and agreed to be part of it voluntarily. My participation was conducted ethically, and I contributed fully to the study. Declarations Author Contribution B. J. Ekah contributed as an author, actively participating in field work, research compilation, and analysis, while also managing the overall research process.I. O. 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Impacts from economic development and environmental factors on life expectancy: A comparative study based on data from both developed and developing countries from 2004 to 2016. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 18(16), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168378 Zghaid, M., Noack, Y., Bounakla, M., & Benyaich, F. (2009). Pollution atmosphérique particulate dans la ville de Kenitra (Maroc). 2268–3798. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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O Ewona","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Cross River State","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"I.","middleName":"O","lastName":"Ewona","suffix":""},{"id":367004594,"identity":"e5cfb0cc-4935-46ec-aa88-5e1820d05b94","order_by":1,"name":"B. J Ekah","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA3klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZiB+AMQSDMwHQJQMcVoSwFrYwBQPcTZBtPAYgNiEtci3c6c9SKiok5Ns7/n86kaNBQ8D++GjG/BpMTjMu90g4cxhY2mes9usc44BHcaTlnYDrxZm3m0SiW0HEudJ5G4zzmEDapHgMcOrRb4ZpOVfXf08+TfPjHP+EaGF4TBISwNzgrQED/Pj3DYitED8cuyw4cyeNDPm3D4JHjZCfpHvP7vtwYeaOnmJ44cff875VifHz374GH6HMTCwwRkSKFxitDB/IEL1KBgFo2AUjEAAABMPRFAajIGeAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of Calabar","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"B.","middleName":"J","lastName":"Ekah","suffix":""},{"id":367004595,"identity":"30aea65e-a117-4910-9fbd-73c21416d2c7","order_by":2,"name":"J. U Akwagiobe","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Calabar","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"J.","middleName":"U","lastName":"Akwagiobe","suffix":""},{"id":367004596,"identity":"6bc187fd-0e11-47e6-8138-94b96d8b3ca0","order_by":3,"name":"S. O Udo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Calabar","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"S.","middleName":"O","lastName":"Udo","suffix":""},{"id":367004597,"identity":"c1fcf99e-451d-4d98-8580-05cf2e25c921","order_by":4,"name":"B. Rabiu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"United Nation African Regional Centre for Space Science Technology and Education- English, (UN-ARCSSTE-E), (Affiliated to the United Nations, Obafemi Awolowo University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"B.","middleName":"","lastName":"Rabiu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-09-17 22:21:18","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5105755/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5105755/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":69658684,"identity":"39f802d6-f7e4-4d1f-8263-7434f4811d81","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-22 18:19:18","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":191672,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAVERAGED AQI FOR PARTICULATE MATTER, HEAVY METALS AND TOXIC ELEMENTS IN 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3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":194370,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAQI OF HEAVY METALS AND ELEMENTS IN KANU STATE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5105755/v1/3e4639bf00fa16a56ae31194.jpg"},{"id":69658686,"identity":"29621d11-9df5-4c3b-bf95-5c0ec50669ef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-22 18:19:18","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":205848,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAQI OF HEAVY METALS AND ELEMENTS IN ABUJA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5105755/v1/18a192aa820ce3ac33fa6b0e.jpg"},{"id":69659430,"identity":"90f38887-3264-418d-91aa-45fbfe03b65b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-22 18:35:18","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":196432,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAQI OF HEAVY METALS AND ELEMENTS IN LAGOS STATE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5105755/v1/025500b401f10a3e345e7be1.jpg"},{"id":69658682,"identity":"764affb8-4cf1-408b-99b9-ea778daf1ef8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-22 18:19:18","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":190826,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAQI OF HEAVY METALS AND ELEMENTS IN ENUGU\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5105755/v1/b238fb41a02c6bc60abbc805.jpg"},{"id":69658685,"identity":"af67b0e9-def1-4812-86e5-ad15d4ea7e9e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-22 18:19:18","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":185309,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAQI OF HEAVY METALS AND ELEMENTS IN CALABAR, CROSS RIVER\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5105755/v1/10aeb905e84a6b66a57235a0.jpg"},{"id":70971358,"identity":"cc09c5fe-1377-4e23-a558-31feab6d4b16","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-09 17:46:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2286873,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5105755/v1/f1276722-3149-43a3-8716-cea3923bd122.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eEvaluation of Chemical and Elemental Analyses of Airborne Particulate Matter in Nigeria\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1.0 INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.1 Air Pollution: A Major Global Health Threat\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew findings underscore the profound effects of air pollution on global health. According to the Health Effects Institute\u0026apos;s (HEI) Special Report on the State of Global Air (SOGA, 2020), air pollution ranks as the fourth most significant cause of premature death worldwide, making it responsible for nearly twelve percent of global fatalities. It reduces life expectancy by an average of 2.2 years, with around seven million deaths annually attributed to air pollution. In West Africa, more than 80% of urban residents are exposed to air quality levels that exceed the World Health Organization\u0026apos;s (WHO, 2016) recommended limits. A study in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, led by Udo and Ewona and supported by TET Fund, has identified high levels of pollution in the area. The study utilized air quality assessments using gravity settling method for air sample collection (Udo et al., 2018b; 2018c; 2020b; 2020c; Ewona et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Ewona et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccording to the WHO (2020) and WHO (2021), cardiovascular diseases (CVDs\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e (diseases caused or exacerbated by air pollution) are the leading cause of death globally. An estimated 17.9 million people died from CVDs in 2019, representing 32% of all global deaths. Of these deaths, 85% were due to heart attack and stroke.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNoncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are diseases caused by air pollution, and are now considered to be the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. These diseases include conditions such as Parkinson\u0026apos;s disease (progressive neurological disease that primarily affects movement), stroke, heart disease, various cancers, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease). NCDs affect numerous organ systems, including cardiovascular, neurological, and respiratory systems. There is increasing evidence that air pollution exacerbates the incidence and severity of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, as well as lung cancer, with potential impacts on other organs (Ewona et al. 2024; Udo, S. O. 2020; Ewona et al. 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAir pollution arises from a variety of natural and anthropogenic sources, with combustion being the primary contributor. The burning of fossil fuels and biomass for energy generation is a significant source of pollution from both indoor and outdoor environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.2 Sources of Air Pollutants\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.2.1 Indoor Sources\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHeating using contaminated fuels (such as coal, wood, or dung)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnvented stoves for cooking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurning of animal fur while cooking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTobacco smoke (smoking)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCombustion during religious and cultural practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUse of kerosene stoves\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUse of incense and kerosene lamps\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRenovations and cleaning products (e.g., detergents, insecticides)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOperation of electrical devices like printers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.2.2 Outdoor Sources\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransportation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePower generation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConstruction activities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndustrial emissions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRefuse burning\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiomass burning\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLong-range atmospheric transport of pollutants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAirborne pollutants include particulate matter (PM), specifically PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e and PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e, along with gaseous pollutants such as ammonia (NH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e), carbon monoxide (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), nitrogen dioxide (NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), sulfur dioxide (SO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), ground level ozone (O\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e), and various organic air pollutants. These pollutants have severe negative effects on human health and the environment.