Digitalized STEAM Education: YUPIK Archaeology Cases in China

Digitalized STEAM Education: YUPIK Archaeology Cases in China | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Digitalized STEAM Education: YUPIK Archaeology Cases in China Tiantian YU, Rui CONG, Yuyan TANG, Xiwen JIANG, Zheyu YANG This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8931017/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study constructs an integrated STEAM education model and STEAM classroom evaluation scale. Based on Yupik archaeology digital museum resource, the study applies a mixed-method featuring a parallel-wave research design in varied Chinese classrooms (n 1 = 10). Through statistical examination in students (n 2 =315; Grades 4–9), the study demonstrates the process of calculating STEAM classroom effectiveness index, where exponential weighting ensures data validation and contextual consistency. Besides that, classroom recordings (n 3 = 9) and teacher reflections (n 4 = 21) are included in thematic analysis. After the mixed-method interpretation of both quantitative results and qualitative findings, the work pinpoints four essential, interconnected elements that define successful STEAM learning environments: Student Subjectivity, Themed Teaching Implementation, Teaching Support, and Class Foundation Building. Representatively, a STEAM education assessment scale with 4 principal elements and 14 detailed rules, provides the quantitative guidance for integrated STEAM classrooms. The theoretical framework and its accompanying scale are adaptable to cross-cultural education context, giving teachers and scholars a systematic basis for improving digitalized STEAM teaching and lesson planning. STEAM Education Digitalized STEAM Courses Theoretical Framework Mixed Method Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction The Yupik people, residing in Alaska, are a semi-nomadic and semi-fishing community that adheres to Shamanism [ 19 ]. In this project, we adopted a cross-disciplinary classification method from STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) and identified several objects with educational significance. Based on that, many researchers found that digital museums inject an element of fun into learning, transforming archaeology from a distant subject into a tangible classroom experience for students [ 15 , 16 ]. Digital museum in classes represents a comprehensive educational philosophy aimed at enhancing students' overall competencies and creative abilities. In this study, we endeavor to conduct experimental STEAM classes within the context of indigenous Chinese fundamental education background, utilizing the Yupik digital archaeological museum as instructional material. We will generate the theoretical framework and instructional guidance for various stakeholders working in the dominance of basic education. The teaching resource is mainly from the website of Nunalleq digital museum, which is a collaboration between the University of Aberdeen, the 3DVisLab at the University of Dundee and Qanirtuuq Village Corporation in Quinhagak, Alaska. Through the innovative and experimental classroom approaches, we aim to explore a series of issues related to STEAM education. We address how to implement STEAM education in vastly different cultural settings through practical classroom documentation. In classrooms integrated with digital educational resources, we examine the roles teachers assume and how students engage in the learning process. Furthermore, we investigate whether it is possible to derive theoretical paradigms, frameworks, or evaluation systems for innovative classrooms based on practical case studies. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Effectiveness in STEAM Education A substantial body of research has explored the impact of STEAM education on student learning. Lytra and Drigas [ 23 ] found that STEAM learning plays a crucial role in developing metacognitive skills, which can help students with specific learning difficulties compensate for cognitive defects. Empirical findings from Lu, Lo, and Syu [ 22 ] indicate that project-based learning integrated with STEAM activities positively influences the development of creative cognition in students. Ruiz Vicente et al. [ 28 ] conducted empirical research and found that combining STEAM education with robotics improved students' skills and increased their motivation. Additionally, Ridwan et al. [ 26 ] discovered that STEAM education enhances critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, communication, and concern for environmental issues (the 5Cs). Spyropoulou and Kameas [ 30 ] introduced the STEAM Competency Framework for Educators (STEAMComp Edu). In summary, STEAM education plays a significant role in enhancing students' overall competencies and has garnered considerable attention worldwide [ 36 ]. Building upon evidence of its effectiveness, our study further refines the STEAM education framework. 2.2 Digital Museum as Teaching Resource The integration of STEAM education with museum education allows children to express their natural inclinations and improves their overall literacy [ 18 ]. Belbase et al. [ 4 ] conducted an extensive review of the literature on STEAM education and constructed related concepts and themes. They argue that the substructure of STEAM education as a process includes teaching and assessment. Chistyakov and his colleagues [ 2 ] analyzed data on students' learning outcomes in science and their training in problem-solving (critical thinking) using content analysis methods. In the early stages of research, many scholars have conducted studies on the open-access application of museum educational resources through case studies, thereby validating the richness and appropriateness of museums as educational resources [ 3 , 14 , 8 , 33 ]. In recent years, many scholars have continued to enter this field. Cesário et al. [ 7 ] introduces an interactive story app called "Turning Point", aiming to provide a fun way for teens to explore the Natural History Museum. Kanari and Souliotou [ 18 ] designed educational programs for school groups of children with disabilities by linking STEAM education, museum education, and special education. Many researchers found that the interdisciplinary blend based on the STEAM approach provides a meaningful learning experience for all children [ 17 , 20 ]. Many researchers have also demonstrated through both theoretical and empirical studies the significant advantages of museum resources that integrate advanced technologies in educational activities [ 1 , 12 ]. Therefore, our study regards the teaching process in STEAM education classrooms and subsequent analytical assessments as the fundamental structure of the research. YUPIK Archaeological Digital Museum not only contains abundant digital teaching resources, but its integration of advanced technologies also enables us to effectively implement it in STEAM education classrooms. 2.3 Frameworks Regarding STEAM Education Recent theoretical frameworks in STEAM education have placed strong emphasis on practical projects characterized by the open integration of multiple technologies and cultures [ 32 , 34 ]. For example, Chappell and Hetherington [ 9 ] proposed four core features of creative pedagogy. In addition, the construction of theoretical frameworks based on case studies largely follows knowledge integration strategies [ 27 ]. Regarding teaching strategies and assessment for educators, recent studies have frequently employed teacher competence-centered models to enhance the rigor of STEAM instructional approaches [ 35 ]. Based on current theoretical frameworks in the literature, the development of the theoretical framework in this study aims to provide technical enhancements to STEAM education theory. First, regarding the teacher competency analysis model, this study incorporates a localized Chinese classroom observation quantitative perspective into commonly used models. Second, in terms of knowledge integration strategies, the experimental courses in this study focus on student creativity and output, such as handmade artifacts, project reports, and thematic presentations. Lastly, concerning the holistic assessment framework, the evaluation scale developed in this study is based on themes and relational systems derived from actual teaching analysis. The theoretical framework of this study is intended to address the need for diversified quantitative approaches in real-world teaching scenarios. 2.4 Significance of Integrated STEAM Education STEAM education is not merely a teaching method; it represents a comprehensive educational philosophy aimed at enhancing students' overall competencies and creative abilities [ 24 ]. And the significance of this study lies in fostering students' problem-solving skills and innovative thinking through interdisciplinary integration and it is also the first integrated empirical research on STEAM education. Moreover, the theoretical framework of the inter-disciplinary education can make it possible for regions where haven’t undertaken any STEAM education courses. With the theoretical framework implemented in practical instructions in schools, the instruction guidance of the outcome in the study can recommend teacher to obtain more efficient classes in further new courses. 3. Methodology 3.1 Case Study and Mixed Method As shown in the literature review, integrating digital museums into STEAM education is both feasible and meaningful for generating empirical evidence and theoretical insights regarding multi-aspect technologies. The YUPIK archaeology digital museum enables children to explore ancient YUPIK life. Given the current insufficiency of STEAM education practice in China, researchers must employ field research methods across multiple rounds to effectively deliver interdisciplinary and experimental courses. Notably, the classroom samples in this study were drawn through random sampling which includes various individuals. For research involving a large number of students, positivist-driven quantitative analysis is more appropriate. On the other hand, developing a new theoretical framework necessarily requires qualitative analysis. Therefore, we opted for a mixed-methods approach to analyze all classroom cases and student samples. Some representative researchers proposed a unique research model deemed equivalent and parallel in qualitative and quantitative research. [ 29 , 5 ] Their model involves concurrent quantitative and qualitative research, structured in a wave-like pattern. Teachers engaging in multiple rounds of teaching and receiving feedback exhibit classroom data changes that mirror this wave-like structure. As illustrated in Fig. 1 , each wave begins with qualitative research and cycles back to it after incorporating quantitative data, ensuring comprehensive and iterative refinement of classroom practices. 3.2 Data Collection This study's data collection involves classroom audio recordings, Classroom Observation Forms, teacher post-class interviews, and student questionnaires. Using a mixed-methods model, we analyze Grade 4–9 students quantitatively with YUPIK Digital Museum STEAM class audio as textual data. One researcher instructs while another records and observes. Post-class, student engagement is gauged via questionnaires, and teaching feedback is gathered through teacher discussions. After initial data collection, the research team refines subsequent classes. Each class, adhering to STEAM instruction principles, is taught once. Post three rounds of data collection, data are integrated, categorized, and cleaned according to qualitative and quantitative requirements. Totally, 315 students and 21 teachers from three primary schools participated in this project. 3.2.1 Wave1 Chengdu Primary School For the first data collection round at Chengdu Primary School, students were asked to prepare materials like cardboard and preview YUPIK tribe archaeology a day before the lesson. We selected a random Grade 4 class with prior knowledge of seasonal changes, temperature differences, circle circumference, cylinder volume, and early human history. In the first lesson, the teacher introduced STEAM. In the second, students explored YUPIK history through activities like making containers, imitating lifestyle scenes, and creating ritual masks. Post-class, we evaluated integrated STEAM education effectiveness via questionnaires, teacher interviews, and observation forms. 3.2.2 Wave 2 Tianjin School For the second data collection round, we conducted the study at Tianjin School. Based on feedback from the first round, we refined both lesson content and target audience: we added engaging elements like heritage-identification quizzes and craft activities (e.g., sod houses, masks), required students to prepare materials (e.g., crayons), and provided preview and supplementary resources for deeper learning. To address curriculum difficulty, we selected older first-year students from an internationally oriented school who had prior history exposure and interest in cross-cultural topics. The entire first-year cohort served as the study population, with volunteer-led instruction and questionnaire collection over two weeks to ensure broader data generalizability. 3.2.3 Wave 3 Zhangjiagang School Based on Wave 2 findings, we reduced lecture time to prioritize student-centered learning. Given that Grade 6 participants were preparing for middle school entrance exams, the teacher integrated targeted math exercises. The lesson—45 minutes long—featured a streamlined structure and focused content: lectures now centered on specific topics like Yupik survival strategies (e.g., turf houses), cold-region architecture, crafts, and mask painting, rather than broad STEAM orientation. 3.3 Cases Description The continuous data collection lasted for three months. Our three rounds of data collection involved a total of 10 teaching classes, all of which were at the basic education stage. To accommodate students from different grade levels, we adjusted the teaching structure accordingly. Shown as Table 1 , classroom audio recordings were coded using consistent Case IDs, while teacher interview transcripts followed an alphanumeric coding system: “TE” for teaching educators (including classroom and volunteer teachers) and “TA” for teaching assistants, senior teachers, or observers. After preliminary processing, we obtained 15 teaching reflections from classroom teachers and 6 interview transcripts from experienced teachers. Class Period and Instructional Hours, recorded according to the actual teaching schedule, were included in the analysis as potential confounding factors. Table 1 Cases Description Case ID C1 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 Z1 Students 46 39 36 27 13 33 36 33 21 31 School Years 4 7 6 Teachers TE01 TA01 TE02, TE03, TE04, TE05, TE06, TE07, TE08, TE09, TE10, TE11, TE12, TE13, TE14. TA02, TA03, TA04, TA05 TE15 TA06 Class Period 40min 38min 45min Instructional Hours 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Teaching Framework free attempting with the basic instructional objective 3.4 Data Cleaning 3.4.1 Students’ Questionnaire The questionnaires distributed to students were derived from the semi-structured interview questions in the article [ 21 ]. After reviewing the interview questions, we selected study-relevant sections to develop an open-ended student questionnaire covering students’ experiences with STEAM courses that integrate digital museums, their perceptions, learning experiences, and challenges encountered. Following data collection, we categorized responses and performed both quantitative and qualitative analyses. The quantitative analysis focused on measurable dimensions—including prior course experience, interest level, presence or absence of negative feedback, and occurrence of difficulties—to enable statistical and trend analysis. The qualitative analysis centered on students’ descriptive accounts of course characteristics, perceived differences, impacts, engaging elements, and disliked aspects, offering deep insight into their genuine feelings, thoughts, and subjective attitudes. We systematically established value assignment rules for the Students' Questionnaire through rigorous questionnaire cleaning procedures, which involved meticulous item disaggregation and numerical coding. The full score is 8, and the scoring protocol was implemented as Table 2 . Table 2 Value Assignment Rules for the Students’ Questionnaire* Question Number Value Assignment Rule 1, 5, 12, 16, 18 [0,1] Affirmative responses ("Yes") = 1 Negative responses ("No") = 0 8, 10 [0,1] Affirmative responses ("Yes") = 0 Negative responses ("No") = 1 14 With Classmates/ Both: 1 Individually: 0 * Full Score = 8 3.4.2 Class Observation Form Drawing upon seminal master's thesis research on classroom observation methodologies, we operationalize an observation protocol that integrates both quantitative and qualitative components. [ 10 ] Building on Chinese pedagogical research legacy spanning two decades, we employ the validated classroom observation form whose structured and participant observation dimensions enable systematic disaggregation of indicators into quantitative metrics and qualitative descriptors (see Table 3 Class Observation Form for the operational matrix). Table 3 Class Observation Form Class Observation Form QUAL QUANT Student Learning Prepare-1, 4 Listen-3 Interaction-1, 6, 7 Autonomy-3, 4, 8 Accomplishment-2, 4 Prepare-2, 3 Listen-1, 2, 4 Interaction-2, 3, 4, 5 Autonomy-1, 2, 5, 6, 7 Accomplishment-1, 3, 5 Teacher Teaching Link-1, 4 Presentation-1, 3, 5, 8 Dialogue − 1, 3, 4, 6, 7 Guidance-1, 3, 5 Witty-1, 3, 5, 7 Link-2, 3 Presentation-2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10 Dialogue-2, 5 Guidance-2, 4 ,6 Witty-2, 4, 6 Course nature Resources − 51 Target-1, 3 Content-1, 3, 4, 7 Implementation-1, 5 Evaluate-1, 4 Resources-1, 3, 4, 5 Target-2, 4, 5, 6 Content-2, 5, 6 Implementation-2, 3 ,4, 6 Evaluate-2, 3 Resources-2, 6 Class culture Reflection − 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Democratic-1, 3, 4, 5 Innovate-1, 3, 4, 5 Care for-4 Characteristic traits-1, 3 Reflection-1, 2 Democratic-2 Innovate-2 Care for-1, 2, 3 Characteristic traits-2 Based on the classification of entries in Table 3 , we conducted systematic value reassignment for quantifiable components, with specific rules detailed in Table 4 . For items assessing qualitative degrees, we implemented a scoring scale adapted from the Delphi’s expertise-weighting approach, where "not at all" was scored as 0, "not well" as 0.3, "moderate" as 0.5, "relatively well" as 0.7, and "very well" or higher as 1. Binary items were coded with affirmative responses ("Yes") assigned 1 and negative responses ("No") assigned 0. For participation-rate items, we applied proportional scoring: 0% received 0; >0% but < 50% received 0.1; 50%-60% (inclusive of 50%, exclusive of 60%) received 0.3; 60%-70% (inclusive of 60%, exclusive of 70%) received 0.5; 70%-80% (inclusive of 70%, exclusive of 80%) received 0.7; 80%-90% (inclusive of 80%, exclusive of 90%) received 0.9; and ≥ 90% received 1. Regarding time-based metrics, aligned with instructional objectives, we established a comprehensive and pedagogically grounded quantification framework for the observational dimension. To be specific, we scored autonomous learning durations as follows: no student-directed time was coded as 0, durations under 5 minutes as 0.5, durations within 10 minutes as 0.9, and durations exceeding 10 minutes as 1. Above all, the full score for a class is 57. Table 4 Value Assignment Rules for Class Observation Form* Entries of Observation Form Value Assignment Rule Prepare-2; Autonomy-9; Accomplishment-5; Presentation-2, 7, 10; Dialogue-2, 5; Guidance-2, 4, 6; Witty-2, 4, 6; Implementation-6; Evaluate-2; Resources-6 [0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1] "Not at all" = 0 "Not well" = 0.3 "Moderate" = 0.5 "Relatively well" = 0.7 "Very well" or higher = 1 Interaction-2; Autonomy-6, 7; Accomplishment-1; Link-2, 3; Presentation-4, 6, 9; Target-2, 4, 5, 6; Content-2, 5, 6; Implementation-2, 3, 4; Evaluate-3; Resources-2; Reflection-1, 2; Innovation-2; Care for-1, 2, 3; Characteristic traits-2 [0,1] Affirmative responses ("Yes") = 1 Negative responses ("No") = 0 Prepare-3; Listen-1, 2, 4; Interaction-3, 4, 5; Autonomy-2, 5; Accomplishment-3; Democratic-2 [0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9, 1] 0% = 0 0% but < 50% = 0.1 50%-60% (inclusive of 50%, exclusive of 60%) = 0.3 60%-70% (inclusive of 60%, exclusive of 70%) = 0.5 70%-80% (inclusive of 70%, exclusive of 80%) = 0.7 80%-90% (inclusive of 80%, exclusive of 90%) = 0.9 ≥ 90% = 1 Autonomy-1 [0, 0.5, 0.9, 1] No student-directed time = 0 < 5 minutes = 0.5 ≤ 10 minutes = 0.9 10 minutes = 1 *Full Score = 57 3.4.3 Textual Data: Classroom Recordings and Post-Class Teacher Interviews The textual data—classroom recordings and post-class teacher interviews—are handled with minimal cleaning to preserve context and integrity. Recordings are anonymized: all personally identifiable information is removed or coded, while metadata (e.g., dates, participant backgrounds) and non-standard language (dialects, colloquialisms) are retained and accurately interpreted. All edits are logged in a memo, and a mapping file links anonymized codes to original data. Audio was auto-transcribed, saved as Word documents for coding compatibility, and segmented into thematic units based on interview questions and classroom discussion shifts—keeping original texts intact. Analysis was conducted in MAXQDA by two independent researchers to reduce bias. As data were collected in Chinese but reported in English, translations were carefully documented, and original-language versions preserved for verification. 