Anhedonia and Daily Emotional Experiences Among Mothers of Preschool Children: An Experiential Sampling Study

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However, anhedonia, which is characterized by reduced subjective experiences of pleasure, may undermine parenting experiences by reducing responses to child cuteness. Using the experiential sampling method, the current research examined associations among parental anhedonia, responses to child cuteness, and daily parenting experiences. Eighty-two mothers of preschool children participated in the 5-day survey and reported momentary positive and negative emotions and parental experiences. They also completed an end-of-day survey in which they rated the interaction quality with their child and perceived fatigue. The results showed that compared to the control, mothers with high anhedonia reported dampened cuteness in child and elevated negative emotions (anxiety and frustration). In addition, they were more likely to report their child’s mood more negative relative to the control. At the end of day, the high anhedonia group reported lower interaction quality. Self-rated fatigue did not differ among groups. These results suggest that anhedonia undermines parenting experiences by diminishing cuteness-induced positive emotions while amplifying negative emotions. anhedonia cuteness emotions experiential sampling parenting Figures Figure 1 Introduction The positive emotions induced by child cuteness are an essential component of parenting (Kringelbach et al., 2016 ), which is considered the ultimate form of altruism (Preston, 2013 ). Infantile characteristics, such as large eyes, short nose, narrow chin, and rounded forehead, evoke positive emotions and promote caretaking behaviors (Glocker et al., 2009 ). Cuteness narrows attention and increases motivation to care for the vulnerable. After viewing a series of baby animals, people perform better on behavioral tasks that require care and attention (Nittono et al., 2012 ; Sherman et al., 2009 ). In contrast, facial conditions that weaken infantile features, such as cleft lip, are associated with lower cuteness ratings and reduced motivation to care (Holly et al., 2017 ). Similarly, negative personality descriptions of children reduce perceived cuteness and motivation to care for them (Takamatsu et al., 2023 ). The parental motivational system may be compromised by reduced positive emotional experiences among parents. Mothers with anxious attachment styles self-report low positive emotions and greater fluctuations in positive mood during daily parenting (Somers et al., 2020 ). Psychopathology that impairs emotion regulation reduces motivation to nurture children (Rodriguez & Pu, 2020). Across cultures, postpartum depression reduces the quality of mother-child interaction, the mother’s sensitivity to the child’s needs, and the odds of using safety measures for the child (for review, see Field, 2010 ). In depression, one of the cardinal conditions is anhedonia, which is characterized by reduced hedonic capacity and decreased interest in and responses to positive stimuli (for review, see Vanderlind & Joormann, 2019 ). If parental anhedonia is associated with reduced positive emotions, including child cuteness, it may have detrimental effects on parenting experiences and roles. In the next section, we introduce anhedonia and review research on the role of anhedonia in reducing pleasurable experiences. Anhedonia In the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ), anhedonia is described as “a lack of enjoyment from, engagement in, or energy for life's experiences, and deficits in the capacity to feel pleasure and take interest in things.” Anhedonia is a key symptom in the diagnosis of melancholic depression, a subtype characterized by a reduced hedonic capacity and notable physical symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ). Anhedonia is present in approximately 70–95% of depressed individuals, with notable variations in severity (Dichter, 2010; Whitton & Pizzagalli, 2022 ). Recent research has focused on anhedonia rather than depression with symptoms of anhedonia, revealing the detrimental effects on mental health (Ducasse et al., 2018 ) in both clinical and nonclinical samples (Heininga et al., 2019; Pizzagalli et al., 2005 ). Independent of depression, high levels of anhedonia are associated with reduced positive emotions (Heininga et al., 2017 ; Werner-Seidler et al., 2013 ), increased negative emotions (Horan et al., 2006 ; Kerns et al., 2008 ), and fewer facial expressions in response to positive stimuli (Fiorito & Simons, 1994 ). Individuals suffering from anhedonia also show reduced motivation to expend behavioral efforts toward rewards (Dowd & Barch, 2010 ). In an experiential sampling study, anhedonia is associated with fewer momentary positive emotions (Heininga et al., 2019). Although these studies have demonstrated the link between anhedonia and positive affect dysfunction, none have examined the role of anhedonia in the experience of cuteness-induced positive emotions. Although positive emotions tend to be bundled into one, identifying which emotion is disrupted in psychopathology is important for understanding mechanisms (Gruber et al., 2011 ; Khazanov & Ruscio, 2016 ). In particular, perceptions of child cuteness and subsequent positive emotions are central aspects of the parenting system (Schaller, 2018 ), and understanding the dysfunction may have practical implications for adaptive parenting. In addition, few studies have examined the role of anhedonia in parenting. Nelis et al. ( 2019 ) found that parental reactions to adolescent children’s positive emotions predicted their concurrent depressive and anhedonia symptoms and long-term emotional well-being. Griffith et al. ( 2023 ) investigated the effects of parent’s anhedonia symptoms on adolescents’ mental health. They found that the symptoms of anhedonia were uniquely related to lower parent-child relationship quality. These studies underscore the important role that parents play in the well-being of the adolescent child, while also demonstrating the negative impact of parental anhedonia on the child's well-being. While previous studies have examined the effects of parental anhedonia on adolescent children, early childhood is also a critical period in which high parent-child relationship quality predicts positive child developmental outcomes in several domains (Elicker et l., 1992; Lanjekar et al., 2022 ). In this study, we focused on associations between anhedonia and daily emotional and parenting experiences among parents of young children. Purpose and Study Hypotheses This study investigated the daily emotional experiences of mothers with preschool children to determine the role of anhedonia in shaping emotional and parenting experiences. The experiential sampling method (ESM; Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1987 ) was used to collect momentary experiences. Several studies indicate that anhedonia is related to the decreased intensity of positive emotions (Kern et al., 2008) and reduced quality of parent-child relationships in adolescence (Griffith et al., 2023 ). Positive emotions encompass a wide array of affective and motivational responses (Gruber et al., 2011 ), but the effects of anhedonia on cuteness-induced positive emotions are