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResearch by Tamuno et al. (2022) highlights that the visible presence of soot in Nigeria\u0026apos;s Niger Delta region has resulted in increased respiratory infections. Air pollution is believed to be an escalating cause of illness and death in Nigeria, especially in regions like Rivers State, which is responsible for 60% of the country\u0026rsquo;s crude oil production (Whyte et al., 2020). There is an urgent need to investigate the sources of soot and develop strategies to mitigate its effects, along with public health initiatives to raise awareness about the health risks associated with particulate matter.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParticulate matter pollution poses a serious health risk, especially at high concentrations. The size of particulate matter influences its persistence in the atmosphere and its deposition in the human respiratory system. Burning solid fuels such as coal and biomass is a major source of anthropogenic particulate matter.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChlorine gas is another harmful pollutant, with even small exposures leading to serious health issues such as; pulmonary edema (excess fluid in the lungs), pneumonitis (inflammation of lung tissue), emphysema (air sack within the lungs loses its elasticity), bronchitis (inflammation of the brachial tube. The air ways that carry air to and from the lungs), and irritation of the eyes, throat, and nose. Additionally, particulate matter significantly contributes to climate change and poses health risks. In the upper atmosphere, it alters the Earth\u0026apos;s radiation balance and cloud formation, while in the lower atmosphere, it reduces visibility and disrupts biogeochemical cycles (natural process that recycles elements and nutrients essential for life). The most significant health impacts are observed in ambient air, where particulate matter detrimentally affects human health (Arideep, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.3 Emission Sources and Exposure\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe study investigates the concentration of PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e and its potentially toxic elements (PTEs) from different road networks in Ibadan, Nigeria, and assesses the associated human health risks. PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e samples were collected during the harmattan period from national highway roads (NHR), inner-city major roads (ICR), and remote roads (RRD). Results obtained from the analysis showed that PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e concentrations exceeded World Health Organization (W.H.O), United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and United Kingdom Environmental Protection Agency (UKEPA) standards by more than threefold. Key toxic elements such as Ba, Cd, Cu, La, Mn, Pb, and V were highest at National High Road, while Al, Fe, Mo, and Zn were highest at Inner-City Major Roads (ICR). The study\u0026apos;s principal component analysis (PCA) linked specific elements to both exhaust and non-exhaust emissions. The enrichment factor (EF) analysis indicated moderate to very high enrichment of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in NHR and Inner-City Major Roads (ICR), with Al, Fe, and Mn being less enriched. The hazard quotient (HQ) and carcinogenic risk (CR) for key elements remained within permissible levels (Kolawole and Olatunji, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAir pollution is a globally recognized issue driven by various discharge sources, both natural and man-made, largely due to industrialization. According to the WHO, it states that combustion processes for energy generation are the primary contributors to air pollution. This includes burning fossil fuels in unvented heating and cooking stoves, as well as tobacco combustion for cultural / religious practices. Other outdoor combustion sources include transportation, biomass burning, industrial activities, power generation, and agricultural waste burning, particularly in urban settings (US EPA, 2010, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020, Ewona et al.2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAir pollution is linked to numerous health issues. PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e exposure is associated with human mortality (incidence of death within a population), morbidity (rate of disease, illness or health condition within a population), asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (lung disease characterized by air flow obstruction), pulmonary fibrosis, cancer, type 2 diabetes (insufficient insulin in the body to produce enough glucose can enter the body cell), and neurodegenerative diseases (disorder characterized by dead nerve cells or neurons in the brain). Developed countries have made advancements in addressing these challenges due to access to environmental quality data, while developing countries continue to struggle with insufficient records (Abulude et al., 2022; Ekah, 2023, Ewona et al.2022). The effects of air pollution include premature mortality and various diseases such as coronary heart disease (blockage in coronary tube), type 2 diabetes, breast cancer, and colon cancer (Slezakova et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.4 Air Quality Guidelines\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn developing nations like Nigeria, adhering to WHO air quality guidelines is particularly crucial due to the high vulnerability of populations to pollution-related health issues. As these countries often face rapid urbanization and industrialization, maintaining updated air quality guidelines (AQGs) can help protect public health, especially for vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly. Regularly updated guidelines can guide policies and interventions to address local pollution challenges, ensuring that measures to reduce pollutants like PM and ozone are based on the latest scientific evidence. This approach helps mitigate health risks and supports sustainable development in these rapidly growing economies. To reduce air pollution emissions, it is essential to improve public transportation systems and promote non-motorized modes of transport, such as cycling, walking, and the use of horse-drawn vehicles. Planting trees along major roadways can help trap and absorb pollutants, while discouraging the use of older vehicles that emit higher levels of pollutants is also crucial (Tunde et al., 2022)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eBRIEF EXPLANATION ABOUT AIR QUALITY INDEX (AQI)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Air Quality Index (AQI) is a tool used to communicate the quality of the air in a particular area to the public. It simplifies a range of data on various pollutants into a single number and colour-coded system that is easy to understand. The AQI provides information about how clean or polluted the air is and what associated health effects might be a concern for the population.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTABLE \u0026nbsp;1 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;AQI FOR PARTICULATE MATTER, TOXIC ELEMENTS AND HEAVY METALS AND HEALTH CONCERN LEVEL\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable style=\"width: 688px;margin-left: -3.6pt;border-collapse: collapse;border: none;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156.35pt;border: 1pt solid windowtext;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 29.5pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0cm;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eAQI Value\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-left: none;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 29.5pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eAQI annual colour code\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130.5pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-left: none;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 29.5pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eHealth Concern Level\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 112.35pt;border-top: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-left: none;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 29.5pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eAir Pollution Level\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156.35pt;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e0-50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(146, 208, 80);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eGreen\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130.5pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(146, 208, 