4. Integrated Data Analysis In accordance with the Value Assignment Rules for the Students' Questionnaire (SQ) and the Class Observation Form (COF), we conducted comprehensive analysis of 315 questionnaire responses and 10 classroom observation forms. The resultant scored cases are presented in Table 5 (Value Assignment Results), which systematically documents all quantified outcomes derived from this methodological approach. Table 5 Value Assignment Results Case ID C1 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 Z1 Valid Questionnaires 43 29 20 34 13 30 20 31 31 28 SQ Validity Rate 93.49% 74.36% 74.07% 94.44% 100% 90.91% 95.24% 93.94% 86.11% 90.32% Average Score for SQ 4.93 4.41 4.40 5.21 4.85 4.57 4.00 5.03 5.26 5.36 Average Scoring Rate for SQ 61.63% 55.18% 55.00% 65.07% 60.58% 57.08% 50.00% 62.90% 65.73% 66.96% Total Score for COF 35.4 40.5 42.1 43.7 41.8 40.9 38.7 44 44.1 49.3 Scoring Rate for COF 62.11% 71.05% 73.86% 76.67% 73.33% 71.5% 67.89% 77.19% 77.37% 86.49% Cleaned Textual Data 3,545 4,983 6,035 6,779 4,511 8,824 5,574 8,291 7,390 6,535 School Years 4 7 6 Class Period 40min 38min 45min Instructional Hours 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Teaching Framework Hypothesis Structure I free attempting with the basic instructional objective (Hypothetical Structure I) Hypothesis Structure II 4.1 STEAM Classroom Effectiveness Index 4.1.1 Exclusion of Confounding Variables We performed bivariate Pearson correlation analyses on the remaining heterogeneous variables to identify pairs warranting further investigation, with results shown in Table 6 . Table 6 Results of Bivariate Pearson Correlation Analysis Bivariate Pearson's r P-Value (Double) SQ Validity Rate & Average Scoring Rate for SQ 0.292 0.413 SQ Validity Rate & Scoring Rate for COF -0.041 0.911 SQ Validity Rate & Cleaned Textual Data 0.009 0.979 SQ Validity Rate & School Years -0.180 0.619 Average Scoring Rate for SQ & Scoring Rate for COF 0.597 0.068 Average Scoring Rate for SQ & Cleaned Textual Data 0.219 0.543 Average Scoring Rate for SQ & School Years -0.245 0.494 Scoring Rate for COF & Cleaned Textual Data 0.516 0.127 Scoring Rate for COF & School Years 0.261 0.261 r = 0.00–0.10 Negligible or almost no correlation r = 0.10–0.29 Weak correlation r = 0.30–0.49 Moderate correlation r = 0.50–1.00 Strong correlation p-value < 0.05 Reference range As shown in Table 6 , the bivariate pair Average Scoring Rate for SQ and Scoring Rate for COF demonstrates a relatively higher correlation. However, due to the limited sample size, the significance of the correlation coefficients for all bivariate pairs is not ideal. Nevertheless, the weak correlation between the student questionnaire scale (SQ) and the Classroom Observation Framework (COF) is considered a meaningful finding within the context of qualitative research. This suggests that there is a discernible, albeit modest, relationship between student perceived engagement in STEAM education and teachers’ actual classroom practices. Overall, the hypothesis regarding the connection between student perception of STEAM education and teacher instructional performance is generally supported. 4.1.2 Data Validation and Functional Relationships According to the bivariate Pearson correlation analysis, the pair “Average Scoring Rate for SQ” and “Scoring Rate for COF” shows the highest correlation coefficient among all variable pairs, indicating an association between classroom observation scores and students’ self-reported evaluations of the STEAM learning environment—thus warranting further investigation. We progressively updated the teaching framework over the course of three rounds of data collection. It is expected that classroom effectiveness would show positive changes with an increasing number of experimental lessons. However, a simple linear regression model assumes a constant rate of change, which does not accurately reflect this evolving scenario. Therefore, on top of the linear model, we also propose a quadratic regression model to better capture the changing dynamics. The quadratic model is defined as: \(\:y=0.0835{x}^{2}-9.14x+319.5\) 4.1.3 Exponential Weighting In the selection of quantitative indicators for the effectiveness of STEAM classrooms, we chose Exponential Weighting as the basic model. Exponential Weighting is a method that adjusts the weights of different variables through an exponential function, and is applicable in situations where certain variables need to be emphasized over others. This approach does not fully rely on linear relationships and allows for flexible adjustment of the influence of each variable on the final outcomes. We have two variables, Average Scoring Rate for SQ and Scoring Rate for COF, denoted as x and y, respectively. Their value ranges are both [0,1] or [0%,100%]. We hope to combine them in a certain way while ensuring that the results are also within the range of [0,1]. The basic formula for the exponential weighting combination can be expressed as follows.: $$\:\text{R}\text{e}\text{s}\text{u}\text{l}\text{t}=\frac{{e}^{k{\text{}}_{1}x}+{e}^{{k}_{2}\text{}\text{y}}}{{e}^{k{\text{}}_{1}\text{}}+{e}^{{k}_{2}}}$$ In the above formula, x represents the scoring rate of the student questionnaire (SQ) after assignment, and y represents the scoring rate of the Classroom Observation Framework (COF) after assignment. COF is the result of expert evaluation of the classroom based on a specific framework. From the perspective of student-centered education, we believe that the SQ scale can more objectively reflect the impact of the STEAM classroom on students. Therefore, we set k 1 = 2, k 2 = 1; x=[0,1] or [0%,100%]; y = 0.0835x 2 -9.14x + 319.5, y=[0,1] or [0%,100%]. In the quadratic regression of SQ-COF Linear Regression Test, we set the range of x to be [0%,100%]. The reformulated equation after re-scaling is as follows.: $$\:\text{R}\text{e}\text{s}\text{u}\text{l}\text{t}=\frac{{e}^{2x}+{e}^{\text{}0.0835{x}^{2}-9.14x+319.5}}{{e}^{2}+e}\times\:100\text{\%}\text{}$$ The calculation of each sample’s result is shown in Table 7 : STEAM Classroom Effectiveness Index, and the overall results demonstrate an upward trend. We conducted a comparative analysis of the classroom textual data from the sample with the highest effectiveness index, Z1, and the sample with the lowest effectiveness index, T6, which helps identify the key themes and elements that influence classroom effectiveness in STEAM education. Table 7 STEAM Classroom Effectiveness Index Case ID x Result (%) C1 0.6163 78.82% T1 0.5518 73.37% T2 0.55 73.14% T3 0.6507 81.67% T4 0.6058 77.72% T5 0.5708 74.97% T6 0.5 68.64% T7 0.629 79.81% T8 0.6573 82.47% Z1 0.6696 83.65% 4.2 Thematic Analysis Following the six-phase framework of thematic analysis proposed by Braun & Clarke [ 6 ], we have completed the first step of data processing during the data cleaning stage, namely Familiarization with the Data. In the Findings section, we present the illustrative extracts as part of the Themes Interpretation. By integrating the current Classroom Observation Framework (COF) with the STEAM questionnaire scale, we develop a new theoretical framework. 4.2.1 Initial Coding In the second round of the study, we collected 8 classroom recordings, which were transcribed into approximately 50,000 characters of text; in the third round of the study, 1 classroom recording was collected, which was sorted into around 5,000 characters of text after transcription. After organizing the text content, we imported it into MAXQDA software for initial coding, completing a total of 474 codes. The generated initial codes were numbered in the form of Aaax (for the second-round study) and Bbbx (newly added in the third-round study) to facilitate subsequent organization. During the coding process, we repeatedly familiarized ourselves with and read through the transcribed recording texts, ensuring accuracy in naming the codes. For instance, a segment from the classroom recording stated, "Nunalleq is located in southwestern Alaska, near the Bering Sea... It has an extremely cold climate, with very long and cold winters, while summers are very short and cool." This was coded as "Introduction to geographical location Aaa12." Through continuous extraction, summarization, and naming, we generated a total of 30 initial codes. 4.2.2 Potential Themes After the initial coding, we categorized codes with similar concepts. For example, course presentations and group discussions were grouped into "Class Interactivity". Through this categorization, we obtained a total of 11 categories, including: thematic groundwork, teacher guidance, teacher feedback, thematic explanation, autonomy, course quizzes, diversified teaching materials, interactivity, thematic focus, course preparation, and concept explanation. For these 11 categories, we further merged codes with similarities. For instance, autonomous participation and interactivity were grouped into one potential theme. In total, we derived six potential themes, which were renumbered and named in the form of Aa x, as shown in Table 8 . Table 8 Themes Searching Potential Themes Initial Coding Course Preparation and STEAM Cognitive Grounding Aa1 PPT preparation Aaa8, pre-class reading Aaa9, distributing pre-class readings Aaa28; STEAM concept introduction Aaa5, having STEAM cognitive foundation Aaa2, understanding STEAM characteristics Aaa3 Theme Focus and Content Explanation Aa2 geographical location introduction Aaa12, in-depth expansion Aaa20; specific content introduction Aaa11, practical operation content introduction Aaa24, key content introduction Aaa19; course theme introduction Aaa1, course goal introduction Aaa6, target question introduction Aaa10 Teacher's Instruction and Feedback Aa3 class rhythm control Aaa21, raising questions Aaa4; prize rewardsBbb1, summary speech Aaa18, giving affirmation Aaa17, error correction Aaa16 Students' Autonomous Participation and Interaction Aa4 raising doubts Bbb2, answering with existing knowledge Aaa15, independent thinking Aaa14; class presentation Aaa25, group discussion Aaa13 Diversified Teaching Materials Support Aa5 distributing pre-class readings Aaa28, PPT resources Aaa7, digital museum resources Aaa23, turf house model display Aaa22 In-class Assessment and Goal Verification Aa6 question inspection Aaa26, questionnaire inspection Aaa27 4.2.3 Themes Reviewing After identifying the six potential themes, we proceeded to determine the final themes. In this process, we aimed to ensure the themes were coherent and meaningful, thus we further merged potential themes with similar concepts. For example, we found that "Theme Focus and Content Explanation" and "Teacher's Instruction and Feedback" could both be summarized as teachers' multi-dimensional and comprehensive class teaching. Therefore, these two potential themes were merged into "Themed Teaching Implementation." For potential themes that did not require further merging, we directly designated them as new themes, renamed them, enhanced the extensibility of the themes, and ensured the new themes could comprehensively encompass the data content. For instance, the potential theme "Course Preparation and STEAM Cognitive Grounding" was renamed "Class Foundation Building," which is more concise in expression and broader in coverage. Ultimately, we obtained a total of four themes, which were numbered in the form of Ax, as shown in the table below. 4.2.4 Themes Defining and Naming After finalizing the themes, we defined and named them. We needed to ensure that the definitions were consistent with the coding content and avoid over-extension. Therefore, when naming, we focused on referencing high-frequency data in the coding to ensure authenticity. Overall, the four themes are organized around the pre-class, in-class, and post-class stages: specifically, Class Foundation Building is conducted in the pre-class stage, involving the introduction of the course background and STEAM education. In the in-class stage, the implementing subjects are divided into teachers and students. Among them, teachers carry out Themed Teaching Implementation, explaining specific teaching content and facilitating the course process through methods such as guidance, affirmation, and error correction; students, on the other hand, need to maintain their subjectivity (Student Subjectivity), think independently about problems, and interact actively; additionally, Teaching Support and Assessment is conducted in the post-class stage, providing students with relevant resources and assessing the course effectiveness. After summarization, we defined the four themes, as shown in Table 9 . Table 9 Theme Definition Themes’ Names Define Class Foundation Building A series of preliminary preparations and cognitive groundwork carried out around teaching objectives and themes, encompassing pre-course preparations as well as introductions to the concepts and characteristics of STEAM education. Themed Teaching Implementation Content explanation conducted based on specific themes, with the teaching process facilitated through teachers' control of rhythm, guidance through questions, and feedback. Student Subjectivity The autonomy and interactivity demonstrated by students in the learning process, including the ability to actively participate in discussions, engage in independent thinking, and make independent decisions. Teaching Support and Assessment Including the provision of diversified teaching materials and the verification of the achievement of learning objectives through assessments. 5. Findings 5.1 Thematic Linkages Shown as Fig. 2, the Class Foundation Building stage refers to pre-class preparation, during which teachers carry out two core tasks: material preparation—providing course-specific PPTs and distributing pre-class readings—and cognitive preparation—introducing the STEAM concept. The Themed Teaching Implementation stage constitutes the core of classroom instruction—a structured, progressive process in which teachers deliver content and provide guidance, such as explaining Yupik artifacts (“the sock is made of seal skin”) or prompting inquiry (“Why is this region so cold?”)—highlighting their dual role in conveying knowledge and facilitating understanding. Student Subjectivity emerges as a behavioral learning chain centered on autonomy and interaction, wherein students independently construct knowledge and engage in dialogue that fosters perspective-sharing and cognitive expansion. As active agents who determine how to think and interact, their responses also offer valuable feedback for refining other instructional components. The Teaching Support and Assessment section comprises two interrelated themes: Diversified Teaching Materials Support and In-class Assessment and Goal Verification. The former broadens cognitive boundaries by integrating varied resources, while the latter relies on data collection to refine teaching design; teaching materials serve as a vehicle for assessment, and assessment, in turn, optimizes resource provision. These four themes—Class Foundation Building, Themed Teaching Implementation, Student Subjectivity, and Teaching Support and Assessment—are neither hierarchical nor overlapping, forming a clear logical structure for course implementation. They are grouped into three domains corresponding to pre-class, in-class, and post-class stages: Class Foundation Building belongs to the Teaching Preparation Domain; Themed Teaching Implementation and Student Subjectivity fall under the Teaching Implementation Domain; and Teaching Support and Assessment is placed in the Teaching Detection Domain. Above all, the rational of thematic linkages is specifically demonstrated in Table 10. Table 10 Linkage Interpretation Theme Sub-theme Interpretation Student Subjectivity Lesson preparations Familiarization of STEAM Students' course preparations and their understanding of STEAM concepts reflect their proactive engagement prior to learning. Autonomy in subject practice Critical thinking Students' analysis, questioning, and reflection on problems demonstrate their independent thinking ability during practical activities. Presentation of own project Translate subjectivity into tangible learning outputs. Themed Teaching Implementation Theme focus Focusing on the core issues of teaching activities serves as the starting point for the entire instructional process. Teacher guidance Ensure that the teaching direction does not deviate from the curriculum objectives. Witty promotion Incentives, playfulness, and situational design in the teaching process enhance learning engagement. Teaching Support Targeted topic Ensure that the teaching content aligns with students' proficiency levels and instructional goals. Diversity of teaching materials Provide diverse resources to support the course content. In-class quiz excellence Serve as an immediate feedback mechanism to verify the effectiveness of teaching support. Class Foundation Building Concept reflections Reflection on knowledge, teaching processes, and outcomes is used to construct a more refined teaching framework. Classroom democracy Building an equal and open classroom interaction atmosphere facilitates the smooth implementation of teaching. Sense of innovation Introduce new information and perspectives, and integrate them into the updated teaching framework. 