unknown. Since cuteness is a critical part of the affective system in parenting (Kringelbach et al., 2016 ), its disturbance may result in compromised parenting. Based on previous studies (Griffith et al., 2023 ; Somers et al., 2020 ), parental anhedonia should be associated with children's negative emotional states and lower parent-child relationship quality. Hypotheses H1a: Anhedonia is associated with a lower frequency of positive emotions induced by cuteness in children. Moreover, to better understand the effects of anhedonia on parenting, we included the following hypotheses: H1b: Anhedonia is related to higher frequency of negative emotions. H2: Anhedonia is related to the tendency to perceive one’s child as unhappy. H3: Anhedonia is related to lower self-rated quality of mother-child interaction. H4: Anhedonia is related to higher self-rated fatigue. Method We report how we determined our sample size, all data exclusions (if any), all manipulations, and all measures in the study. Experiential Sampling Method The ESM phase lasted 5 days, during which 5 ESM beeps occurred semi-randomly each day in a fixed 11-hour frame (8 a.m. to 7 p.m.). Previous studies (e.g., Barge-Schaapveld et al., 1999 ) using the EMS method to study affect dysregulation, used the 5-day study period and the beep schedule. After the beep signal, participants had 15 min to fill out the EMS protocol. Alerts were made at least 120 minutes apart. A reminder was sent to the participants if they did not respond within 15 min. The ignored or missed signals were recorded as missing data. The daily ESM protocol included the following measures: Positive emotions of cuteness induced by the child. The participants used a slider to indicate the extent to which they felt cute about their child (1 = not at all; 6 = very. Negative emotional state: Participants rated the extent to which they experienced a) anxiety, and b) frustration using a six-point Likert scale (1 = not at all; 6 = very). These two emotion adjectives were chosen because they are highly relevant to the parenting context. Perceived emotional state of the child. The participants reported whether their child was in sight and rated the extent to which the child felt at that moment (six-point scale: 1 = upset; 6 = happy mood). If the child was not in sight, there was the option “My child is not near me.” Additionally, if the child was sleeping, the participant chose “my child is sleeping.” Following Nelson et al. ( 2020 ), all emotion adjectives were explained beforehand to the participants to ensure they understood each emotional content. At 8 p.m., an end-of-day questionnaire was sent. The questionnaire included the following measures: 1) Self-rated quality of mother-child interaction. Participants answered a question: “How much have you enjoyed spending time with your child/children today?” using a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 6 (very much). 2) Self-rated fatigue: Participants answered a question: “How tired are you right now?” using a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all tired) to 6 (very tired). We keep the number of survey items as small as possible. Among students, a longer ESM survey is associated with careless responses, low compliance, and feelings of burden compared to a shorter survey (Eisele et al., 2022 ). As this study recruited mothers with young children, we used survey items that were essential for hypothesis testing. Participants The simr package was used to estimate the required sample size by simulating five beeps per day for five days with one group category and random effects of time and participants. The results showed that 30 responses for each group (N = 60) were required to achieve a power of 0.86, 95% CI[77.63, 92.13]. A recruitment message was sent to registered workers who indicated on a crowdsourcing website that they had a preschool child. In a screening survey, participants completed the Japanese version of the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure (SHAP-J; Nagayama et al., 2012 ; Snaith et al., 1995). Unlike other anhedonia measures, the SHAPS-J has been validated in Japan and proven to be culturally sensitive (Nagayama et al., 2012 ). Compliance with the ESM Protocol and Data Exclusion The overall compliance rate was good (86.0%), comparable to other ESM studies that included individuals with high anhedonia (Heininga et al., 2017 ). Following Barge-Schaapveld et al. ( 1999 ), participants with low compliance rates (< 50%) and dropouts (e.g., those who withdrew consent before the first day of ESM) were excluded from the data analysis ( N = 13). Eighty-two mothers of preschool children participated in this study ( M age = 34.6, SD = 4.8). In accordance with the recommendations (Franken et al., 2007 ), we treated the scale as an interval (1–4; range, 14–56). Higher total scores indicated higher levels of state anhedonia. Participants who scored higher than the mean were grouped into the high-anhedonia group ( n = 42). The remaining participants were assigned to the low-anhedonia group ( n = 40). Given that previous studies suggest the continuous nature of the distribution of anhedonia traits in non-clinical samples (Harvey et al., 2007 ), we did not ask participants to specify comorbid conditions. If participants had more than two preschool children, they were instructed to answer questions about the elder child. In this study, the average age of the children was Mage = 3.6, SD = 1.7 (female = 59.8%). The average age of the two groups did not differ, t (80) = -1.42, p = .159, d = -0.31. The high- and low-anhedonia groups did not differ in child age, χ 2 (5) = 4.98, p = .418, and gender ratio, χ 2 (1) = 0.25, p = .621. Procedure Those who fulfilled the following requirements were invited to participate: having a preschool child aged between 1–6, currently not taking psychoactive drugs, and having a LINE account. The ESM survey signals were sent semi-randomly using Exkuma software ( https://exkuma.com/ ). Exkuma allows researchers to send a survey URL via LINE, a mobile message application widely used in Japan. Candidates who passed the screening test received an invitation message with step-by-step instructions on how to set up a LINE account for the ESM study. After agreeing to participate, respondents proceeded to the preparation phase. This phase involved adding the LINE account and learning about emotion adjectives in the survey. Data was collected from October 10, 2023 to October 31, 2023. Participants started receiving ESM signals the day after they were registered in Exkuma. Data Analysis A linear mixed modeling approach (Ime4 package in R) was used to account for the nested data structure. The first-level (within-person) model was specified as: $${{\gamma }}_{ij}= {\beta }_{0j}+ {r}_{ij}$$ where, \({\gamma }\) represents the predicted variable of the j -th participant at the i -th assessment time. \({\beta }_{0j}\) represents the within-person mean outcome variable. \({r}_{ij}\) represents the residual (random effects). The second-level (between-person) model was specified as: Anhedonia status was dummy coded as 0 = low anhedonia and 1 = high anhedonia, and entered uncentered. \({u}_{0j}\) represents the random effects at level 2. Transparency and Openness This study’s design, hypotheses, and analysis plan were preregistered