80);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eGood/satisfactory\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 112.35pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(146, 208, 80);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eLevel 1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156.35pt;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 29pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e51-100\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: yellow;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 29pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eYellow\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130.5pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: yellow;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 29pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eModerate/ acceptable\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 112.35pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: yellow;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 29pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eLevel 2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156.35pt;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 26.5pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e101-150\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(255, 192, 0);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 26.5pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eOrange\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130.5pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(255, 192, 0);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 26.5pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0cm;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eUnhealthy for sensitive groups\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 112.35pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(255, 192, 0);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 26.5pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eLevel 3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156.35pt;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 22pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e151-200\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: red;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 22pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eRed\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130.5pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: red;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 22pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eUnhealthy\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 112.35pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: red;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 22pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eLevel 4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156.35pt;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 24pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e201-300\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(151, 92, 203);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 24pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003ePurple\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130.5pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(151, 92, 203);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 24pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eVery Unhealthy\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 112.35pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(151, 92, 203);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 24pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eLevel 5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 156.35pt;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-left: 1pt solid windowtext;border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 32.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e301-above\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(220, 57, 57);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 32.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eMaroon\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 130.5pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(220, 57, 57);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 32.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eHazardous\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 112.35pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext;border-right: 1pt solid windowtext;background: rgb(220, 57, 57);padding: 0cm 5.4pt;height: 32.05pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0cm;margin-right:0cm;margin-bottom:0cm;margin-left:0cm;line-height: normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eLevel 6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(USEPA, 2012; W.H.O, 2012)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e represents AQI as prepared by W.H.O. This guideline specify concentration limits for elements and particulate matter. Countries often use this guidelines to develop their own AQI systems which translate pollutant concentrations into index score that indicates the level of health risk.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe AQI is estimated by the expression in Eq.\u0026nbsp;1 below;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAQI = \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{Concentration}{W.H.O\\:standard}\\times\\:100\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e 1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLife Expectancy and Health Issues: A Global Perspective\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examines the health risks associated with trace elements in drinking water and food, focusing on various regions in Nigeria. Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) such as goiter were prevalent in areas underlain by metamorphic and younger granite rocks, while sedimentary terrains exhibit lower incidences. Dental fluorosis, resulting from excessive fluoride ingestion, affected populations in both crystalline and sedimentary regions, with no cases reported from coastal areas. Mining and mineral processing activities increased the exposure of trace elements to the environment, releasing them into soils and water bodies. The Jos Plateau in north-central Nigeria experienced abnormally high natural radiation levels, particularly radon gas, and elevated radiation from cassiterite mill tailings, correlating with rising lung cancer rates in the area. Preliminary hydrogeochemical studies revealed high concentrations of potentially harmful elements (PHE) like lead, copper, zinc, and mercury in soils and water near sulfide mineralization and urban centers. The study further highlighted the evolving understanding of the relationship between trace elements and health issues in Nigeria, calling for intensified research by geoscientists in collaboration with community health professionals to better address these environmental health concerns (Lar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavy metal contamination in food crops is an increasingly recognized global health concern, as it leads to toxicity and various diseases in both humans and animals through the consumption of contaminated soil and crops. In Nigeria, this issue is extra demanding due to the country's large population which is estimated at 182\u0026nbsp;million, which is exposed to environmental pollution stemming from the accumulation of heavy metals in the environment and food sources. Heavy metals, defined by their atomic densities exceeding 4 g/cm\u0026sup3;, include elements such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), silver (Ag), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and platinum (Pt). The contamination of food crops by these metals is a serious health hazard because of their uptake by plants and subsequent accumulation in the food chain, which has been linked to adverse health outcomes, including cancer, a disease currently on the rise in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple sources contribute to the presence of heavy metals in the environment. Natural processes release these metals into the food, air, and water, while human activities significantly exacerbate the contamination. The use of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides in agriculture, along with practices such as irrigation, are major contributors. Additionally, industrial activities, automobile emissions, cigarette smoking, paint production, and improper waste disposal further increase the levels of these harmful metals in the environment. Evidence from studies indicates that vegetables and other food crops in Nigeria are contaminated with heavy metals, underscoring the urgent need for communities in highly polluted areas to reduce their consumption of these food items. Continuous monitoring of heavy metal levels in food crops is essential to mitigate the health risks associated with this contamination (Onakpa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaquel et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) studied the global mortality burden linked to anthropogenic ozone and PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e using a global chemical transport model. Their simulations for 2005 estimated that 2.23\u0026nbsp;million deaths annually can be attributed to anthropogenic PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e, with East Asia exhibiting the highest mortality rates. The study revealed significant contributions from the residential and commercial sectors and recommended air pollution control strategies tailored