5.2 Instructional Framework for Integrated STEAM Courses After comparing the analyses from two researchers on the same dataset, we found significant consistency in their interpretations of the dimensions and thematic elements constituting STEAM classrooms. Synthesizing their insights, we constructed the Hypothetical Theoretical Framework for STEAM (Fig. 3), Notably, Class Foundation Building now emphasizes intangible elements like classroom atmosphere and teacher-student relationships, beyond just diversified teaching materials. For STEAM classrooms, this foundation is crucial for fostering reflective practice, democratic principles, and creativity. An essential distinction exists between Theme Focus under Themed Teaching Implementation, which involves teachers' strict control over the curriculum theme, and Targeted Topic under Teaching Support, where teachers provide precise support for students solving specific problems. Additionally, Student Subjectivity should not be confused with Autonomy in subject practice; the latter focuses more on students' independent discovery and integration of knowledge, facilitated by both teacher guidance and familiarity with STEAM concepts. The Integrated STEAM Education Framework zeroes in on the structure of STEAM classroom assessment, detailing its components layer by layer in a tree diagram to unravel this complexity systematically. Although each element has a distinct scope—e.g., Student Subjectivity is assessed through student actions, Themed Teaching Implementation through instructional design, Teaching Support through learning conditions, and Class Foundation Building through reflection and assessment—they are not isolated. Instead, they operate in parallel, complementing and reinforcing one another to offer multiple analytical lenses for classroom effectiveness and framework construction. Their functional differentiation enables systematic integration, enhancing both theoretical coherence and practical applicability. Based on this Integrated STEAM Education Framework, we propose the STEAM Classroom Assessment Scale (Table 11) for future studies—a rating tool that translates the framework into measurable indicators to evaluate actor-variable relationships and overall lesson effectiveness. 6. Conclusion and Implication 6.1 Conclusion This study applied STEAM education through museum-based case curricula, using a mixed-methods approach with three rounds of fieldwork. Results show that STEAM positively influences students’ learning behavior, skills development, academic performance, and interdisciplinary thinking. By integrating digital museum resources, student-led exploration was emphasized, enhancing engagement and independent learning. Qualitative analysis provided a theoretical basis, while quantitative tracking revealed consistent growth in participation, in-class performance, and course feedback. Based on the analysis, we developed a practical curriculum guide and a Theoretical Framework for Integrated STEAM Courses, addressing student learning, teaching strategies, and resources. This framework supports future assessment and expands STEAM theory. Incorporating museum resources adds authenticity and enriches students’ learning experiences. We compared our theoretical framework with the latest research findings. The reference models were drawn from studies conducted in Asian and American countries.[ 11 , 25 , 35 ] Among them, the applied frameworks of STEM education focus on instructional scenarios [ 13 ], which aligns with the logic of the cross-cultural teaching samples in this study—both analyze and construct theories based on data from specific teaching fieldwork. Interestingly, even though these theoretical frameworks originate from different countries, their classification logic for teaching evaluation shows considerable similarity. Cheng and Huang developed and validated the Learn, Use, Practice, Design, Apply (LUPDA) model as a comprehensive framework for assessing K‑12 STEAM learning. [ 11 ] Compared with the LUPDA model, the framework proposed in this study aligns closely in structure and function, particularly in terms of Student Subjectivity and Themed Teaching Implementation. The two frameworks share approximately 80% similarity in their core assessment concepts. Nouri and Saberi examined the STEM learning effectiveness of Latino students through thematic analysis [ 25 ], and the methodology of their model corresponds partially to that employed in this study. Sultana and colleagues conducted a qualitative analysis of STEM curriculum content in Bangladesh [ 31 ], and the theoretical framework they developed corresponds to the "Themed Teaching Implementation" and "Class Foundation Building" dimensions in our research in terms of teaching strategies and principle-based knowledge. Compared with existing theoretical frameworks, our study provides a more detailed expansion in the dimension of teacher-student interaction, rather than evaluating teaching solely based on curriculum content. Furthermore, the theoretical framework in this study emphasizes the organic connections among key themes, enabling the entire framework to be directly translated into a comprehensive assessment scale. 6.2 Implication and limitations This study developed a Hypothetical Theoretical Framework for STEAM classrooms applicable to both the assessment of instruction—covering students, teachers, classroom culture, and curriculum design—and the design of lesson plans, where teachers can use the framework’s proportional relationships among dimensions to enhance instructional rigor and effectiveness. However, the sample in this study was highly heterogeneous and randomly selected, which may compromise the consistency and generalizability of the findings. We encourage future research to adopt more rigorous sampling strategies, such as stratified or systematic sampling. Additionally, the digital museum resources used in our study were limited in diversity; future work should incorporate collections from a wider range of institutions to enhance cultural inclusivity and pedagogical applicability. Regarding age appropriateness, future studies should develop versions tailored to early primary and upper-secondary levels. Finally, although the framework generated in this study is not inherently culture-bound, it aligns more closely with quantitative, standards-driven educational systems like China’s. To apply it effectively in educational contexts that emphasize qualitative, process-oriented, or student-centered approaches, cross-national validation and localized adaptation are necessary. Ultimately, we encourage scholars around the world to participate in such research, integrating the STEAM education and digital museum elements into education. Teaching within such context means we are striving to create a classroom ambiance of inclusiveness, making the contribution from the field of education to global prosperity and stability. Declarations Ethics Approval This study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of the researcher's affiliated institution (Administration Department, Beijing Academy of Social Sciences). All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of China. -Consent to Participate Written informed consent was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all minor participants (students in Grades 4-9) included in the study. Assent was also obtained from the students themselves. Consent was obtained from all participating teachers. Ethics Declaration This study was conducted in accordance with ethical principles for research involving human participants. Participation was voluntary, and all participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. No personally identifiable information was collected or disclosed. All data were anonymized, securely stored, and accessible only to the research team. Raw data will be permanently destroyed upon completion of the study. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement. Funding This research received no external funding. All costs associated with the study were borne by the authors. Author Contribution Tiantian YU: First author, Corresponding author, Project Lead. Miss Yu did data analysis and research framework design.Rui CONG: Co-first authors. Miss Cong did data collection and cleaning, textual data analysis, and, sections writing.Yuyan TANG: Co-first authors. Miss Tang did literature review, data collection and conclusion writing.Xiwen JIANG: Second author. Miss Jiang did data collection.Zheyu YANG: Co-second author. Mr. Yang did literature review and proofreading. Acknowledgement All the classroom recordings, text data and interviews contents from this study are not publicly available unless requested or required for research review purposes. We acknowledge the summer camp organized by The University of Hong Kong, which brought together research members from vastly different backgrounds. The project we have created is a miracle. For any related academic inquiries, please do not hesitate to contact the corresponding author. Data Availability The study is independently carried out without any institutional conflicts of interest. The purpose of this research is to construct a theoretical framework of integrated STEAM education by experimental classrooms. Our team strictly adheres to scientific research ethics. All participants’ personal privacy and rights will be fully protected throughout the research process. No identifying information will be disclosed without explicit consent. All personal data will be anonymized and stored securely. Only the research team will have access to the raw data, which will be destroyed after the study’s completion. References Andone, D., Ternauciuc, A., Vert, S., Mocofan, M., Mihaescu, V., Stoica, D., & Vasiu, R. (2021). Learning with open cultural data—Jecza museum for digiculture study case. In IEEE 21st International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT 2021) (pp. 17–19). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICALT52272.2021.00012 Avdeeva, E. L., Dyadichenko, E. A., Kunitsyna, M. L., Yagudina, R. I., Chistyakov, A. A., & Zhdanov, S. P. (2023). Exploring the characteristics and effectiveness of project-based learning for science and STEAM education. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education , 19 (5), em2256. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/13128 Basu, P., & Coleman, S. (2010). Culture, identity, difference: Developing a museum-based anthropology education resource for pre-university students. Anthropology in Action: Journal for Applied Anthropology in Policy and Practice , 17 (2–3), 87–104. https://doi.org/10.3167/aia.2010.170208 Belbase, S., Mainali, B. R., Kasemsukpipat, W., Tairab, H., Gochoo, M., & Jarrah, A. (2021). At the dawn of science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics (STEAM) education: Prospects, priorities, processes, and problems. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology , 53 (11), 2919–2955. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2021.1922943 Bentahar, O., & Cameron, R. (2015). Design and implementation of a mixed method research study in project management. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods , 13 (1), 3–15. http://www.ejbrm.com/issue/download.html?idArticle=394 Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3 (2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa Cesário, J. M., dos Flauzino, S., V. H., & Mejia, J. V. C. (2020). Metodologia científica: Principais tipos de pesquisas e suas caraterísticas. Revista Científica Multidisciplinar Núcleo Do Conhecimento , 23–33. https://doi.org/10. 32749/nucleodoconhecimento.com.br/educacao/tipos-de-pesquisas Cesário, V., Coelho, A., & Nisi, V. (2017). Enhancing museums’ experiences through games and stories for young audiences. In Interactive storytelling. ICIDS 2017 (pp. 351–354). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71027-3_41 Chappell, K., & Hetherington, L. (2024). Creative pedagogies in digital STEAM practices: Natural, technological and cultural entanglements for powerful learning and activism. Cultural Studies of Science Education , 19 , 77–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-023-10200-4 Chen, Y. (2000). A study on classroom observation methods [Master’s thesis, East China Normal University]. CNKI. https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=TD_mLQSGK6uJ3V0QcS_u7iuDQjEkDGiAVPJkF29G8Ul2XJ6aMBxSmH_McDaEt-Y6y53xynbH8ocXhN5aBmKkmfjelk9_f_7Nu6_vLitxwYDzP2lfMc_YaXResZNMUnECSwBMDKgrNbeGExgeYN9nr2lC6xj4aDAcv21kyXNCTHpuhX2RHY14Ht7PjGyKlMU3&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS Cheng, Y. P., & Huang, Y. M. (2025). LUPDA: A comprehensive rubrics-based assessment model for STEAM education. International Journal of STEM Education , 12 , 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-025-00570-2 Daniela, L. (2020). Virtual museums as learning agents. Sustainability , 12 (7), 2698. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072698 Farhana, Z., Hoque, S., Sultana, T., et al. (2024). Developing a framework for integrating STEM approach at primary education of Bangladesh. Discover Education , 3 , 112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-024-00188-6 Ferrara, V., Macchia, A., Sapia, S., & Lella, F. (2014). Cultural heritage open data to develop an educational framework. In The 5th International Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems and Applications (IISA 2014) (pp. 166–170). https://doi.org/10.1109/IISA.2014.6878775 Gajda, K. A. (2020). Glocalism and its implementation: The case of museum-based education. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Global Studies , 15 (3), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.18848/2324-755X/CGP/v15i03/29-42 Godfrey, J. R., & McLeod, H. S. (2017). Creativity and standardization: The ability of museum-based programming to inform 21st century education. Canadian Review of Art Education: Research & Issues , 44 (1), 20–35. https://doi.org/10.26443/crae.v44i1.33 Jia, Y. C., & Guo, W. G. (2023). Museum blended learning through digital learning platform: The case of Smithsonian Learning Lab. In Blended learning: Lessons learned and ways forward. ICBL 2023 (pp. 224–235). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35731-2_20 Kanari, C., & Souliotou, A. (2020). Education of children with disabilities in nonformal learning environments: A cross-disciplinary approach of STEAM education in a technological museum in Greece. European Journal of Alternative Education Studies , 5(2). https://oapub.org/edu/index.php/ejae/article/view/3188 Klein, R. G. (1992). The archeology of modern human origins. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues News and Reviews , 1 (1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.1360010105 Leavy, A., Dick, L., Meletiou-Mavrotheris, M., Paparistodemou, E., & Stylianou, E. (2023). The prevalence and use of emerging technologies in STEAM education: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning , 39 (4), 1061–1082. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12806 Li, J., Luo, H., Zhao, L., Zhu, M., Ma, L., & Liao, X. (2022). Promoting STEAM education in primary school through cooperative teaching: A design-based research study. Sustainability , 14 (16), 10333. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610333 Lu, S. Y., Lo, C. C., & Syu, J. Y. (2022). Project-based learning oriented STEAM: The case of micro-bit paper-cutting lamp. International Journal of Technology and Design Education , 32 , 2553–2575. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-021-09714-1 Lytra, N., & Drigas, A. (2021). STEAM education—metacognition—Specific Learning Disabilities. Scientific Electronic Archives , 14 (10). https://doi.org/10.36560/141020211442 Marín-Marín, J. A., Moreno-Guerrero, A. J., Dúo-Terrón, P., & López-Belmonte, J. (2021). STEAM in education: A bibliometric analysis of performance and co-words in Web of Science. International Journal of STEM Education , 8 (1), 41. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-021-00296-x Nouri, N., & Saberi, M. (2025). Proposing evidence-based STEM curriculum framework for Latinx student success through meta-synthesis of effective interventions. Discover Education , 4 , 539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-025-00953-1 Ridwan, A., Rahmawati, Y., Mardiah, A., & Rifai, A. (2020). Developing 22nd century skills through the integration of STEAM into smoke absorber project. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1521(4), 042077. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1521/4/042077 Rodrigues-Silva, J., & Alsina, Á. (2023). Conceptualising and framing STEAM education: What is (and what is not) this educational approach? Texto Livre: Linguagem e Tecnologia , 16 , 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-3652.2023.44946 Ruiz Vicente, F., Llinares, Z., A., & Montés Sánchez, N. (2020). Sustainable city: A STEAM project using robotics to bring the city of the future to primary education students. Sustainability , 12 (22), 9696. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229696 Steckler, A., McLeroy, K. R., Goodman, R. M., Bird, S. T., & McCormick, L. (1992). Toward integrating qualitative and quantitative methods: An introduction. Health Education Quarterly , 19 (1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019819201900101 Spyropoulou, N., & Kameas, A. (2024). Augmenting the impact of STEAM education by developing a competence framework for STEAM educators for effective teaching and learning. Education Sciences , 14 (1), 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14010025 Sultana, T., Farhana, Z., Hoque, S., et al. (2024). Developing a framework for integrating STEM approach at primary education of Bangladesh. Discover Education , 3 , 112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-024-00188-6 Tang, M., Wijaya, T. T., Li, X., et al. (2025). Exploring the determinants of mathematics teachers’ willingness to implement STEAM education using structural equation modeling. Scientific Reports , 15 , 6304. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-90772-z Tsiviltidou, Z., & Vavoula, G. (2017). Digital storytelling as a framework for inquiry-based museum learning. In 2017 IEEE 17th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICALT.2017.50 Wang, L., & Mihai, A. (2025). Integrated STEM education in early childhood classrooms: Voices from the field. Early Childhood Education Journal , 53 (7), 2783–2793. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-024-01794-7 Wongsa, S., & Buaraphan, K. (2024). The development of TPACK-STEAM model for teaching volume and surface area of sphere in mathematics for grade 9 students. AIP Conference Proceedings, 3024(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0205440 Xu, H., Lin, C. L., Li, C., et al. (2025). Mining and evolutionary trends of STEAM research topics based on the dynamic topic model. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications , 12 , 1803. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-06215-7 Tables Table 11 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Table11STEAMClassroomAssessmentScale.jpg AppendixABC.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8931017","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":596701501,"identity":"767fc772-5001-4133-9147-7af51c736c80","order_by":0,"name":"Tiantian YU","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABDklEQVRIie2PMUvDQBTHXwjcdDabpFQTP8I7DtSh6FdJCHQqiN8gQcgUd0u/REfHCwdxOXQ9iGChsxBxiVDBK3bMUUeH+8GDx//x4/EHcDj+KcIMBfBy7Pqp2f38N7Pi785oFF/cLqoZAPEOKwY0Q5JPSuRhBfVNLb4etyfBsmIrSl8ifCuKdacgDo6HPdQZ1PcKafiqOIaXLcfGu2MPGthimVgVcVSaLnp+jkjbdNV45YR2kGBrV+pvo8R6ftEn5Plvitx9QT1LUBCxV7RdGasNytOSU6YzwYoq4+MmNV1UaO0yeko3H+9ldB3pNOfb/ioaSVmvu2YaB5Nh5UwMxgChJQeIc+vJ4XA4HHt+AFITaUTyJV9lAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Academy of Social Sciences","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tiantian","middleName":"","lastName":"YU","suffix":""},{"id":596701502,"identity":"11398eea-ad91-4f65-8fad-5145fd88be1c","order_by":1,"name":"Rui CONG","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Henan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rui","middleName":"","lastName":"CONG","suffix":""},{"id":596701504,"identity":"a8f31f1f-a106-4a1c-bb5e-c4018fe7151b","order_by":2,"name":"Yuyan TANG","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nankai University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yuyan","middleName":"","lastName":"TANG","suffix":""},{"id":596701506,"identity":"021fcc12-a1b0-4268-ac9d-a3f186ba67ef","order_by":3,"name":"Xiwen JIANG","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nanjing University of Finance and Economics","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xiwen","middleName":"","lastName":"JIANG","suffix":""},{"id":596701509,"identity":"d6712ef2-b06e-462a-b288-fe7c0695669f","order_by":4,"name":"Zheyu YANG","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Cornell University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zheyu","middleName":"","lastName":"YANG","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-21 06:23:14","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8931017/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8931017/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":104176690,"identity":"a3bd6e61-3cae-471c-bc6e-40657c4d35f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-08 16:39:14","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":12777,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParallel wave-like structure of this study\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1Parallelwavelikestructureofthisstudy.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8931017/v1/0d3ed64b4c46f4dfbef9a4ca.jpg"},{"id":104176743,"identity":"9b504f1c-d30e-4783-8d5f-2aa1867fd8ab","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-08 16:39:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":33501,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThematic Linkages\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2ThematicLinkages.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8931017/v1/e1c8e56c5fe84f65757f2cf6.jpg"},{"id":104176741,"identity":"27e09048-9bed-43ae-8486-9562fe577044","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-08 16:39:19","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86889,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTheoretical Framework for Integrated STEAM Education\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3TheoreticalFrameworkforIntegratedSTEAMEducation.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8931017/v1/8ed4f961bea17f2a4cb1effb.jpg"},{"id":108644021,"identity":"6e3d1e54-ce79-4cd9-828e-1e5a97369ec6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-06 21:25:20","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":660766,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8931017/v1/d675dfc9-c332-4da2-85c7-86b0c6d421df.pdf"},{"id":104176738,"identity":"1797f245-58ac-45dd-bd82-529586c9f20c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-08 16:39:18","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":318330,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table11STEAMClassroomAssessmentScale.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8931017/v1/748ba21b02a5932039a4ca89.jpg"},{"id":104176740,"identity":"c0c45a5f-1a4e-44b7-aa7b-d4d052f28f78","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-08 16:39:19","extension":"docx","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":2839344,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"AppendixABC.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8931017/v1/7bc1fc91559f57eb02adbf64.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Digitalized STEAM Education: YUPIK Archaeology Cases in China","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Yupik people, residing in Alaska, are a semi-nomadic and semi-fishing community that adheres to Shamanism [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. In this project, we adopted a cross-disciplinary classification method from STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) and identified several objects with educational significance. Based on that, many researchers found that digital museums inject an element of fun into learning, transforming archaeology from a distant subject into a tangible classroom experience for students [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Digital museum in classes represents a comprehensive educational philosophy aimed at enhancing students' overall competencies and creative abilities. In this study, we endeavor to conduct experimental STEAM classes within the context of indigenous Chinese fundamental education background, utilizing the Yupik digital archaeological museum as instructional material. We will generate the theoretical framework and instructional guidance for various stakeholders working in the dominance of basic education. The teaching resource is mainly from the website of Nunalleq digital museum, which is a collaboration between the University of Aberdeen, the 3DVisLab at the University of Dundee and Qanirtuuq Village Corporation in Quinhagak, Alaska.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrough the innovative and experimental classroom approaches, we aim to explore a series of issues related to STEAM education. We address how to implement STEAM education in vastly different cultural settings through practical classroom documentation. In classrooms integrated with digital educational resources, we examine the roles teachers assume and how students engage in the learning process. Furthermore, we investigate whether it is possible to derive theoretical paradigms, frameworks, or evaluation systems for innovative classrooms based on practical case studies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Effectiveness in STEAM Education\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA substantial body of research has explored the impact of STEAM education on student learning. Lytra and Drigas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] found that STEAM learning plays a crucial role in developing metacognitive skills, which can help students with specific learning difficulties compensate for cognitive defects. Empirical findings from Lu, Lo, and Syu [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] indicate that project-based learning integrated with STEAM activities positively influences the development of creative cognition in students. Ruiz Vicente et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] conducted empirical research and found that combining STEAM education with robotics improved students' skills and increased their motivation. Additionally, Ridwan et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] discovered that STEAM education enhances critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, communication, and concern for environmental issues (the 5Cs). Spyropoulou and Kameas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] introduced the STEAM Competency Framework for Educators (STEAMComp Edu).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, STEAM education plays a significant role in enhancing students' overall competencies and has garnered considerable attention worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Building upon evidence of its effectiveness, our study further refines the STEAM education framework.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Digital Museum as Teaching Resource\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe integration of STEAM education with museum education allows children to express their natural inclinations and improves their overall literacy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Belbase et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e] conducted an extensive review of the literature on STEAM education and constructed related concepts and themes. They argue that the substructure of STEAM education as a process includes teaching and assessment. Chistyakov and his colleagues [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e] analyzed data on students' learning outcomes in science and their training in problem-solving (critical thinking) using content analysis methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the early stages of research, many scholars have conducted studies on the open-access application of museum educational resources through case studies, thereby validating the richness and appropriateness of museums as educational resources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. In recent years, many scholars have continued to enter this field. Ces\u0026aacute;rio et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e] introduces an interactive story app called \"Turning Point\", aiming to provide a fun way for teens to explore the Natural History Museum. Kanari and Souliotou [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] designed educational programs for school groups of children with disabilities by linking STEAM education, museum education, and special education. Many researchers found that the interdisciplinary blend based on the STEAM approach provides a meaningful learning experience for all children [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany researchers have also demonstrated through both theoretical and empirical studies the significant advantages of museum resources that integrate advanced technologies in educational activities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, our study regards the teaching process in STEAM education classrooms and subsequent analytical assessments as the fundamental structure of the research. YUPIK Archaeological Digital Museum not only contains abundant digital teaching resources, but its integration of advanced technologies also enables us to effectively implement it in STEAM education classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Frameworks Regarding STEAM Education\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent theoretical frameworks in STEAM education have placed strong emphasis on practical projects characterized by the open integration of multiple technologies and cultures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, Chappell and Hetherington [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e] proposed four core features of creative pedagogy. In addition, the construction of theoretical frameworks based on case studies largely follows knowledge integration strategies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Regarding teaching strategies and assessment for educators, recent studies have frequently employed teacher competence-centered models to enhance the rigor of STEAM instructional approaches [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on current theoretical frameworks in the literature, the development of the theoretical framework in this study aims to provide technical enhancements to STEAM education theory. First, regarding the teacher competency analysis model, this study incorporates a localized Chinese classroom observation quantitative perspective into commonly used models. Second, in terms of knowledge integration strategies, the experimental courses in this study focus on student creativity and output, such as handmade artifacts, project reports, and thematic presentations. Lastly, concerning the holistic assessment framework, the evaluation scale developed in this study is based on themes and relational systems derived from actual teaching analysis. The theoretical framework of this study is intended to address the need for diversified quantitative approaches in real-world teaching scenarios.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Significance of Integrated STEAM Education\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTEAM education is not merely a teaching method; it represents a comprehensive educational philosophy aimed at enhancing students' overall competencies and creative abilities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. And the significance of this study lies in fostering students' problem-solving skills and innovative thinking through interdisciplinary integration and it is also the first integrated empirical research on STEAM education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the theoretical framework of the inter-disciplinary education can make it possible for regions where haven\u0026rsquo;t undertaken any STEAM education courses. With the theoretical framework implemented in practical instructions in schools, the instruction guidance of the outcome in the study can recommend teacher to obtain more efficient classes in further new courses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Case Study and Mixed Method\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in the literature review, integrating digital museums into STEAM education is both feasible and meaningful for generating empirical evidence and theoretical insights regarding multi-aspect technologies. The YUPIK archaeology digital museum enables children to explore ancient YUPIK life. Given the current insufficiency of STEAM education practice in China, researchers must employ field research methods across multiple rounds to effectively deliver interdisciplinary and experimental courses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotably, the classroom samples in this study were drawn through random sampling which includes various individuals. For research involving a large number of students, positivist-driven quantitative analysis is more appropriate. On the other hand, developing a new theoretical framework necessarily requires qualitative analysis. Therefore, we opted for a mixed-methods approach to analyze all classroom cases and student samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome representative researchers proposed a unique research model deemed equivalent and parallel in qualitative and quantitative research. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] Their model involves concurrent quantitative and qualitative research, structured in a wave-like pattern. Teachers engaging in multiple rounds of teaching and receiving feedback exhibit classroom data changes that mirror this wave-like structure. As illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, each wave begins with qualitative research and cycles back to it after incorporating quantitative data, ensuring comprehensive and iterative refinement of classroom practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study's data collection involves classroom audio recordings, Classroom Observation Forms, teacher post-class interviews, and student questionnaires. Using a mixed-methods model, we analyze Grade 4\u0026ndash;9 students quantitatively with YUPIK Digital Museum STEAM class audio as textual data. One researcher instructs while another records and observes. Post-class, student engagement is gauged via questionnaires, and teaching feedback is gathered through teacher discussions. After initial data collection, the research team refines subsequent classes. Each class, adhering to STEAM instruction principles, is taught once. Post three rounds of data collection, data are integrated, categorized, and cleaned according to qualitative and quantitative requirements. Totally, 315 students and 21 teachers from three primary schools participated in this project.