prospectively, before data were collected; see https://osf.io/bkrd9/?view_only=deeadff8230c464184f6f596f2b40522 . Results Between and Within-Person Variance of Studied Variables The intraclass correlation (ICC) for the emotion of cuteness was 49.7% (SE = .04), indicating that 49.7% of the variance was at the between-person level and 50.3% of the variance was at the within-person level. The ICCs for negative emotions (anxiety and frustration) were 58.4% and 38.6%, respectively. The ICC for child mood was 10.3%. For the end-of-day questionnaire, the ICCs for self-rated interaction quality and fatigue were 44.7% and 51.0%, respectively. Overall, the findings suggest that a considerable proportion of variability in the outcome variables occurs between the groups, and mixed modeling estimation is preferable. Daily Questionnaire Higher anhedonia was associated with lower daily positive emotions of cuteness, β = − .45, p = .013, 95% CI[-0.796, -0.097] and higher daily negative emotions (anxious: β = .65, p = .002, 95% CI[0.243, 1.061]; frustrated: β = .75, p < .001, 95% CI[0.433, 1.070). In daily ESM, the child was not present 24.5% of the time or was sleeping (8.5%). If the child was not present or was sleeping, the respondent did not rate the child’s mood. The frequency of rating the child’s mood did not differ among the groups, χ 2 (1) = 1.06, p = .304. Mothers in the high-anhedonia group were more likely to perceive their child’s mood as not happy, β = − .23, p = .050, 95% CI[-0.468, -0.000]). Thus, H1a, H1b and H2 are supported. Figure 1 shows the results. End-of-Day Questionnaire The high-anhedonia group reported lower interaction quality with their children, β = − .53, p = .001, 95% CI[-0.820, -0.235]. No group difference was found in self-reported fatigue, β = .10, p = .630, 95% CI[-0.308, 0.506]. Thus, H3, but not H4, is supported (Fig. 1 ). Discussion This study investigated the association between anhedonia and the daily emotional and parenting experiences of mothers of preschool children. Anhedonia was related to dampened positive emotions of cuteness induced by children and higher negative emotions in daily life. Additionally, anhedonia was related to the tendency to rate the child’s mood as upset (vs. happy). While no group differences were found in self-rated fatigue at the end of the day, mothers in the high-anhedonia group reported lower interaction quality with their children relative to the low-anhedonia (control) group. This study contributes to the existing literature by offering implications for the role of anhedonia in shaping the parenting experience. The results suggest that positive affect dysregulation in anhedonia may undermine parenting experiences. Specifically, anhedonia was related to decreased intensity of positive emotions and higher levels of negative emotions in parenting, which is consistent with extant literature (Kerns et al., 2008 ). Moreover, anhedonia was associated with a tendency to perceive the child as upset relative to the control. This is in line with the finding that people tend to perceive cuteness in someone with a happy expression (i.e., smile; Nittono, 2016 ). Although this study did not recruit participants from the clinical population, the group differences were remarkable. These results highlighted the potential role of anhedonia in shaping positive and negative parenting emotions. Mothers in the high-anhedonia group reported more negative episodes of child mood than did those in the control. This finding requires careful interpretation. For one interpretation, mothers with high anhedonia may be vulnerable to perceiving their children as upset because they pay more attention to negative information. Another interpretation is that the children of mothers in the high anhedonia group were actually in a more negative mood than the children of mothers in the control group because their children affected their mood. One child-side risk factor for maltreatment is the child’s developmental issues, such as a difficult temperament (Rodriguez & Pu, 2020). Experimental studies show that infants with difficult temperaments are perceived as less cute (Parsons et al., 2013), and female adults are less motivated to care for young children who exhibit challenging behaviors (Takamatsu et al., 2023 ). Future studies should concurrently examine mothers’ anhedonia status and child development-specific conditions. We also suggest directions for future studies. First, this study focused on emotional and parenting experiences, whereas previous findings suggest that anhedonia is not merely a reduced capacity to experience pleasure. Individuals with high anhedonia show stronger reactivity to positive daily events relative to the control, but the mechanism through which rewarding life activities lift mood in individuals with high anhedonia is poorly understood (Heininga et al., 2017 ). A better understanding of the mood-brightening effect in individuals with high anhedonia may improve their capacity for positive emotions. As anhedonia undermines treatment effort (Su & Si, 2022 ), unravelling effective intervention strategies to counteract reduced hedonic capacity is imperative. Furthermore, this study focused on mothers’ experiences and did not examine the interaction between mothers’ anhedonia and their children’s development. Early childhood is a critical period in which socioemotional developmental milestones occur, and parents play an essential role in this process. Dynamic interactions between children, their familial experiences, and social contexts influence their socio-emotional development (Sameroff & Mackenzie, 2003 ). Parents’ emotional well-being (anhedonia) influences the adolescent child’s emotional well-being (Griffith et al., 2023 ). To reveal the interactional effects of mothers’ anhedonia on children’s development and well-being, future studies should examine children’s socioemotional skills and well-being in relation to mothers’ anhedonia status. Understanding the role of anhedonia in shaping parenting experiences may help mothers and their children. Hopefully, this study highlights the importance of parental anhedonia in shaping emotional and parenting experiences and may help formulate an intervention strategy to support parents and their preschool children in healthier parent-child relationships. Declarations Ethics declarations Ethics Approval Department of Policy Studies, Aichi Gakuin University Human Research Ethics Committee provided ethics approval for this study (ID: 2023-20). The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards contained in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and later amendments. Funding This research has been funded by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant Number: 21K13669). Competing Interests None declared . Availability of data and materials All data, materials, and analysis codes have been made publicly available at the Open Science Framework and can be accessed at https://osf.io/87ar9/?view_only=4cccb70817324e8fae87b5ba920067bf Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all participants in this study. Author Contribution RT - Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing, Visualization, Funding acquisition. Data Availability All data, materials, and analysis codes have been made publicly available at the Open Science Framework and can be accessed at https://osf.io/87ar9/?view_only=4cccb70817324e8fae87b5ba920067bf. References American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.) . Washington, DC: Author. Barge-Schaapveld, D. Q., Nicolson, N. A., Berkhof, J., & Marten, W. D. (1999). 