to specific regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eElisaveta et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) provided an overview of particulate matter (PM) pollution in Africa, discussing published monitoring studies, identifying major themes, highlighting data gaps, and proposing strategies to tackle particulate air pollution in rapidly urbanizing cities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrank et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) addressed the necessity of protecting human health from PM pollution generated by various sources, including household biomass combustion, wildfires, desert dust storms, and urban air pollution in growing megacities. Their article emphasized the importance of implementing protective measures for populations in these urban environments and discusses the economic and behavioral challenges linked to sustainable energy use. Key focus areas include regions with high concentrations of airborne particles, effective public awareness campaigns, and empowering communities to improve health and air quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAla\u0026rsquo;a (2021) evaluated PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e and PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e concentration levels in Karbala, Iraq, over a 20-day period from June 1 to July 20, 2015. The study found that concentrations exceeded WHO recommendations, with PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e levels above the guideline by 16% and PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e by 12%. It suggested that reducing PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e density to as low as 3 \u0026micro;g/m\u0026sup3; could significantly lower the risks associated with long-term exposure to lung cancer and cardiopulmonary mortality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Pretoria West, South Africa, Oyewale et al. (2022) assessed health risks posed by PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e, sulfur dioxide (SO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), nitrogen dioxide (NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) using hourly ambient pollution data from 2014. Their findings indicated that while normal exposure levels generally do not present significant health risks, chronic exposure to PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, and SO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e could adversely affect sensitive populations, particularly infants and children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA study assessing PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e levels in Nairobi identified seven monitoring sites based on land use types, employing low-cost sensors and cyclone samplers for measurement. Results showed that PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e concentrations peaked in industrial areas (111.87 \u0026micro;g/m\u0026sup3;) and were lowest in forested areas (21.25 \u0026micro;g/m\u0026sup3;). Daily variations in PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e levels correlated with human activities and atmospheric conditions, indicating differing exposure risks among residents in various land use settings (Caroline et al. 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAirborne particulate matter posed a significant environmental challenge worldwide, primarily due to its adverse effects on health and the environment. Many developing nations are working to establish standards for particulate matter to mitigate its impacts. Jimoda (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) critically evaluated how particulate matter affects air quality, human health, and damages to materials, vegetation, soil, and water bodies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGurusamy et al. (2021) investigated the impact of Saharan dust events on particulate matter concentrations in Mexico, comparing data from days affected by Saharan dust to non-Saharan days. Their findings indicated significant increases in PM\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e and PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e levels during dust events, highlighting correlations with COVID-19 case numbers and underscoring the need for improved air quality measures in the post-pandemic context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese studies indicated that sand dust contributed to particulate matter levels, raising concerns about its health effects in Korea. Research showed that particulate matter can infiltrate the respiratory system through various mechanisms, resulting in oxidative stress, inflammation, and heightened risks for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, including lung cancer. The article further suggested that effective management strategies are essential to mitigate particulate matter exposure and its associated health risks (Jun, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research has showed that ambient air pollution, including particulate matter and gaseous pollutants, constitutes a major environmental risk factor for health. Particulate matter comprises a mixture of small particles and droplets that contain various components such as acids, metals, and soil. Numerous studies have linked particulate matter inhalation to a range of health issues, including asthma, lung cancer, and cardiovascular diseases (An-Soo, 2014).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn investigation into the effects of air pollution on urban competitiveness in Africa revealed that PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e levels negatively affect firm performance regarding employment and productivity growth. The data suggested an initially positive relationship between pollution and productivity, which turns negative as pollution levels rise, identifying specific thresholds for significant effects (Donkelaar et al., 2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Bosnia and Herzegovina, ambient PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e pollution is responsible for a considerable proportion of deaths, with estimates suggesting that reducing PM levels could significantly enhance life expectancy in impacted cities (Vlatka et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVirginia et al. (2021) employed data envelopment analysis to compare health systems across 140 countries concerning life expectancy, estimating potential improvements based on current efficiency levels. Their analysis suggested that lower unemployment and income inequality could enhance life expectancy without necessitating increased healthcare expenditures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, a study investigating life expectancy determinants in the world's most polluted nations found that environmental degradation poses a health threat. In contrast, health expenditure, access to clean water, and improved sanitation positively influence life expectancy. The results illuminated various causal relationships between carbon emissions and life expectancy (Mohammad et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLastly, a comprehensive review of global healthcare data revealed strong correlations between causes of death, healthcare quality, and socio-economic factors. This study enriches the existing literature by analyzing global trends in mortality causes and regional disparities, suggesting that socio-economic conditions significantly impact health outcomes (Simona-Andree et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3.1 MATERIALS\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaterials used for the research include field data for toxic elements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoftware used for statistical analysis include: Origin and MS excel.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFunnels, petri dish, sellotapes, writing markers, plastic containers used for field work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 METHOD\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSix locations were selected across the country to reflect the geology and climatic zones of the Nigeria. This includes: Benin, Kano, Abuja, Lagos, Enugu and Calabar. Gravitational settling method was adopted for data collection, allowing airborne particles to settle naturally into the container along with rainwater.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFunnels were securely attached to clean, empty containers, which were placed outdoors for a duration of nine months, from January to September 2023 at different sample locations to collect airborne particles and the samples collected were grouped as single locations across different geographical locations in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubsequently, the samples were treated and moved to air quality control laboratory for spectroscopic analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the spectroscopic analysis, the sediments extracted from the liquid were dried through heating. The analysis focused on the following elements: arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), manganese (Mn), ammonia (NH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), chloride (Cl), aluminum (Al), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), potassium (K), nitrite (NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), nitrate (NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e), and fluoride (Fl).