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Wave1 Chengdu Primary School\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the first data collection round at Chengdu Primary School, students were asked to prepare materials like cardboard and preview YUPIK tribe archaeology a day before the lesson. We selected a random Grade 4 class with prior knowledge of seasonal changes, temperature differences, circle circumference, cylinder volume, and early human history. In the first lesson, the teacher introduced STEAM. In the second, students explored YUPIK history through activities like making containers, imitating lifestyle scenes, and creating ritual masks. Post-class, we evaluated integrated STEAM education effectiveness via questionnaires, teacher interviews, and observation forms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Wave 2 Tianjin School\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the second data collection round, we conducted the study at Tianjin School. Based on feedback from the first round, we refined both lesson content and target audience: we added engaging elements like heritage-identification quizzes and craft activities (e.g., sod houses, masks), required students to prepare materials (e.g., crayons), and provided preview and supplementary resources for deeper learning. To address curriculum difficulty, we selected older first-year students from an internationally oriented school who had prior history exposure and interest in cross-cultural topics. The entire first-year cohort served as the study population, with volunteer-led instruction and questionnaire collection over two weeks to ensure broader data generalizability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.3 Wave 3 Zhangjiagang School\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on Wave 2 findings, we reduced lecture time to prioritize student-centered learning. Given that Grade 6 participants were preparing for middle school entrance exams, the teacher integrated targeted math exercises. The lesson\u0026mdash;45 minutes long\u0026mdash;featured a streamlined structure and focused content: lectures now centered on specific topics like Yupik survival strategies (e.g., turf houses), cold-region architecture, crafts, and mask painting, rather than broad STEAM orientation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Cases Description\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe continuous data collection lasted for three months. Our three rounds of data collection involved a total of 10 teaching classes, all of which were at the basic education stage. To accommodate students from different grade levels, we adjusted the teaching structure accordingly. Shown as Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, classroom audio recordings were coded using consistent Case IDs, while teacher interview transcripts followed an alphanumeric coding system: \u0026ldquo;TE\u0026rdquo; for teaching educators (including classroom and volunteer teachers) and \u0026ldquo;TA\u0026rdquo; for teaching assistants, senior teachers, or observers. After preliminary processing, we obtained 15 teaching reflections from classroom teachers and 6 interview transcripts from experienced teachers. Class Period and Instructional Hours, recorded according to the actual teaching schedule, were included in the analysis as potential confounding factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases Description\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCase ID\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZ1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSchool Years\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTeachers\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTE01\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTA01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTE02, TE03, TE04, TE05, TE06, TE07, TE08, TE09, TE10,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTE11, TE12, TE13, TE14. TA02, TA03, TA04, TA05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTE15\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTA06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eClass Period\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40min\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38min\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45min\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInstructional Hours\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTeaching Framework\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efree attempting with the basic instructional objective\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Data Cleaning\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.1 Students\u0026rsquo; Questionnaire\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe questionnaires distributed to students were derived from the semi-structured interview questions in the article [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. After reviewing the interview questions, we selected study-relevant sections to develop an open-ended student questionnaire covering students\u0026rsquo; experiences with STEAM courses that integrate digital museums, their perceptions, learning experiences, and challenges encountered. Following data collection, we categorized responses and performed both quantitative and qualitative analyses. The quantitative analysis focused on measurable dimensions\u0026mdash;including prior course experience, interest level, presence or absence of negative feedback, and occurrence of difficulties\u0026mdash;to enable statistical and trend analysis. The qualitative analysis centered on students\u0026rsquo; descriptive accounts of course characteristics, perceived differences, impacts, engaging elements, and disliked aspects, offering deep insight into their genuine feelings, thoughts, and subjective attitudes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe systematically established value assignment rules for the Students' Questionnaire through rigorous questionnaire cleaning procedures, which involved meticulous item disaggregation and numerical coding. The full score is 8, and the scoring protocol was implemented as Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue Assignment Rules for the Students\u0026rsquo; Questionnaire*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuestion Number\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue Assignment Rule\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1, 5, 12, 16, 18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0,1]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffirmative responses (\"Yes\")\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative responses (\"No\")\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8, 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0,1]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffirmative responses (\"Yes\")\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative responses (\"No\")\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith Classmates/ Both: 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndividually: 0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e* Full Score\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.2 Class Observation Form\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrawing upon seminal master's thesis research on classroom observation methodologies, we operationalize an observation protocol that integrates both quantitative and qualitative components. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] Building on Chinese pedagogical research legacy spanning two decades, we employ the validated classroom observation form whose structured and participant observation dimensions enable systematic disaggregation of indicators into quantitative metrics and qualitative descriptors (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e Class Observation Form for the operational matrix).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClass Observation Form\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClass Observation Form\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQUAL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQUANT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent Learning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrepare-1, 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eListen-3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteraction-1, 6, 7\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAutonomy-3, 4, 8\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccomplishment-2, 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrepare-2, 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eListen-1, 2, 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteraction-2, 3, 4, 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAutonomy-1, 2, 5, 6, 7\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccomplishment-1, 3, 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeacher Teaching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLink-1, 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresentation-1, 3, 5, 8\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDialogue\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1, 3, 4, 6, 7\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGuidance-1, 3, 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWitty-1, 3, 5, 7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLink-2, 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresentation-2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDialogue-2, 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGuidance-2, 4 ,6\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWitty-2, 4, 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCourse nature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResources\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;51\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTarget-1, 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent-1, 3, 4, 7\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImplementation-1, 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaluate-1, 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResources-1, 3, 4, 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTarget-2, 4, 5, 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent-2, 5, 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImplementation-2, 3 ,4, 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaluate-2, 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResources-2, 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClass culture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReflection\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3, 4, 5, 6, 7\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemocratic-1, 3, 4, 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInnovate-1, 3, 4, 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCare for-4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristic traits-1, 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReflection-1, 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemocratic-2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInnovate-2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCare for-1, 2, 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristic traits-2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the classification of entries in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, we conducted systematic value reassignment for quantifiable components, with specific rules detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e For items assessing qualitative degrees, we implemented a scoring scale adapted from the Delphi\u0026rsquo;s expertise-weighting approach, where \"not at all\" was scored as 0, \"not well\" as 0.3, \"moderate\" as 0.5, \"relatively well\" as 0.7, and \"very well\" or higher as 1. Binary items were coded with affirmative responses (\"Yes\") assigned 1 and negative responses (\"No\") assigned 0.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor participation-rate items, we applied proportional scoring: 0% received 0; \u0026gt;0% but \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50% received 0.1; 50%-60% (inclusive of 50%, exclusive of 60%) received 0.3; 60%-70% (inclusive of 60%, exclusive of 70%) received 0.5; 70%-80% (inclusive of 70%, exclusive of 80%) received 0.7; 80%-90% (inclusive of 80%, exclusive of 90%) received 0.9; and \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;90% received 1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding time-based metrics, aligned with instructional objectives, we established a comprehensive and pedagogically grounded quantification framework for the observational dimension. To be specific, we scored autonomous learning durations as follows: no student-directed time was coded as 0, durations under 5 minutes as 0.5, durations within 10 minutes as 0.9, and durations exceeding 10 minutes as 1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbove all, the full score for a class is 57.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue Assignment Rules for Class Observation Form*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEntries of Observation Form\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue Assignment Rule\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrepare-2; Autonomy-9; Accomplishment-5; Presentation-2, 7, 10; Dialogue-2, 5;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGuidance-2, 4, 6; Witty-2, 4, 6; Implementation-6; Evaluate-2; Resources-6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\"Not at all\" = 0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\"Not well\" = 0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\"Moderate\" = 0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\"Relatively well\" = 0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\"Very well\" or higher\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteraction-2; Autonomy-6, 7; Accomplishment-1; Link-2, 3;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresentation-4, 6, 9; Target-2, 4, 5, 6; Content-2, 5, 6; Implementation-2, 3, 4; Evaluate-3; Resources-2; Reflection-1, 2; Innovation-2; Care for-1, 2, 3; Characteristic traits-2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0,1]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffirmative responses (\"Yes\")\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative responses (\"No\")\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrepare-3; Listen-1, 2, 4; Interaction-3, 4, 5; Autonomy-2, 5; Accomplishment-3; Democratic-2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9, 1]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0% = 0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0% but \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50% = 0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e50%-60% (inclusive of 50%, exclusive of 60%)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e60%-70% (inclusive of 60%, exclusive of 70%)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e70%-80% (inclusive of 70%, exclusive of 80%)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e80%-90% (inclusive of 80%, exclusive of 90%)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;90% = 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAutonomy-1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0, 0.5, 0.9, 1]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo student-directed time\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;5 minutes\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;10 minutes\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 minutes\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e*Full Score\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;57\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.3 Textual Data: Classroom Recordings and Post-Class Teacher Interviews\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe textual data\u0026mdash;classroom recordings and post-class teacher interviews\u0026mdash;are handled with minimal cleaning to preserve context and integrity. Recordings are anonymized: all personally identifiable information is removed or coded, while metadata (e.g., dates, participant backgrounds) and non-standard language (dialects, colloquialisms) are retained and accurately interpreted. All edits are logged in a memo, and a mapping file links anonymized codes to original data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAudio was auto-transcribed, saved as Word documents for coding compatibility, and segmented into thematic units based on interview questions and classroom discussion shifts\u0026mdash;keeping original texts intact. Analysis was conducted in MAXQDA by two independent researchers to reduce bias. As data were collected in Chinese but reported in English, translations were carefully documented, and original-language versions preserved for verification.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Integrated Data Analysis","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn accordance with the Value Assignment Rules for the Students' Questionnaire (SQ) and the Class Observation Form (COF), we conducted comprehensive analysis of 315 questionnaire responses and 10 classroom observation forms. The resultant scored cases are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e (Value Assignment Results), which systematically documents all quantified outcomes derived from this methodological approach.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue Assignment Results\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCase ID\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZ1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eValid Questionnaires\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSQ Validity Rate\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.49%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.36%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.07%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.44%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.91%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.24%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.94%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.11%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.32%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAverage Score for SQ\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAverage Scoring Rate for SQ\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.63%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.18%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.00%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.07%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.58%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.08%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.00%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.90%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.73%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.96%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal Score for COF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eScoring Rate for COF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.11%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.05%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.86%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.67%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.33%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.89%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.19%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.37%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.49%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCleaned Textual Data\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,545\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,983\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,035\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,779\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,511\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,824\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,574\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,291\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7,390\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,535\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSchool Years\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eClass Period\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40min\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38min\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45min\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInstructional Hours\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTeaching Framework\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypothesis Structure I\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efree attempting with\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe basic instructional objective (Hypothetical Structure I)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypothesis Structure II\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 STEAM Classroom Effectiveness Index\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.1 Exclusion of Confounding Variables\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe performed bivariate Pearson correlation analyses on the remaining heterogeneous variables to identify pairs warranting further investigation, with results shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults of Bivariate Pearson Correlation Analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBivariate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePearson's r\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-Value (Double)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSQ Validity Rate \u0026amp; Average Scoring Rate for SQ\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.292\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.413\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSQ Validity Rate \u0026amp; Scoring Rate for COF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.911\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSQ Validity Rate \u0026amp; Cleaned Textual Data\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.979\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSQ Validity Rate \u0026amp; School Years\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.180\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.619\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAverage Scoring Rate for SQ \u0026amp; Scoring Rate for COF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.597\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAverage Scoring Rate for SQ \u0026amp; Cleaned Textual Data\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.219\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.543\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAverage Scoring Rate for SQ \u0026amp; School Years\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.494\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eScoring Rate for COF \u0026amp; Cleaned Textual Data\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.516\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eScoring Rate for COF \u0026amp; School Years\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.261\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.261\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003er\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.00\u0026ndash;0.10 Negligible or almost no correlation\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003er\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.10\u0026ndash;0.29 Weak correlation\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003er\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.30\u0026ndash;0.49 Moderate correlation\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003er\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.50\u0026ndash;1.00 Strong correlation\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003ep-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 Reference range\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, the bivariate pair Average Scoring Rate for SQ and Scoring Rate for COF demonstrates a relatively higher correlation. However, due to the limited sample size, the significance of the correlation coefficients for all bivariate pairs is not ideal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNevertheless, the weak correlation between the student questionnaire scale (SQ) and the Classroom Observation Framework (COF) is considered a meaningful finding within the context of qualitative research. This suggests that there is a discernible, albeit modest, relationship between student perceived engagement in STEAM education and teachers\u0026rsquo; actual classroom practices. Overall, the hypothesis regarding the connection between student perception of STEAM education and teacher instructional performance is generally supported.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.2 Data Validation and Functional Relationships\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e According to the bivariate Pearson correlation analysis, the pair \u0026ldquo;Average Scoring Rate for SQ\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Scoring Rate for COF\u0026rdquo; shows the highest correlation coefficient among all variable pairs, indicating an association between classroom observation scores and students\u0026rsquo; self-reported evaluations of the STEAM learning environment\u0026mdash;thus warranting further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe progressively updated the teaching framework over the course of three rounds of data collection. It is expected that classroom effectiveness would show positive changes with an increasing number of experimental lessons. However, a simple linear regression model assumes a constant rate of change, which does not accurately reflect this evolving scenario. Therefore, on top of the linear model, we also propose a quadratic regression model to better capture the changing dynamics. The quadratic model is defined as: \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:y=0.0835{x}^{2}-9.14x+319.5\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.3 Exponential Weighting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the selection of quantitative indicators for the effectiveness of STEAM classrooms, we chose Exponential Weighting as the basic model. Exponential Weighting is a method that adjusts the weights of different variables through an exponential function, and is applicable in situations where certain variables need to be emphasized over others. This approach does not fully rely on linear relationships and allows for flexible adjustment of the influence of each variable on the final outcomes. We have two variables, Average Scoring Rate for SQ and Scoring Rate for COF, denoted as x and y, respectively. Their value ranges are both [0,1] or [0%,100%]. We hope to combine them in a certain way while ensuring that the results are also within the range of [0,1]. The basic formula for the exponential weighting combination can be expressed as follows.:\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{R}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\text{u}\\text{l}\\text{t}=\\frac{{e}^{k{\\text{}}_{1}x}+{e}^{{k}_{2}\\text{}\\text{y}}}{{e}^{k{\\text{}}_{1}\\text{}}+{e}^{{k}_{2}}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the above formula, x represents the scoring rate of the student questionnaire (SQ) after assignment, and y represents the scoring rate of the Classroom Observation Framework (COF) after assignment. COF is the result of expert evaluation of the classroom based on a specific framework. From the perspective of student-centered education, we believe that the SQ scale can more objectively reflect the impact of the STEAM classroom on students. Therefore, we set k\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2, k\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1; x=[0,1] or [0%,100%]; y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0835x\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e-9.14x\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;319.5, y=[0,1] or [0%,100%]. In the quadratic regression of SQ-COF Linear Regression Test, we set the range of x to be [0%,100%]. The reformulated equation after re-scaling is as follows.:\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{R}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\text{u}\\text{l}\\text{t}=\\frac{{e}^{2x}+{e}^{\\text{}0.0835{x}^{2}-9.14x+319.5}}{{e}^{2}+e}\\times\\:100\\text{\\%}\\text{}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe calculation of each sample\u0026rsquo;s result is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e: STEAM Classroom Effectiveness Index, and the overall results demonstrate an upward trend. We conducted a comparative analysis of the classroom textual data from the sample with the highest effectiveness index, Z1, and the sample with the lowest effectiveness index, T6, which helps identify the key themes and elements that influence classroom effectiveness in STEAM education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTEAM Classroom Effectiveness Index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCase ID\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResult (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.82%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5518\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.37%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.14%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6507\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.67%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6058\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.72%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5708\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.97%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.64%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.629\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.81%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6573\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.47%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZ1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6696\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.65%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Thematic Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing the six-phase framework of thematic analysis proposed by Braun \u0026amp; Clarke [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], we have completed the first step of data processing during the data cleaning stage, namely Familiarization with the Data. In the Findings section, we present the illustrative extracts as part of the Themes Interpretation. By integrating the current Classroom Observation Framework (COF) with the STEAM questionnaire scale, we develop a new theoretical framework.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.1 Initial Coding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the second round of the study, we collected 8 classroom recordings, which were transcribed into approximately 50,000 characters of text; in the third round of the study, 1 classroom recording was collected, which was sorted into around 5,000 characters of text after transcription. After organizing the text content, we imported it into MAXQDA software for initial coding, completing a total of 474 codes. The generated initial codes were numbered in the form of Aaax (for the second-round study) and Bbbx (newly added in the third-round study) to facilitate subsequent organization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the coding process, we repeatedly familiarized ourselves with and read through the transcribed recording texts, ensuring accuracy in naming the codes. For instance, a segment from the classroom recording stated, \"Nunalleq is located in southwestern Alaska, near the Bering Sea... It has an extremely cold climate, with very long and cold winters, while summers are very short and cool.\" This was coded as \"Introduction to geographical location Aaa12.\" Through continuous extraction, summarization, and naming, we generated a total of 30 initial codes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.2 Potential Themes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter the initial coding, we categorized codes with similar concepts. For example, course presentations and group discussions were grouped into \"Class Interactivity\". Through this categorization, we obtained a total of 11 categories, including: thematic groundwork, teacher guidance, teacher feedback, thematic explanation, autonomy, course quizzes, diversified teaching materials, interactivity, thematic focus, course preparation, and concept explanation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor these 11 categories, we further merged codes with similarities. For instance, autonomous participation and interactivity were grouped into one potential theme. In total, we derived six potential themes, which were renumbered and named in the form of Aa x, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThemes Searching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotential Themes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInitial Coding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCourse Preparation and STEAM Cognitive Grounding Aa1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePPT preparation Aaa8,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003epre-class reading Aaa9,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003edistributing pre-class readings Aaa28;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTEAM concept introduction Aaa5,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ehaving STEAM cognitive foundation Aaa2, understanding STEAM characteristics Aaa3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheme Focus and Content Explanation Aa2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003egeographical location introduction Aaa12,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ein-depth expansion Aaa20;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003especific content introduction Aaa11,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003epractical operation content introduction Aaa24, key content introduction Aaa19;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecourse theme introduction Aaa1,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecourse goal introduction Aaa6,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003etarget question introduction Aaa10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeacher's Instruction and Feedback Aa3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eclass rhythm control Aaa21,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eraising questions Aaa4;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eprize rewardsBbb1,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003esummary speech Aaa18,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003egiving affirmation Aaa17,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eerror correction Aaa16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents' Autonomous Participation and Interaction Aa4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eraising doubts Bbb2,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eanswering with existing knowledge Aaa15, independent thinking Aaa14;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eclass presentation Aaa25,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003egroup discussion Aaa13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiversified Teaching Materials Support Aa5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edistributing pre-class readings Aaa28,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePPT resources Aaa7,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003edigital museum resources Aaa23,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eturf house model display Aaa22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn-class Assessment and Goal Verification Aa6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003equestion inspection Aaa26,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003equestionnaire inspection Aaa27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.3 Themes Reviewing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter identifying the six potential themes, we proceeded to determine the final themes. In this process, we aimed to ensure the themes were coherent and meaningful, thus we further merged potential themes with similar concepts. For example, we found that \"Theme Focus and Content Explanation\" and \"Teacher's Instruction and Feedback\" could both be summarized as teachers' multi-dimensional and comprehensive class teaching. Therefore, these two potential themes were merged into \"Themed Teaching Implementation.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor potential themes that did not require further merging, we directly designated them as new themes, renamed them, enhanced the extensibility of the themes, and ensured the new themes could comprehensively encompass the data content. For instance, the potential theme \"Course Preparation and STEAM Cognitive Grounding\" was renamed \"Class Foundation Building,\" which is more concise in expression and broader in coverage. Ultimately, we obtained a total of four themes, which were numbered in the form of Ax, as shown in the table below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.4 Themes Defining and Naming\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter finalizing the themes, we defined and named them. We needed to ensure that the definitions were consistent with the coding content and avoid over-extension. Therefore, when naming, we focused on referencing high-frequency data in the coding to ensure authenticity. Overall, the four themes are organized around the pre-class, in-class, and post-class stages: specifically, Class Foundation Building is conducted in the pre-class stage, involving the introduction of the course background and STEAM education. In the in-class stage, the implementing subjects are divided into teachers and students. Among them, teachers carry out Themed Teaching Implementation, explaining specific teaching content and facilitating the course process through methods such as guidance, affirmation, and error correction; students, on the other hand, need to maintain their subjectivity (Student Subjectivity), think independently about problems, and interact actively; additionally, Teaching Support and Assessment is conducted in the post-class stage, providing students with relevant resources and assessing the course effectiveness. After summarization, we defined the four themes, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheme Definition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThemes\u0026rsquo; Names\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDefine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClass Foundation Building\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA series of preliminary preparations and cognitive groundwork carried out around teaching objectives and themes, encompassing pre-course preparations as well as introductions to the concepts and characteristics of STEAM education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThemed Teaching Implementation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent explanation conducted based on specific themes, with the teaching process facilitated through teachers' control of rhythm, guidance through questions, and feedback.