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Journal of Family Psychology , 34 (4), 480–489. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000617 Su, Y. A., & Si, T. (2022). Progress and challenges in research of the mechanisms of anhedonia in major depressive disorder. General Psychiatry , 35 (1), e100724. https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2021-100724 Takamatsu, R., Kusumi, T., & Nittono, H. (2023). Personality descriptions influence perceived cuteness of children and nurturing motivation toward them. PloS one , 18 (1), e0279985. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279985 Vanderlind, A. M., & Joormann, J. (2019). Positive emotion regulation in depression. In J. Gruber (Ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Positive Emotion and Psychopathology (pp. 239–250). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Werner-Seidler, A., Banks, R., Dunn, B. D., & Moulds, M. L. (2013). An investigation of the relationship between positive affect regulation and depression. Behaviour research and therapy , 51 (1), 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2012.11.001 Whitton, A. E., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2022). Anhedonia in depression and bipolar disorder. In Anhedonia: Preclinical, Translational, and Clinical Integration (pp. 111–127). Cham: Springer International Publishing. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 30 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Affective Science → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 23 Nov, 2024 Reviews received at journal 14 Oct, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Sep, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 May, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 27 Apr, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 26 Apr, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 12 Apr, 2024 First submitted to journal 28 Mar, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4179805","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":290525176,"identity":"ddb700bc-831d-473d-a326-dca5f3ebb2aa","order_by":0,"name":"Reina Takamatsu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA6ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACxgYgYQMmYSCBCC0JaSRpAas5jKIFPzBvb2578PPHednt7AcYP35tY5Dnb2B49gCfFpkzB9sNexJuG+/sSWCWlm1jMJxxgCHdAJ8WCYnENgmehNuJG24wMEhLtjEwbmBgSJPAq0X+YZvkn4RzIC3Mv4Fa7AlrkWBsk+ZJOADSwib5sY0hkbAWnsQ2aZm0ZKBfEtusGc5JJM84TMgv7MefSb6xsQOG2OHDN3+U2dj2t/ekPcCnBQ4MgHHKzMMAdBIzTxpROhhAbmH8AWayHyNOyygYBaNgFIwUAADYfkbOlIK0vgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Aichi Gakuin University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Reina","middleName":"","lastName":"Takamatsu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-03-28 05:46:31","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4179805/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4179805/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-025-00340-x","type":"published","date":"2026-01-30T15:59:08+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":55006988,"identity":"2cb6478d-8cbe-4590-bbea-d8522a03b0e9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-19 18:59:23","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":71357,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAffective and Parenting Experiences Gap Between High/Low Anhedonia Group\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05, \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01, \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001. Low anhedonia = 0, high anhedonia = 1. Perceived emotional state of child (1 = not at all happy; 6 = very happy).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4179805/v1/7bd64339f31a725ea4791cc3.png"},{"id":101690765,"identity":"e3d19ed9-0832-4332-bef6-3f11ef5de144","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-02 16:08:17","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":639340,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4179805/v1/844a7ddb-8a82-493c-9b86-278d77d1c86f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Anhedonia and Daily Emotional Experiences Among Mothers of Preschool Children: An Experiential Sampling Study","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe positive emotions induced by child cuteness are an essential component of parenting (Kringelbach et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), which is considered the ultimate form of altruism (Preston, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Infantile characteristics, such as large eyes, short nose, narrow chin, and rounded forehead, evoke positive emotions and promote caretaking behaviors (Glocker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Cuteness narrows attention and increases motivation to care for the vulnerable. After viewing a series of baby animals, people perform better on behavioral tasks that require care and attention (Nittono et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Sherman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, facial conditions that weaken infantile features, such as cleft lip, are associated with lower cuteness ratings and reduced motivation to care (Holly et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, negative personality descriptions of children reduce perceived cuteness and motivation to care for them (Takamatsu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe parental motivational system may be compromised by reduced positive emotional experiences among parents. Mothers with anxious attachment styles self-report low positive emotions and greater fluctuations in positive mood during daily parenting (Somers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Psychopathology that impairs emotion regulation reduces motivation to nurture children (Rodriguez \u0026amp; Pu, 2020). Across cultures, postpartum depression reduces the quality of mother-child interaction, the mother\u0026rsquo;s sensitivity to the child\u0026rsquo;s needs, and the odds of using safety measures for the child (for review, see Field, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). In depression, one of the cardinal conditions is anhedonia, which is characterized by reduced hedonic capacity and decreased interest in and responses to positive stimuli (for review, see Vanderlind \u0026amp; Joormann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). If parental anhedonia is associated with reduced positive emotions, including child cuteness, it may have detrimental effects on parenting experiences and roles. In the next section, we introduce anhedonia and review research on the role of anhedonia in reducing pleasurable experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnhedonia\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), anhedonia is described as \u0026ldquo;a lack of enjoyment from, engagement in, or energy for life's experiences, and deficits in the capacity to feel pleasure and take interest in things.