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the salinity and conductivity of the collected liquid samples were tested. All results were compiled and organized into tables. The detailed analysis for each element is presented below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 RESULTS OF ANALYSIS","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e represents average AQI for particulate matter 2.5, toxic and carcinogenic elements such as; Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F, for the following cities; Benin, \u003cb\u003e(Kano), (Abuja), (Lagos), (Enugu), Calabar\u003c/b\u003e across Nigeria. The AQI colour codes are reflected on the bars indicating the health concern and air pollution levels. It was observed from the figure that PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e, Pb, Ni, Mn reflected a colour code of maroon signifying hazardous nature, Cd had red colour code signifying unhealthy air AQI, Fe and Cr, orange colour code signifying a unhealthy condition for some group of people, K had yellow colour code which is moderate and other elements such as Al, CO, Cu, Zn, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and F had green colour code which is rated as good/satisfactory for human consumption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePM\u003c/b\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cb\u003e2.5\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e had an AQI of 1350, which was the highest compared to other pollutants. PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e according to the health concern level is Hazardous to humans and could possibly lead to health issues such as;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher risk of heart attack due to inflammation and stress on the cardiovascular system,\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eStroke\u003c/b\u003e: Increased risk of strokes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eHypertension\u003c/b\u003e: Elevated blood pressure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAtherosclerosis\u003c/b\u003e: Acceleration of atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). Others\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eVulnerable Populations such as children and the elderly. Children are\u003c/b\u003e more susceptible due to developing lungs and higher activity levels leading to greater exposure. \u003cb\u003eThe elderly are\u003c/b\u003e more likely to suffer severe health impacts due to preexisting health conditions. Excessive exposure to PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e can result in; increased risk of health problems, with heart disease, respiratory conditions, diabetes, asthma and low birth rate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCadmium (Cd)\u003c/b\u003e had an AQI of 183, indicating a very unhealthy health concern. Increased exposure to cadmium might result in the following effects; kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLead (Pb)\u003c/b\u003e had an AQI of 566, an indication of hazardous effects on humans. Chronic lead exposure even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits (impairment or decline in mental functions such as memory, attention, problem-solving, reasoning).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNickel (Ni) had an AQI of 458 when computed, which could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of \u003cb\u003eAcute exposure to (Ni) might lead to the following\u003c/b\u003e: irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. \u003cb\u003eChronic exposure to (Ni) might result in the following\u003c/b\u003e: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eManganese (Mn) had an AQI of 443, which is could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Possible effects of exposure to (Mn) include; \u003cb\u003eNeurological Symptoms\u003c/b\u003e: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. \u003cb\u003eCognitive Impairment\u003c/b\u003e: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. \u003cb\u003eRespiratory Issues\u003c/b\u003e: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. \u003cb\u003eLiver Damage\u003c/b\u003e: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChromium (Cr) has an AQI of 106, which is unhealthy to some group of people by health concern table specification. Excessive exposure to chromium could be highly toxic to humans which may lead to lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis and nasal irritation or ulcer. Direct contact with the skin can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions. Excessive exposure to chromium can lead to kidney damage and liver effects, stomach pain, DNA damage, birth defects and fertility issues.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIron (Fe) has an AQI of 130, which is unhealthy for some sensitive group as specified by the WHO health concern level. However, excessive exposure to iron can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, liver damage, cirrhosis, increased risk of liver cancer, heart issues such as irregular heartbeats, heart failure and other cardiovascular problems, diabetes, genetic consequences like hemochromatosis (high absorption of iron), promote growth of bacteria and pathogens and increase risk of infections.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotassium (K) has an AQI of 86, which is moderate and acceptable as specified by WHO health concern level. Potassium is crucial for various physiological functions, including: \u003cb\u003eFluid Balance\u003c/b\u003e: Potassium helps regulate fluid balance in the body and is essential for maintaining proper hydration levels, \u003cb\u003eNerve Function\u003c/b\u003e: It is important for proper nerve function, including muscle contractions and signal transmission, \u003cb\u003eHeart Health\u003c/b\u003e: Potassium supports healthy heart function by helping to regulate blood pressure and reducing the risk of stroke and heart disease, \u003cb\u003eMuscle Function\u003c/b\u003e: It aids in muscle contraction and prevents muscle cramps and weakness, \u003cb\u003eBone Health\u003c/b\u003e: Potassium helps in maintaining bone health by reducing the loss of calcium from the body, \u003cb\u003eKidney Function\u003c/b\u003e: It assists in proper kidney function and helps prevent kidney stones, \u003cb\u003eBlood Pressure Regulation\u003c/b\u003e: Adequate potassium intake helps balance sodium levels and reduces blood pressure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e has an AQI of 32.83 which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by WHO health concern. Nitrites (NO₂⁻) are compounds that are used primarily in food preservation such as processed meats, drinking water, food additives, food Safety.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAluminum (Al) has an AQI of 30, which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by WHO health concern. Aluminum is a compound used in antacids and vaccines. It is used in water treatment and to remove impurities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFloride (F) has an AQI of 11 which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by W.H.O health concern. F is beneficial to \u003cb\u003eDental Health\u003c/b\u003e and \u003cb\u003ePrevents of Tooth Decay\u003c/b\u003e, \u003cb\u003eReduction of Cavities\u003c/b\u003e: Regular use of fluoride can reduce the incidence of cavities, especially in children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCopper (Cu) has an AQI of 11.53, which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by W.H.O health concern. Cu is essential for cellular energy production, iron metabolism and formation of hemoglobin, connective tissues (synthesis of collagen and elastin), nervous system (role of synthesis of neurotransmitters including dopamine and serotonin). Cu supports the immune system and helps in the development and maintenance of immune cells and protects cells from oxidative damage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e has an AQI of 4.16 which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by WHO health concern. Nitrates themselves are have positive effects through their dietary sources: \u003cb\u003eCardiovascular Health\u003c/b\u003e: Nitrates from vegetables can convert to nitric oxide in the body, which helps to relax blood vessels and improve blood flow. This can contribute to lower blood pressure and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, Athletic \u003cb\u003ePerformance\u003c/b\u003e: Nitrate-rich foods, particularly beetroot, have been shown to enhance exercise performance and endurance by improving oxygen utilization and reducing the oxygen cost of exercise, \u003cb\u003eNutrient Supply\u003c/b\u003e: Vegetables high in nitrates also provide other essential nutrients, including vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, which are beneficial for overall health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCO has an AQI of 3.13 which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by W.H.O health concern. sources like soil and through food chain.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCobalt is important in vitamin B12 component which is essential for the production of red blood cells, DNA synthesis and proper neurological function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn cellular function, cobalt is vital for the formation of red blood cells and maintenance of nerve cells. It plays a role in the metabolism of fatty acids.