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent Subjectivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe autonomy and interactivity demonstrated by students in the learning process, including the ability to actively participate in discussions, engage in independent thinking, and make independent decisions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeaching Support and Assessment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncluding the provision of diversified teaching materials and the verification of the achievement of learning objectives through assessments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Findings","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Thematic Linkages\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShown as Fig.\u0026nbsp;2, the Class Foundation Building stage refers to pre-class preparation, during which teachers carry out two core tasks: material preparation\u0026mdash;providing course-specific PPTs and distributing pre-class readings\u0026mdash;and cognitive preparation\u0026mdash;introducing the STEAM concept.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Themed Teaching Implementation stage constitutes the core of classroom instruction\u0026mdash;a structured, progressive process in which teachers deliver content and provide guidance, such as explaining Yupik artifacts (\u0026ldquo;the sock is made of seal skin\u0026rdquo;) or prompting inquiry (\u0026ldquo;Why is this region so cold?\u0026rdquo;)\u0026mdash;highlighting their dual role in conveying knowledge and facilitating understanding.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudent Subjectivity emerges as a behavioral learning chain centered on autonomy and interaction, wherein students independently construct knowledge and engage in dialogue that fosters perspective-sharing and cognitive expansion. As active agents who determine how to think and interact, their responses also offer valuable feedback for refining other instructional components.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Teaching Support and Assessment section comprises two interrelated themes: Diversified Teaching Materials Support and In-class Assessment and Goal Verification. The former broadens cognitive boundaries by integrating varied resources, while the latter relies on data collection to refine teaching design; teaching materials serve as a vehicle for assessment, and assessment, in turn, optimizes resource provision.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThese four themes\u0026mdash;Class Foundation Building, Themed Teaching Implementation, Student Subjectivity, and Teaching Support and Assessment\u0026mdash;are neither hierarchical nor overlapping, forming a clear logical structure for course implementation. They are grouped into three domains corresponding to pre-class, in-class, and post-class stages: Class Foundation Building belongs to the Teaching Preparation Domain; Themed Teaching Implementation and Student Subjectivity fall under the Teaching Implementation Domain; and Teaching Support and Assessment is placed in the Teaching Detection Domain. Above all, the rational of thematic linkages is specifically demonstrated in Table\u0026nbsp;10.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab10\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 10\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLinkage Interpretation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTheme\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSub-theme\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInterpretation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudent Subjectivity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLesson preparations Familiarization of STEAM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudents\u0026apos; course preparations and their understanding of STEAM concepts reflect their proactive engagement prior to learning.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAutonomy in subject practice Critical thinking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudents\u0026apos; analysis, questioning, and reflection on problems demonstrate their independent thinking ability during practical activities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePresentation of own project\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTranslate subjectivity into tangible learning outputs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThemed Teaching Implementation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTheme focus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFocusing on the core issues of teaching activities serves as the starting point for the entire instructional process.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTeacher guidance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnsure that the teaching direction does not deviate from the curriculum objectives.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitty promotion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIncentives, playfulness, and situational design in the teaching process enhance learning engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTeaching Support\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTargeted topic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnsure that the teaching content aligns with students\u0026apos; proficiency levels and instructional goals.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiversity of teaching materials\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProvide diverse resources to support the course content.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn-class quiz excellence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eServe as an immediate feedback mechanism to verify the effectiveness of teaching support.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClass Foundation Building\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConcept reflections\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReflection on knowledge, teaching processes, and outcomes is used to construct a more refined teaching framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClassroom democracy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBuilding an equal and open classroom interaction atmosphere facilitates the smooth implementation of teaching.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSense of innovation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntroduce new information and perspectives, and integrate them into the updated teaching framework.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec30\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Instructional Framework for Integrated STEAM Courses\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter comparing the analyses from two researchers on the same dataset, we found significant consistency in their interpretations of the dimensions and thematic elements constituting STEAM classrooms. Synthesizing their insights, we constructed the Hypothetical Theoretical Framework for STEAM (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3), Notably, Class Foundation Building now emphasizes intangible elements like classroom atmosphere and teacher-student relationships, beyond just diversified teaching materials. For STEAM classrooms, this foundation is crucial for fostering reflective practice, democratic principles, and creativity.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAn essential distinction exists between Theme Focus under Themed Teaching Implementation, which involves teachers\u0026apos; strict control over the curriculum theme, and Targeted Topic under Teaching Support, where teachers provide precise support for students solving specific problems. Additionally, Student Subjectivity should not be confused with Autonomy in subject practice; the latter focuses more on students\u0026apos; independent discovery and integration of knowledge, facilitated by both teacher guidance and familiarity with STEAM concepts. The Integrated STEAM Education Framework zeroes in on the structure of STEAM classroom assessment, detailing its components layer by layer in a tree diagram to unravel this complexity systematically.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlthough each element has a distinct scope\u0026mdash;e.g., Student Subjectivity is assessed through student actions, Themed Teaching Implementation through instructional design, Teaching Support through learning conditions, and Class Foundation Building through reflection and assessment\u0026mdash;they are not isolated. Instead, they operate in parallel, complementing and reinforcing one another to offer multiple analytical lenses for classroom effectiveness and framework construction. Their functional differentiation enables systematic integration, enhancing both theoretical coherence and practical applicability.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBased on this Integrated STEAM Education Framework, we propose the STEAM Classroom Assessment Scale (Table\u0026nbsp;11) for future studies\u0026mdash;a rating tool that translates the framework into measurable indicators to evaluate actor-variable relationships and overall lesson effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion and Implication","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec32\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1 Conclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study applied STEAM education through museum-based case curricula, using a mixed-methods approach with three rounds of fieldwork. Results show that STEAM positively influences students\u0026rsquo; learning behavior, skills development, academic performance, and interdisciplinary thinking. By integrating digital museum resources, student-led exploration was emphasized, enhancing engagement and independent learning. Qualitative analysis provided a theoretical basis, while quantitative tracking revealed consistent growth in participation, in-class performance, and course feedback. Based on the analysis, we developed a practical curriculum guide and a Theoretical Framework for Integrated STEAM Courses, addressing student learning, teaching strategies, and resources. This framework supports future assessment and expands STEAM theory. Incorporating museum resources adds authenticity and enriches students\u0026rsquo; learning experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe compared our theoretical framework with the latest research findings. The reference models were drawn from studies conducted in Asian and American countries.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] Among them, the applied frameworks of STEM education focus on instructional scenarios [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], which aligns with the logic of the cross-cultural teaching samples in this study\u0026mdash;both analyze and construct theories based on data from specific teaching fieldwork. Interestingly, even though these theoretical frameworks originate from different countries, their classification logic for teaching evaluation shows considerable similarity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCheng and Huang developed and validated the Learn, Use, Practice, Design, Apply (LUPDA) model as a comprehensive framework for assessing K‑12 STEAM learning. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] Compared with the LUPDA model, the framework proposed in this study aligns closely in structure and function, particularly in terms of Student Subjectivity and Themed Teaching Implementation. The two frameworks share approximately 80% similarity in their core assessment concepts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNouri and Saberi examined the STEM learning effectiveness of Latino students through thematic analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], and the methodology of their model corresponds partially to that employed in this study. Sultana and colleagues conducted a qualitative analysis of STEM curriculum content in Bangladesh [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], and the theoretical framework they developed corresponds to the \"Themed Teaching Implementation\" and \"Class Foundation Building\" dimensions in our research in terms of teaching strategies and principle-based knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompared with existing theoretical frameworks, our study provides a more detailed expansion in the dimension of teacher-student interaction, rather than evaluating teaching solely based on curriculum content. Furthermore, the theoretical framework in this study emphasizes the organic connections among key themes, enabling the entire framework to be directly translated into a comprehensive assessment scale.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec33\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2 Implication and limitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study developed a Hypothetical Theoretical Framework for STEAM classrooms applicable to both the assessment of instruction\u0026mdash;covering students, teachers, classroom culture, and curriculum design\u0026mdash;and the design of lesson plans, where teachers can use the framework\u0026rsquo;s proportional relationships among dimensions to enhance instructional rigor and effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the sample in this study was highly heterogeneous and randomly selected, which may compromise the consistency and generalizability of the findings. We encourage future research to adopt more rigorous sampling strategies, such as stratified or systematic sampling. Additionally, the digital museum resources used in our study were limited in diversity; future work should incorporate collections from a wider range of institutions to enhance cultural inclusivity and pedagogical applicability. Regarding age appropriateness, future studies should develop versions tailored to early primary and upper-secondary levels. Finally, although the framework generated in this study is not inherently culture-bound, it aligns more closely with quantitative, standards-driven educational systems like China\u0026rsquo;s. To apply it effectively in educational contexts that emphasize qualitative, process-oriented, or student-centered approaches, cross-national validation and localized adaptation are necessary.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUltimately, we encourage scholars around the world to participate in such research, integrating the STEAM education and digital museum elements into education. Teaching within such context means we are striving to create a classroom ambiance of inclusiveness, making the contribution from the field of education to global prosperity and stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthics Approval This study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of the researcher's affiliated institution (Administration Department, Beijing Academy of Social Sciences). All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of China.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-Consent to Participate Written informed consent was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all minor participants (students in Grades 4-9) included in the study. Assent was also obtained from the students themselves. Consent was obtained from all participating teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEthics Declaration\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e This study was conducted in accordance with ethical principles for research involving human participants. Participation was voluntary, and all participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. No personally identifiable information was collected or disclosed. All data were anonymized, securely stored, and accessible only to the research team. Raw data will be permanently destroyed upon completion of the study. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding. All costs associated with the study were borne by the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTiantian YU: First author, Corresponding author, Project Lead. Miss Yu did data analysis and research framework design.Rui CONG: Co-first authors. Miss Cong did data collection and cleaning, textual data analysis, and, sections writing.Yuyan TANG: Co-first authors. Miss Tang did literature review, data collection and conclusion writing.Xiwen JIANG: Second author. Miss Jiang did data collection.Zheyu YANG: Co-second author. Mr. Yang did literature review and proofreading.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll the classroom recordings, text data and interviews contents from this study are not publicly available unless requested or required for research review purposes. We acknowledge the summer camp organized by The University of Hong Kong, which brought together research members from vastly different backgrounds. The project we have created is a miracle. For any related academic inquiries, please do not hesitate to contact the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study is independently carried out without any institutional conflicts of interest. The purpose of this research is to construct a theoretical framework of integrated STEAM education by experimental classrooms. Our team strictly adheres to scientific research ethics. All participants\u0026rsquo; personal privacy and rights will be fully protected throughout the research process. No identifying information will be disclosed without explicit consent. All personal data will be anonymized and stored securely. Only the research team will have access to the raw data, which will be destroyed after the study\u0026rsquo;s completion.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAndone, D., Ternauciuc, A., Vert, S., Mocofan, M., Mihaescu, V., Stoica, D., \u0026amp; Vasiu, R. (2021). Learning with open cultural data\u0026mdash;Jecza museum for digiculture study case. In IEEE 21st International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT 2021) (pp. 17\u0026ndash;19). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1109/ICALT52272.2021.00012\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1109/ICALT52272.2021.00012\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAvdeeva, E. L., Dyadichenko, E. A., Kunitsyna, M. L., Yagudina, R. I., Chistyakov, A. A., \u0026amp; Zhdanov, S. P. (2023). Exploring the characteristics and effectiveness of project-based learning for science and STEAM education. \u003cem\u003eEurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e19\u003c/em\u003e(5), em2256. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/13128\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.29333/ejmste/13128\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBasu, P., \u0026amp; Coleman, S. (2010). Culture, identity, difference: Developing a museum-based anthropology education resource for pre-university students. \u003cem\u003eAnthropology in Action: Journal for Applied Anthropology in Policy and Practice\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e17\u003c/em\u003e(2\u0026ndash;3), 87\u0026ndash;104. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3167/aia.2010.170208\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3167/aia.2010.170208\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBelbase, S., Mainali, B. R., Kasemsukpipat, W., Tairab, H., Gochoo, M., \u0026amp; Jarrah, A. (2021). At the dawn of science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics (STEAM) education: Prospects, priorities, processes, and problems. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e53\u003c/em\u003e(11), 2919\u0026ndash;2955. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2021.1922943\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/0020739X.2021.1922943\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBentahar, O., \u0026amp; Cameron, R. (2015). Design and implementation of a mixed method research study in project management. \u003cem\u003eElectronic Journal of Business Research Methods\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(1), 3\u0026ndash;15. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.ejbrm.com/issue/download.html?idArticle=394\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.ejbrm.com/issue/download.html?idArticle=394\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBraun, V., \u0026amp; Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. \u003cem\u003eQualitative Research in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e(2), 77\u0026ndash;101. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1191/1478088706qp063oa\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCes\u0026aacute;rio, J. M., dos Flauzino, S., V. H., \u0026amp; Mejia, J. V. C. (2020). Metodologia cient\u0026iacute;fica: Principais tipos de pesquisas e suas carater\u0026iacute;sticas. \u003cem\u003eRevista Cient\u0026iacute;fica Multidisciplinar N\u0026uacute;cleo Do Conhecimento\u003c/em\u003e, 23\u0026ndash;33. https://doi.org/10. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e32749/nucleodoconhecimento.com.br/educacao/tipos-de-pesquisas\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://32749/nucleodoconhecimento.com.br/educacao/tipos-de-pesquisas\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCes\u0026aacute;rio, V., Coelho, A., \u0026amp; Nisi, V. (2017). Enhancing museums\u0026rsquo; experiences through games and stories for young audiences. In Interactive storytelling. ICIDS 2017 (pp. 351\u0026ndash;354). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71027-3_41\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/978-3-319-71027-3_41\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChappell, K., \u0026amp; Hetherington, L. (2024). Creative pedagogies in digital STEAM practices: Natural, technological and cultural entanglements for powerful learning and activism. \u003cem\u003eCultural Studies of Science Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e19\u003c/em\u003e, 77\u0026ndash;116. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-023-10200-4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11422-023-10200-4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChen, Y. (2000). A study on classroom observation methods [Master\u0026rsquo;s thesis, East China Normal University]. CNKI. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=TD_mLQSGK6uJ3V0QcS_u7iuDQjEkDGiAVPJkF29G8Ul2XJ6aMBxSmH_McDaEt-Y6y53xynbH8ocXhN5aBmKkmfjelk9_f_7Nu6_vLitxwYDzP2lfMc_YaXResZNMUnECSwBMDKgrNbeGExgeYN9nr2lC6xj4aDAcv21kyXNCTHpuhX2RHY14Ht7PjGyKlMU3\u0026amp;uniplatform=NZKPT\u0026amp;language=CHS\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=TD_mLQSGK6uJ3V0QcS_u7iuDQjEkDGiAVPJkF29G8Ul2XJ6aMBxSmH_McDaEt-Y6y53xynbH8ocXhN5aBmKkmfjelk9_f_7Nu6_vLitxwYDzP2lfMc_YaXResZNMUnECSwBMDKgrNbeGExgeYN9nr2lC6xj4aDAcv21kyXNCTHpuhX2RHY14Ht7PjGyKlMU3\u0026amp;uniplatform=NZKPT\u0026amp;language=CHS\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCheng, Y. P., \u0026amp; Huang, Y. M. (2025). LUPDA: A comprehensive rubrics-based assessment model for STEAM education. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of STEM Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e, 45. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-025-00570-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s40594-025-00570-2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDaniela, L. (2020). Virtual museums as learning agents. \u003cem\u003eSustainability\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(7), 2698. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/su12072698\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/su12072698\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFarhana, Z., Hoque, S., Sultana, T., et al. (2024). Developing a framework for integrating STEM approach at primary education of Bangladesh. \u003cem\u003eDiscover Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e, 112. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-024-00188-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s44217-024-00188-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFerrara, V., Macchia, A., Sapia, S., \u0026amp; Lella, F. (2014). Cultural heritage open data to develop an educational framework. In The 5th International Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems and Applications (IISA 2014) (pp. 166\u0026ndash;170). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1109/IISA.2014.6878775\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1109/IISA.2014.6878775\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGajda, K. A. (2020). Glocalism and its implementation: The case of museum-based education. \u003cem\u003eThe International Journal of Interdisciplinary Global Studies\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e(3), 29\u0026ndash;42. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.18848/2324-755X/CGP/v15i03/29-42\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.18848/2324-755X/CGP/v15i03/29-42\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGodfrey, J. R., \u0026amp; McLeod, H. S. (2017). Creativity and standardization: The ability of museum-based programming to inform 21st century education. \u003cem\u003eCanadian Review of Art Education: Research \u0026amp; Issues\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e44\u003c/em\u003e(1), 20\u0026ndash;35. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.26443/crae.v44i1.33\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.26443/crae.v44i1.33\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJia, Y. C., \u0026amp; Guo, W. G. (2023). Museum blended learning through digital learning platform: The case of Smithsonian Learning Lab. In Blended learning: Lessons learned and ways forward. ICBL 2023 (pp. 224\u0026ndash;235). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35731-2_20\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/978-3-031-35731-2_20\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKanari, C., \u0026amp; Souliotou, A. (2020). Education of children with disabilities in nonformal learning environments: A cross-disciplinary approach of STEAM education in a technological museum in Greece. \u003cem\u003eEuropean Journal of Alternative Education Studies\u003c/em\u003e, 5(2). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://oapub.org/edu/index.php/ejae/article/view/3188\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://oapub.org/edu/index.php/ejae/article/view/3188\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKlein, R. G. (1992). The archeology of modern human origins. \u003cem\u003eEvolutionary Anthropology: Issues News and Reviews\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e(1), 5\u0026ndash;14. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/evan.1360010105\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/evan.1360010105\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLeavy, A., Dick, L., Meletiou-Mavrotheris, M., Paparistodemou, E., \u0026amp; Stylianou, E. (2023). The prevalence and use of emerging technologies in STEAM education: A systematic review of the literature. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Computer Assisted Learning\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e39\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1061\u0026ndash;1082. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12806\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/jcal.12806\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi, J., Luo, H., Zhao, L., Zhu, M., Ma, L., \u0026amp; Liao, X. (2022). Promoting STEAM education in primary school through cooperative teaching: A design-based research study. \u003cem\u003eSustainability\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(16), 10333. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/su141610333\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/su141610333\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLu, S. Y., Lo, C. C., \u0026amp; Syu, J. Y. (2022). Project-based learning oriented STEAM: The case of micro-bit paper-cutting lamp. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Technology and Design Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e32\u003c/em\u003e, 2553\u0026ndash;2575. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-021-09714-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10798-021-09714-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLytra, N., \u0026amp; Drigas, A. (2021). STEAM education\u0026mdash;metacognition\u0026mdash;Specific Learning Disabilities. \u003cem\u003eScientific Electronic Archives\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(10). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.36560/141020211442\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.36560/141020211442\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMar\u0026iacute;n-Mar\u0026iacute;n, J. A., Moreno-Guerrero, A. J., D\u0026uacute;o-Terr\u0026oacute;n, P., \u0026amp; L\u0026oacute;pez-Belmonte, J. (2021). STEAM in education: A bibliometric analysis of performance and co-words in Web of Science. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of STEM Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(1), 41. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-021-00296-x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s40594-021-00296-x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNouri, N., \u0026amp; Saberi, M. (2025). Proposing evidence-based STEM curriculum framework for Latinx student success through meta-synthesis of effective interventions. \u003cem\u003eDiscover Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e, 539. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-025-00953-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s44217-025-00953-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRidwan, A., Rahmawati, Y., Mardiah, A., \u0026amp; Rifai, A. (2020). Developing 22nd century skills through the integration of STEAM into smoke absorber project. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1521(4), 042077. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1521/4/042077\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1088/1742-6596/1521/4/042077\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRodrigues-Silva, J., \u0026amp; Alsina, \u0026Aacute;. (2023). Conceptualising and framing STEAM education: What is (and what is not) this educational approach? \u003cem\u003eTexto Livre: Linguagem e Tecnologia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e16\u003c/em\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;13. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1590/1983-3652.2023.44946\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1590/1983-3652.2023.44946\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRuiz Vicente, F., Llinares, Z., A., \u0026amp; Mont\u0026eacute;s S\u0026aacute;nchez, N. (2020). Sustainable city: A STEAM project using robotics to bring the city of the future to primary education students. \u003cem\u003eSustainability\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(22), 9696. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/su12229696\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/su12229696\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSteckler, A., McLeroy, K. R., Goodman, R. M., Bird, S. T., \u0026amp; McCormick, L. (1992). Toward integrating qualitative and quantitative methods: An introduction. \u003cem\u003eHealth Education Quarterly\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e19\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1\u0026ndash;8. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/109019819201900101\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/109019819201900101\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSpyropoulou, N., \u0026amp; Kameas, A. (2024). Augmenting the impact of STEAM education by developing a competence framework for STEAM educators for effective teaching and learning. \u003cem\u003eEducation Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(1), 25. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14010025\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/educsci14010025\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSultana, T., Farhana, Z., Hoque, S., et al. (2024). Developing a framework for integrating STEM approach at primary education of Bangladesh. \u003cem\u003eDiscover Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e, 112. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-024-00188-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s44217-024-00188-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTang, M., Wijaya, T. T., Li, X., et al. (2025). Exploring the determinants of mathematics teachers\u0026rsquo; willingness to implement STEAM education using structural equation modeling. \u003cem\u003eScientific Reports\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e, 6304. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-90772-z\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s41598-025-90772-z\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTsiviltidou, Z., \u0026amp; Vavoula, G. (2017). Digital storytelling as a framework for inquiry-based museum learning. In 2017 IEEE 17th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1109/ICALT.2017.50\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1109/ICALT.2017.50\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang, L., \u0026amp; Mihai, A. (2025). Integrated STEM education in early childhood classrooms: Voices from the field. \u003cem\u003eEarly Childhood Education Journal\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e53\u003c/em\u003e(7), 2783\u0026ndash;2793. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-024-01794-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10643-024-01794-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWongsa, S., \u0026amp; Buaraphan, K. (2024). The development of TPACK-STEAM model for teaching volume and surface area of sphere in mathematics for grade 9 students. AIP Conference Proceedings, 3024(1), 1\u0026ndash;6. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1063/5.0205440\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1063/5.0205440\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXu, H., Lin, C. L., Li, C., et al. (2025). Mining and evolutionary trends of STEAM research topics based on the dynamic topic model. \u003cem\u003eHumanities and Social Sciences Communications\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e, 1803. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-06215-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1057/s41599-025-06215-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 11 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"STEAM Education, Digitalized STEAM Courses, Theoretical Framework, Mixed Method","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8931017/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8931017/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study constructs an integrated STEAM education model and STEAM classroom evaluation scale. Based on Yupik archaeology digital museum resource, the study applies a mixed-method featuring a parallel-wave research design in varied Chinese classrooms (n\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10). Through statistical examination in students (n\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e=315; Grades 4\u0026ndash;9), the study demonstrates the process of calculating STEAM classroom effectiveness index, where exponential weighting ensures data validation and contextual consistency. Besides that, classroom recordings (n\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9) and teacher reflections (n\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21) are included in thematic analysis. After the mixed-method interpretation of both quantitative results and qualitative findings, the work pinpoints four essential, interconnected elements that define successful STEAM learning environments: Student Subjectivity, Themed Teaching Implementation, Teaching Support, and Class Foundation Building. Representatively, a STEAM education assessment scale with 4 principal elements and 14 detailed rules, provides the quantitative guidance for integrated STEAM classrooms. The theoretical framework and its accompanying scale are adaptable to cross-cultural education context, giving teachers and scholars a systematic basis for improving digitalized STEAM teaching and lesson planning.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Digitalized STEAM Education: YUPIK Archaeology Cases in China","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-08 16:38:56","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8931017/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a4d8a107-d979-4d93-85b9-4da05de2b12d","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 8th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Rejected","date":"2026-05-06T21:12:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-05-06T21:11:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-06T21:24:11+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-08 16:38:56","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8931017","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8931017","identity":"rs-8931017","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}