\u0026rdquo; Anhedonia is a key symptom in the diagnosis of melancholic depression, a subtype characterized by a reduced hedonic capacity and notable physical symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Anhedonia is present in approximately 70\u0026ndash;95% of depressed individuals, with notable variations in severity (Dichter, 2010; Whitton \u0026amp; Pizzagalli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Recent research has focused on anhedonia rather than depression with symptoms of anhedonia, revealing the detrimental effects on mental health (Ducasse et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) in both clinical and nonclinical samples (Heininga et al., 2019; Pizzagalli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndependent of depression, high levels of anhedonia are associated with reduced positive emotions (Heininga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Werner-Seidler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), increased negative emotions (Horan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Kerns et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), and fewer facial expressions in response to positive stimuli (Fiorito \u0026amp; Simons, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). Individuals suffering from anhedonia also show reduced motivation to expend behavioral efforts toward rewards (Dowd \u0026amp; Barch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). In an experiential sampling study, anhedonia is associated with fewer momentary positive emotions (Heininga et al., 2019). Although these studies have demonstrated the link between anhedonia and positive affect dysfunction, none have examined the role of anhedonia in the experience of cuteness-induced positive emotions. Although positive emotions tend to be bundled into one, identifying which emotion is disrupted in psychopathology is important for understanding mechanisms (Gruber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Khazanov \u0026amp; Ruscio, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In particular, perceptions of child cuteness and subsequent positive emotions are central aspects of the parenting system (Schaller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), and understanding the dysfunction may have practical implications for adaptive parenting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, few studies have examined the role of anhedonia in parenting. Nelis et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that parental reactions to adolescent children\u0026rsquo;s positive emotions predicted their concurrent depressive and anhedonia symptoms and long-term emotional well-being. Griffith et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) investigated the effects of parent\u0026rsquo;s anhedonia symptoms on adolescents\u0026rsquo; mental health. They found that the symptoms of anhedonia were uniquely related to lower parent-child relationship quality. These studies underscore the important role that parents play in the well-being of the adolescent child, while also demonstrating the negative impact of parental anhedonia on the child's well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile previous studies have examined the effects of parental anhedonia on adolescent children, early childhood is also a critical period in which high parent-child relationship quality predicts positive child developmental outcomes in several domains (Elicker et l., 1992; Lanjekar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, we focused on associations between anhedonia and daily emotional and parenting experiences among parents of young children.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePurpose and Study Hypotheses\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the daily emotional experiences of mothers with preschool children to determine the role of anhedonia in shaping emotional and parenting experiences. The experiential sampling method (ESM; Csikszentmihalyi \u0026amp; Larson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e) was used to collect momentary experiences. Several studies indicate that anhedonia is related to the decreased intensity of positive emotions (Kern et al., 2008) and reduced quality of parent-child relationships in adolescence (Griffith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Positive emotions encompass a wide array of affective and motivational responses (Gruber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), but the effects of anhedonia on cuteness-induced positive emotions are unknown. Since cuteness is a critical part of the affective system in parenting (Kringelbach et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), its disturbance may result in compromised parenting. Based on previous studies (Griffith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Somers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), parental anhedonia should be associated with children's negative emotional states and lower parent-child relationship quality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHypotheses\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH1a: Anhedonia is associated with a lower frequency of positive emotions induced by cuteness in children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, to better understand the effects of anhedonia on parenting, we included the following hypotheses:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH1b: Anhedonia is related to higher frequency of negative emotions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH2: Anhedonia is related to the tendency to perceive one\u0026rsquo;s child as unhappy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH3: Anhedonia is related to lower self-rated quality of mother-child interaction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH4: Anhedonia is related to higher self-rated fatigue.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe report how we determined our sample size, all data exclusions (if any), all manipulations, and all measures in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eExperiential Sampling Method\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe ESM phase lasted 5 days, during which 5 ESM beeps occurred semi-randomly each day in a fixed 11-hour frame (8 a.m. to 7 p.m.). Previous studies (e.g., Barge-Schaapveld et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) using the EMS method to study affect dysregulation, used the 5-day study period and the beep schedule. After the beep signal, participants had 15 min to fill out the EMS protocol. Alerts were made at least 120 minutes apart. A reminder was sent to the participants if they did not respond within 15 min. The ignored or missed signals were recorded as missing data. The daily ESM protocol included the following measures:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePositive emotions of cuteness induced by the child. The participants used a slider to indicate the extent to which they felt cute about their child (1 = not at all; 6 = very.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNegative emotional state: Participants rated the extent to which they experienced a) anxiety, and b) frustration using a six-point Likert scale (1 = not at all; 6 = very). These two emotion adjectives were chosen because they are highly relevant to the parenting context.