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eZinc (Zn) has an AQI of 1.43, which is within the good and satisfactory range specified by W.H.O health concern. Zinc at moderate limit is essential for numerous bodily functions, including: strengthening the human body immune system, helping to fight off bacteria and viruses. It is essential in Wound Healing and good skin health, Protein and DNA Synthesis: Zinc is involved in the creation of proteins and DNA, the genetic material in cells, Growth and Development: It is essential for proper growth and development during pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence, Enzyme Function: Zinc acts as a cofactor for over 300 enzymes, supporting various metabolic processes, Taste and Smell: Zinc is important for maintaining the sense of taste and smell, Cell Division: It plays a role in cell division and replication, Cognitive Function: Adequate zinc levels are associated with better cognitive performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e to \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e represents results of AQI for heavy metals and toxic within the following cities in Nigeria; Benin, Kano, Abuja, Lagos, Enugu, Cross River. The elements include; Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F, Na. The observation is written below the figures. The Maroon coloured plot signifies hazardous health concern, Purple is very unfriendly, Red is unhealthy, Orange is unhealthy to sensitive groups, Moderate/ acceptable and Green is good /satisfactory.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e represents a representation of AQI in Benin city, Edo, state Nigeria for the following elements; Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F, and Na. results reveal that AQI for Ni and Pb were 550 and 400 respectively which indicates Hazardous health condition and it is represented with maroon colour. Mn had AQI of 160, which falls under unhealthy health condition. Cd had an AQI of 133 which falls under unhealth health concern as stipulated by W. H.O. Cr, Fe, K, and Na are represented with yellow bars with AQI of 100, 96.6, 82.8, 53; indicating a moderate and acceptable AQI in Benin. Others such as; Al, Co, Cu, Zn, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e; had AQI of 4.6, 6.9,0.8. 32, 3, 6.6 individually, which were within the good/ moderate health condition level.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys. Excessive exposure to Ni could result in; Acute Toxicity: which could lead to skin irritation, allergic reactions and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis. It could lead to Chronic Toxicity: severe health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage. Dermatitis: can cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as \"nickel itch.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotential effects of manganese toxicity include:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitive Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCadmium (Cd) can cause serious health issues such as kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFIGURE \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eAQI OF HEAVY METALS AND ELEMENTS IN KANU STATE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e is a representation of AQI for the following elements; Cd, Ni Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, No2, No3, F and Na, in Kano state, Nigeria. The results show very high AQI of Pb followed by Ni Which is 800 and 490 respectively which is hazardous to residents occupying these cities. Cadmium had AQI of 233.3 which could be very unfriendly to residents. Mn and Fe could be unhealthy to humans with AQI OF 200 and 170 respectively. K had AQI of 105.5 indicating a unhealthy health condition. Al, Co, Cu, Zn, No2, NO3, F, Na were within the range of 0 to 100 which is classified as good/ satisfactory or moderate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcessive exposure to Ni could result in;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eAcute Toxicity\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhich could lead to skin irritation, allergic reactions, and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eChronic Toxicity\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003esevere health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eDermatitis\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003ecan cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as \"nickel itch.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eEffects of Excess Manganese (Mn)\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile manganese is essential, excess intake can lead to toxicity, especially in individuals with impaired liver function. Potential effects of manganese toxicity include:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eNeurological Symptoms\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcessive manganese consumption can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eCognitive Impairment\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eRespiratory Issues\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eInhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eLiver Damage\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcessive exposure chromium (Cr) could be highly toxic to the humans which may lead to lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis and nasal irritation or ulcer. Direct contact with the skin can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions. Excessive exposure to chromium can lead to kidney damage and liver effects, stomach pain, DNA damage, birth defects and fertility issues.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, excessive exposure to iron (Fe) can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, liver damage, cirrhosis, increased risk of liver cancer, heart issues such as irregular heartbeats, heart failure and other cardiovascular problems, diabetes. Excess iron in the body can lead to genetic consequences like hemochromatosis (high absorption of iron), promote growth of bacteria and pathogens and increase risk of infections.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCadmium (Cd) is a metal that is chemically similar to zinc and mercury. They are primarily used in batteries, pigments, coatings and electroplating. They are highly toxic and can cause serious health issues such as kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested. Cadmium is a metal which has no known beneficial function to the human body. It is toxin to both plants and animals. It is usually concentrated in the kidney and liver of the human body.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eManganese (Mn) could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of exposure include; Neurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitiv\u003cb\u003ee\u003c/b\u003e Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e depicts AQI in Abuja, Nigeria for the following elements, Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F, and Na. result uncovers that AQI of Pb and Ni were hazardous with numerical value of 600 and 490 individually. Cd, Mn, and Fe had a unhealthy AQI of the order 166.6, 200 and 160 respectively. Other elements such as; Cr, Al, Co, Cu, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F and Na had a moderate or good AQI which was within the range of 0 .4 to 80.3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eManganese (Mn) can be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of exposure include; Neurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitive Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased exposure to cadmium (Cd) might result in the following effects; kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, excessive exposure to iron Fe can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, liver damage, cirrhosis, increased risk of liver cancer, heart issues such as irregular heartbeats, heart failure and other cardiovascular problems, diabetes. Excess iron in the body can lead to genetic consequences like hemochromatosis (high absorption of iron), promote growth of bacteria and pathogens and increase risk of infections. Excessive exposure to Ni could result in; Acute Toxicity: which could lead to skin irritation, allergic reactions, and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis. \u003cb\u003eChronic Toxicity\u003c/b\u003e: severe health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage. \u003cb\u003eDermatitis\u003c/b\u003e: can cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as \"nickel itch.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFIGURE \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eAQI OF HEAVY METALS AND ELEMENTS IN LAGOS STATE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e indicates AQI for Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F, and Na. in Lagos ,Nigeria. results shows that Ni had highest amount of AQI which is 430 then followed by Pb with 300 and Mn with 240. Ni is classified to be hazadous as specified by W.H.O AQI standard while Pb and Mn falls under very unhealthy health condition. Cd had AQI of 200 which is unhealthy while Cr and Fe had AQI of 110 and 103.3 indicating heath condition which is unhealthy to some sensitive group of people. Al, CO, Cu, Zn, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F and Na has air quality index within the range 94.2 to 0.40 which lie between the moderate region and the satisfactory region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, excessive exposure to iron (Fe) can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, liver damage, cirrhosis, increased risk of liver cancer, heart issues such as irregular heartbeats, heart failure and other cardiovascular problems, diabetes. Excess iron in the body can lead to genetic consequences like hemochromatosis (high absorption of iron), promote growth of bacteria and pathogens and increase risk of infections.