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerceived emotional state of the child. The participants reported whether their child was in sight and rated the extent to which the child felt at that moment (six-point scale: 1 = upset; 6 = happy mood). If the child was not in sight, there was the option “My child is not near me.” Additionally, if the child was sleeping, the participant chose “my child is sleeping.”\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFollowing Nelson et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), all emotion adjectives were explained beforehand to the participants to ensure they understood each emotional content. At 8 p.m., an end-of-day questionnaire was sent. The questionnaire included the following measures:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1) Self-rated quality of mother-child interaction. Participants answered a question: “How much have you enjoyed spending time with your child/children today?” using a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 6 (very much).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2) Self-rated fatigue: Participants answered a question: “How tired are you right now?” using a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all tired) to 6 (very tired).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWe keep the number of survey items as small as possible. Among students, a longer ESM survey is associated with careless responses, low compliance, and feelings of burden compared to a shorter survey (Eisele et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). As this study recruited mothers with young children, we used survey items that were essential for hypothesis testing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe simr package was used to estimate the required sample size by simulating five beeps per day for five days with one group category and random effects of time and participants. The results showed that 30 responses for each group (N = 60) were required to achieve a power of 0.86, 95% CI[77.63, 92.13].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA recruitment message was sent to registered workers who indicated on a crowdsourcing website that they had a preschool child. In a screening survey, participants completed the Japanese version of the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure (SHAP-J; Nagayama et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Snaith et al., 1995). Unlike other anhedonia measures, the SHAPS-J has been validated in Japan and proven to be culturally sensitive (Nagayama et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eCompliance with the ESM Protocol and Data Exclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe overall compliance rate was good (86.0%), comparable to other ESM studies that included individuals with high anhedonia (Heininga et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Following Barge-Schaapveld et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), participants with low compliance rates (\u0026lt; 50%) and dropouts (e.g., those who withdrew consent before the first day of ESM) were excluded from the data analysis (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e = 13).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEighty-two mothers of preschool children participated in this study (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 34.6, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 4.8). In accordance with the recommendations (Franken et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), we treated the scale as an interval (1–4; range, 14–56). Higher total scores indicated higher levels of state anhedonia. Participants who scored higher than the mean were grouped into the high-anhedonia group (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 42). The remaining participants were assigned to the low-anhedonia group (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 40). Given that previous studies suggest the continuous nature of the distribution of anhedonia traits in non-clinical samples (Harvey et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), we did not ask participants to specify comorbid conditions. If participants had more than two preschool children, they were instructed to answer questions about the elder child. In this study, the average age of the children was \u003cem\u003eMage\u003c/em\u003e = 3.6, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 1.7 (female = 59.8%). The average age of the two groups did not differ, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(80) = -1.42, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .159, \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e = -0.31. The high- and low-anhedonia groups did not differ in child age, \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e(5) = 4.98, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .418, and gender ratio, \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e(1) = 0.25, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .621.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eProcedure\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThose who fulfilled the following requirements were invited to participate: having a preschool child aged between 1–6, currently not taking psychoactive drugs, and having a LINE account. The ESM survey signals were sent semi-randomly using Exkuma software (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://exkuma.com/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). Exkuma allows researchers to send a survey URL via LINE, a mobile message application widely used in Japan. Candidates who passed the screening test received an invitation message with step-by-step instructions on how to set up a LINE account for the ESM study.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter agreeing to participate, respondents proceeded to the preparation phase. This phase involved adding the LINE account and learning about emotion adjectives in the survey. Data was collected from October 10, 2023 to October 31, 2023. Participants started receiving ESM signals the day after they were registered in Exkuma.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA linear mixed modeling approach (Ime4 package in R) was used to account for the nested data structure. The first-level (within-person) model was specified as:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equa\" class=\"mathdisplay\"\u003e$${{\\gamma }}_{ij}= {\\beta }_{0j}+ {r}_{ij}$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhere, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\gamma }\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e represents the predicted variable of the \u003cem\u003ej\u003c/em\u003e-th participant at the \u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e-th assessment time. \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\beta }_{0j}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003erepresents the within-person mean outcome variable. \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({r}_{ij}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e represents the residual (random effects).