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMn in excess could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of exposure include; Neurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. \u003cb\u003eCognitive\u003c/b\u003e Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcessive exposure to Ni can result in;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcute Toxicity: High levels of nickel exposure can cause skin irritation, allergic reactions, and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eChronic Toxicity: Long-term exposure to high levels of nickel can lead to more severe health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eDermatitis: Prolonged skin contact with nickel-containing products can cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as \"nickel itch.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased exposure to cadmium might result in the following effects; kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcessive exposure chromium (Cr) could be highly toxic to the humans which may lead to lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis and nasal irritation or ulcer. Direct contact with the skin can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions. Excessive exposure to chromium can lead to kidney damage and liver effects, stomach pain, DNA damage, birth defects and fertility issues.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e reveals AQI for Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F, and Na. in Enugu ,Nigeria. Result suggests that Mn had highest AQI with numerical value of 1600 followed by Pb with AQI of 500 and Ni with AQI of 310. Mn, Pb and Ni is in the hazadous region which could have unncessary negative effects on humans. Cd had AQI of 166 with is classified as unhealthy to human exposure while Fe had AQI of 120 which Is unhealthy to few people who are susceptible. Cr, Al, Co, Cu, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F and Na was in the range ; 100 to 0.415 which is acceptable or satisfactory to humans.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn Increased exposure to cadmium might result in the following effects; kidney damage, bone disease and cancer if inhaled or indigested.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects of Ni if in Excess\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcute Toxicity: High levels of nickel exposure can cause skin irritation, allergic reactions, and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eChronic Toxicity: Long-term exposure to high levels of nickel can lead to more severe health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eDermatitis: Prolonged skin contact with nickel-containing products can cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as \"nickel itch.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-term exposure to Lead (Pb) even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. Exposure to Ni can result in irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. Chronic exposure: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eManganese (Mn) could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of exposure include; Neurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. Cognitive Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows AQI for the following; Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F, and Na in Calabar, Cross River state, Nigeria.. Result suggests that Pb had highest AQI with numerical value of 800 followed by Ni with AQI OF 480 in the hazadous region. Mn had AQI of 260 which is classified as very unhealthy to residents. Cd had AQI of 200 which is unhealthy as well. Fe and Cr had AQI of 133.3 and 120 which is unhealthy to some sensitive group of people. Other elements such as; Al, Co, Cu, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F, Na were within the good region or moderate region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eManganese (Mn) could be hazardous to humans as indicated by health concern level table. Possible effects of exposure include; Neurological Symptoms: Excessive manganese can cause neurological problems resembling Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, muscle rigidity, and difficulty walking. \u003cb\u003eCognitive\u003c/b\u003e Impairment: High levels can impair cognitive functions, leading to memory problems and decreased mental acuity. Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of manganese dust or fumes can cause respiratory problems and lung inflammation. Liver Damage: Excessive manganese can accumulate in the liver, causing damage and impaired function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. \u003cb\u003eExposure to Ni can result in\u003c/b\u003e irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. \u003cb\u003eChronic exposure\u003c/b\u003e: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcessive exposure to Ni can result in the following:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAcute Toxicity\u003c/b\u003e: High levels of nickel exposure can cause skin irritation, allergic reactions, and respiratory issues, such as asthma and bronchitis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eChronic Toxicity\u003c/b\u003e: Long-term exposure to high levels of nickel can lead to more severe health problems, including lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and kidney damage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDermatitis\u003c/b\u003e: Prolonged skin contact with nickel-containing products can cause allergic dermatitis, commonly known as \"nickel itch.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcessive exposure to chromium (Cr) could be highly toxic to the humans which may lead to lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis and nasal irritation or ulcer. Direct contact with the skin can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions. Excessive exposure to chromium can lead to kidney damage and liver effects, stomach pain, DNA damage, birth defects and fertility issues.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, excessive exposure to iron (Fe) can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, liver damage, cirrhosis, increased risk of liver cancer, heart issues such as irregular heartbeats, heart failure and other cardiovascular problems, diabetes. Excess iron in the body can lead to genetic consequences like hemochromatosis (high absorption of iron), promote growth of bacteria and pathogens and increase risk of infections.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-term exposure to Pb even at low levels, can be harmful and could result in developmental issues in children, affecting the brain and nervous system, leading to reduced IQ, learning disabilities, and behavioural problems. In adults, chronic exposure can result in hypertension, kidney damage, reproductive problems, and cognitive deficits. \u003cb\u003eExposure to Ni can result in\u003c/b\u003e irritation of the respiratory tract, eyes, skin, burning of eye, nose, throat and can result in blindness, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, and even respiratory distress or failure. \u003cb\u003eChronic exposure\u003c/b\u003e: chronic respiratory problems, including bronchitis and asthma, liver and kidneys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 DISCUSSION\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e The World Health Organization (WHO) has established guidelines specifying concentration limits for various elements and particulate matter to develop Air Quality Index (AQI) systems, which translate pollutant concentrations into index scores indicating health risks. In Nigeria, cities such as Benin (Edo State), Kano, Abuja, Lagos, Enugu, and Calabar (Cross River) have been assessed for AQI levels of particulate matter (PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e), toxic elements (Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F), and other elements. The AQI color codes reflect health concern levels, where PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e, Pb, Ni, and Mn show hazardous maroon levels, Cd indicates unhealthy red levels, Fe and Cr present unhealthy orange levels for sensitive groups, K shows moderate yellow levels, and elements like Al, Co, Cu, Zn, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, and F show good green levels. The highest AQI for PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e (1350) suggests severe health risks, including cardiovascular issues and respiratory conditions. Cd (183) and Pb (566) present very unhealthy and hazardous levels, respectively, with potential effects such as kidney damage, developmental issues in children, and chronic health problems in adults. Ni (458) and Mn (443) are also hazardous, potentially causing respiratory distress and neurological issues. Fe (130) and Cr (106) show unhealthy levels for sensitive groups, while K (86) is moderate. Other elements like NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (32.83), Al (30), F (11), Cu (11.53), NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (4.16), CO (3.13), and Zn (1.43) fall within the good range, indicating minimal health risks at those concentrations. Specific city data further emphasize the varying AQI levels and associated health risks, with Benin showing hazardous levels for Ni and Pb, Kano revealing very unhealthy Pb and Ni levels, Abuja highlighting hazardous Pb and Ni, Lagos indicating hazardous Ni, and Enugu presenting extremely high AQI for Mn, Pb, and Ni, all necessitating urgent attention to mitigate adverse health impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.1 Summary\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e The