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe second-level (between-person) model was specified as:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cimg 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\" width=\"737\" height=\"168\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnhedonia status was dummy coded as 0 = low anhedonia and 1 = high anhedonia, and entered uncentered. \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({u}_{0j}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e represents the random effects at level 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTransparency and Openness\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study’s design, hypotheses, and analysis plan were preregistered prospectively, before data were collected; see \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://osf.io/bkrd9/?view_only=deeadff8230c464184f6f596f2b40522\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eBetween and Within-Person Variance of Studied Variables\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe intraclass correlation (ICC) for the emotion of cuteness was 49.7% (SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.04), indicating that 49.7% of the variance was at the between-person level and 50.3% of the variance was at the within-person level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe ICCs for negative emotions (anxiety and frustration) were 58.4% and 38.6%, respectively. The ICC for child mood was 10.3%. For the end-of-day questionnaire, the ICCs for self-rated interaction quality and fatigue were 44.7% and 51.0%, respectively. Overall, the findings suggest that a considerable proportion of variability in the outcome variables occurs between the groups, and mixed modeling estimation is preferable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDaily Questionnaire\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHigher anhedonia was associated with lower daily positive emotions of cuteness, \u0026beta; = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.45, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.013, 95% CI[-0.796, -0.097] and higher daily negative emotions (anxious: \u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.65, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002, 95% CI[0.243, 1.061]; frustrated: \u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.75, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI[0.433, 1.070).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn daily ESM, the child was not present 24.5% of the time or was sleeping (8.5%). If the child was not present or was sleeping, the respondent did not rate the child\u0026rsquo;s mood. The frequency of rating the child\u0026rsquo;s mood did not differ among the groups, \u003cem\u003e\u0026chi;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.06, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.304. Mothers in the high-anhedonia group were more likely to perceive their child\u0026rsquo;s mood as not happy, \u0026beta; = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.050, 95% CI[-0.468, -0.000]). Thus, H1a, H1b and H2 are supported. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the results.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEnd-of-Day Questionnaire\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe high-anhedonia group reported lower interaction quality with their children, \u0026beta; = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.53, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI[-0.820, -0.235]. No group difference was found in self-reported fatigue, \u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.10, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.630, 95% CI[-0.308, 0.506]. Thus, H3, but not H4, is supported (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the association between anhedonia and the daily emotional and parenting experiences of mothers of preschool children. Anhedonia was related to dampened positive emotions of cuteness induced by children and higher negative emotions in daily life. Additionally, anhedonia was related to the tendency to rate the child\u0026rsquo;s mood as upset (vs. happy). While no group differences were found in self-rated fatigue at the end of the day, mothers in the high-anhedonia group reported lower interaction quality with their children relative to the low-anhedonia (control) group. This study contributes to the existing literature by offering implications for the role of anhedonia in shaping the parenting experience.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results suggest that positive affect dysregulation in anhedonia may undermine parenting experiences. Specifically, anhedonia was related to decreased intensity of positive emotions and higher levels of negative emotions in parenting, which is consistent with extant literature (Kerns et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, anhedonia was associated with a tendency to perceive the child as upset relative to the control. This is in line with the finding that people tend to perceive cuteness in someone with a happy expression (i.e., smile; Nittono, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Although this study did not recruit participants from the clinical population, the group differences were remarkable. These results highlighted the potential role of anhedonia in shaping positive and negative parenting emotions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMothers in the high-anhedonia group reported more negative episodes of child mood than did those in the control. This finding requires careful interpretation. For one interpretation, mothers with high anhedonia may be vulnerable to perceiving their children as upset because they pay more attention to negative information. Another interpretation is that the children of mothers in the high anhedonia group were actually in a more negative mood than the children of mothers in the control group because their children affected their mood. One child-side risk factor for maltreatment is the child\u0026rsquo;s developmental issues, such as a difficult temperament (Rodriguez \u0026amp; Pu, 2020). Experimental studies show that infants with difficult temperaments are perceived as less cute (Parsons et al., 2013), and female adults are less motivated to care for young children who exhibit challenging behaviors (Takamatsu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Future studies should concurrently examine mothers\u0026rsquo; anhedonia status and child development-specific conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe also suggest directions for future studies. First, this study focused on emotional and parenting experiences, whereas previous findings suggest that anhedonia is not merely a reduced capacity to experience pleasure. Individuals with high anhedonia show stronger reactivity to positive daily events relative to the control, but the mechanism through which rewarding life activities lift mood in individuals with high anhedonia is poorly understood (Heininga et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). A better understanding of the mood-brightening effect in individuals with high anhedonia may improve their capacity for positive emotions. As anhedonia undermines treatment effort (Su \u0026amp; Si, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), unravelling effective intervention strategies to counteract reduced hedonic capacity is imperative.