World Health Organization (WHO) has established guidelines for air quality, using concentration limits of various elements and particulate matter to create the Air Quality Index (AQI). In Nigeria, cities such as Benin, Kano, Abuja, Lagos, Enugu, and Calabar have been assessed for AQI levels of PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e, toxic elements (Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, Pb, Al, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, K, NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, F), and other elements. The AQI levels are represented by colour codes indicating health risks, with PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e, Pb, Ni, and Mn showing the most hazardous levels, followed by Cd, Fe, and Cr. Elements like Al, Co, Cu, Zn, NO2, NO3, and F are within the good range. Specific city data reveal varying AQI levels and associated health risks, with significant concerns in Benin, Kano, Abuja, Lagos, and Enugu due to high levels of hazardous elements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.2 Conclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe AQI assessments indicate severe health risks in several Nigerian cities due to high levels of PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e, Pb, Ni, and Mn. Immediate actions are required to mitigate these risks, especially in cities like Benin, Kano, Abuja, Lagos, and Enugu, where the AQI for certain elements is alarmingly high. Effective measures and interventions are essential to improve air quality and protect public health in these areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e4.3 Funding Declaration\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors of this article gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Nigerian National Research Fund through the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND), which enabled the successful completion of this project.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3.1 Acknowledgements:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe wish to express our gratitude to Penn State University for providing data on air quality over Nigeria. We also recognize the Centre for Atmospheric Research (CAR) at the National Space Research Development Agency (NASRDA) in Nigeria for their technical support. Special thanks are also extended to OPENAQ, an American-based organization, for donating low-cost air quality monitoring sensors in support of this project.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3.2 Consent to participate and publish\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eI, \u003cb\u003eProfessor Igwe O. Ewona\u003c/b\u003e hereby give my consent to be one of a Co-author of \u0026ldquo;EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER IN NIGERIA\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ehaving made useful contributions to the article. There is no ethical issue since this does not have to do with human or animal products or specimens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eI, \u003cb\u003eB. J. Ekah\u003c/b\u003e, consent to being involved in the research titled \u0026ldquo;EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER IN NIGERIA\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eI fully understand the purpose of the research and confirm that my participation was voluntary. I contributed to the study ethically and in an informed manner.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eI, \u003cb\u003eU. J. Akwagiobe\u003c/b\u003e, willingly agree to participate in the study titled \u0026ldquo;EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER IN NIGERIA\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e. I was made aware of all aspects of the research and choose to take part voluntarily. My participation was ethical, and I played an active role in the research process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eI, \u003cb\u003eProf. S. O. Udo\u003c/b\u003e hereby affirm my consent to participate in the research titled \u0026ldquo;EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER IN NIGERIA\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e. I was provided with the necessary information about the study and I partook in the research voluntarily. My involvement was ethical and meaningful.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eI, \u003cb\u003eProf. B. Rabiu\u003c/b\u003e, acknowledge that I gave my informed consent to participate in the research titled \u0026ldquo;EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF AIRBORNE PARTICULATE MATTER IN NIGERIA\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e. I understand the research\u0026rsquo;s nature and agreed to be part of it voluntarily. My participation was conducted ethically, and I contributed fully to the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eB. J. Ekah contributed as an author, actively participating in field work, research compilation, and analysis, while also managing the overall research process.I. O. Ewona provided crucial supervision and guidance throughout the research, ensuring adherence to methodological standards and scientific accuracy.J. U. Akwagiobe was responsible for conducting the fieldwork, including the collection of air sediment samples from various cities.S. O. Udo offered supervision and expert advice on research methodologies and procedures, facilitating effective data analysis.B. Rabiu supplied the necessary instruments and data, which were essential for the successful completion of the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAla'a Hamed Emran Al-Husseini. (2021). Evaluation effect of inhalable particulate matter exposure on human health in center of Karbala City. 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Impacts from economic development and environmental factors on life expectancy: A comparative study based on data from both developed and developing countries from 2004 to 2016. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health\u003c/em\u003e, 18(16), 1\u0026ndash;18. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168378\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/ijerph18168378\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZghaid, M., Noack, Y., Bounakla, M., \u0026amp; Benyaich, F. (2009). Pollution atmosph\u0026eacute;rique particulate dans la ville de Kenitra (Maroc). 2268\u0026ndash;3798.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Particulate matters, sources of PM, effects of PM, Healthy life expectancy, Life expectancy, Air Quality Index, Toxic elements and metals, casinogenic elements","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5105755/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5105755/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis article evaluates air quality index (AQI) from toxic and heavy metal concentration across selected cities in Nigeria. Gravitational sedimentation method was used to collect air sediments to extract toxic and heavy metals present in airborne particulates. Funnel shaped collectors securely attached to clean empty containers were exposed in open spaces at designated locations within the city, for a period of nine months, covering the two major seasons in Nigeria (January to September, 2023). Airborne particles were allowed to settle naturally in the container along with rainwater. Samples from various points in a city were put together for laboratory analyses. This procedure was repeated in five other cities covering various geographical and climatic regions in Nigeria. The locations include: Benin, Lagos, Calabar in the South and Abuja, Enugu and kano in the North. The samples were analyzed for elemental concentration using spectroscopy. Data for PM 2.5 was donated by Penn State University purple air quality network in Nigeria. MATLAB, SPSS and MS excel software were used to prepare the data for analyses. Air quality indices for the studied locations were determined. The associated AQI colour codes reflect health concern levels. The results show maximum concentration values as follows: PM\u003csub\u003e2.5\u003c/sub\u003e (1350), Pb (566), Ni (458), and Mn (443) indicate hazardous levels, Cd (183) indicates unhealthy levels, Fe (130) and Cr (106) show unhealthy levels for sensitive groups, K (86) shows moderate levels, while elements compounds like NO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (32.83), Al (30), F (11), Cu (11.53), NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (4.16), CO (3.13), and Zn (1.43) fall within safer levels. The results further reveal that the air in Benin carries hazardous levels for Ni (550) and Pb (400), While Kano reveals very unhealthy levels of Pb (800) and Ni (490) levels in the air; Abuja air also has high levels of Pb (600) and Ni (490), while Lagos has high levels of Ni (430). Enugu on the other hand presents extremely high values for Mn (1600), Pb (500), and Ni (310).\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evaluation of Chemical and Elemental Analyses of Airborne Particulate Matter in Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-22 18:19:13","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5105755/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"31a025ec-6afd-4870-8822-2d00d7d5eb5f","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 22nd, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-12-09T17:38:48+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-22 18:19:13","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5105755","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5105755","identity":"rs-5105755","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}