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, this study focused on mothers\u0026rsquo; experiences and did not examine the interaction between mothers\u0026rsquo; anhedonia and their children\u0026rsquo;s development. Early childhood is a critical period in which socioemotional developmental milestones occur, and parents play an essential role in this process. Dynamic interactions between children, their familial experiences, and social contexts influence their socio-emotional development (Sameroff \u0026amp; Mackenzie, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Parents\u0026rsquo; emotional well-being (anhedonia) influences the adolescent child\u0026rsquo;s emotional well-being (Griffith et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). To reveal the interactional effects of mothers\u0026rsquo; anhedonia on children\u0026rsquo;s development and well-being, future studies should examine children\u0026rsquo;s socioemotional skills and well-being in relation to mothers\u0026rsquo; anhedonia status. Understanding the role of anhedonia in shaping parenting experiences may help mothers and their children. Hopefully, this study highlights the importance of parental anhedonia in shaping emotional and parenting experiences and may help formulate an intervention strategy to support parents and their preschool children in healthier parent-child relationships.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics Approval\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDepartment of Policy Studies, Aichi Gakuin University Human Research Ethics Committee provided ethics approval for this study (ID: 2023-20). The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards contained in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and later amendments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research has been funded by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant Number: 21K13669).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNone declared\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data, materials, and analysis codes have been made publicly available\u0026nbsp;at the Open Science Framework and can be accessed at https://osf.io/87ar9/?view_only=4cccb70817324e8fae87b5ba920067bf\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eInformed Consent\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all participants in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRT - Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing \u0026ndash; Original Draft, Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing, Visualization, Funding acquisition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eData Availability\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data, materials, and analysis codes have been made publicly available at the Open Science Framework and can be accessed at https://osf.io/87ar9/?view_only=4cccb70817324e8fae87b5ba920067bf.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmerican Psychiatric Association. 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Cham: Springer International Publishing.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"affective-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"affs","sideBox":"Learn more about [Affective Science](https://www.springer.com/journal/42761)","snPcode":"42761","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/42761/3","title":"Affective Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"anhedonia, cuteness, emotions, experiential sampling, parenting","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4179805/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4179805/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePositive emotions induced by child cuteness are critical components of the human parenting system. However, anhedonia, which is characterized by reduced subjective experiences of pleasure, may undermine parenting experiences by reducing responses to child cuteness. Using the experiential sampling method, the current research examined associations among parental anhedonia, responses to child cuteness, and daily parenting experiences. Eighty-two mothers of preschool children participated in the 5-day survey and reported momentary positive and negative emotions and parental experiences. They also completed an end-of-day survey in which they rated the interaction quality with their child and perceived fatigue. The results showed that compared to the control, mothers with high anhedonia reported dampened cuteness in child and elevated negative emotions (anxiety and frustration). In addition, they were more likely to report their child\u0026rsquo;s mood more negative relative to the control. At the end of day, the high anhedonia group reported lower interaction quality. Self-rated fatigue did not differ among groups. These results suggest that anhedonia undermines parenting experiences by diminishing cuteness-induced positive emotions while amplifying negative emotions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Anhedonia and Daily Emotional Experiences Among Mothers of Preschool Children: An Experiential Sampling Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-19 18:59:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4179805/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-11-23T14:32:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-10-15T02:26:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"109489604591619953418354584966117452767","date":"2024-09-04T01:15:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"175616227602453160578754209367038898880","date":"2024-05-03T08:02:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-04-27T23:16:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-04-26T20:54:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-04-12T12:36:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Affective Science","date":"2024-03-28T05:45:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"affective-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"affs","sideBox":"Learn more about [Affective Science](https://www.springer.com/journal/42761)","snPcode":"42761","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/42761/3","title":"Affective Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0ec54ab1-225a-47b2-b264-edf086f6b3df","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 19th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-02T16:05:10+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4179805","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-025-00340-x","journal":{"identity":"affective-science","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Affective Science"},"publishedOn":"2026-01-30 15:59:08","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 30th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-19 18:59:14","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s42761-025-00340-x","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-025-00340-x","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4179805","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4179805","identity":"rs-4179805","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}