Antimicrobial Residues and Milk‑Handling Practices among Fulani Women Vendors in Informal Dairy Markets, Northern Nigeria: A Cross‑Sectional Survey

Antimicrobial Residues and Milk‑Handling Practices among Fulani Women Vendors in Informal Dairy Markets, Northern Nigeria: A Cross‑Sectional Survey | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Antimicrobial Residues and Milk‑Handling Practices among Fulani Women Vendors in Informal Dairy Markets, Northern Nigeria: A Cross‑Sectional Survey Muhammad Muhsin Fathuddin, Rafeedah Fathuddin, Cybthia Odili, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475442/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objective Antimicrobial residues in milk and dairy products contribute to the transmission of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) through food systems, particularly in informal dairy markets where regulation and veterinary access remain limited. In northern Nigeria, Fulani women are central actors in milk production, processing, and marketing, yet their knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding residue risks remain poorly documented. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 77 Fulani women vendors in Sabongari and Zaria, Kaduna State, using a structured, pretested questionnaire administered in Hausa, Fulfulde, and English. Data were analysed descriptively, and composite scores were used to evaluate knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) associated with antimicrobial-residue risk pathways. Findings Awareness of antimicrobial residues was limited (54.5%), nearly half (49.4%) considered it acceptable to sell milk during antibiotic treatment, and only 44.2% consistently observed withdrawal periods. Unsafe practices such as ambient storage, shared udder cloths, and non-refrigerated transport were widespread. None reported use of rapid residue-testing kits. Composite scoring revealed low overall performance (knowledge: 19%; attitudes: 11%; practices: 23%; total: 18%), highlighting systemic gaps in awareness, compliance, and hygiene. Conclusion These findings underscore the need for gender-responsive training, accessible veterinary extension, and integration of women vendors into One Health-aligned stewardship frameworks to reduce consumer exposure risks and strengthen food safety governance. Food Science & Technology General Microbiology Agricultural Economics and Policy Large Animal Medicine Antimicrobial residues Informal dairy markets Fulani women vendors Knowledge attitudes and practices (KAP) Withdrawal periods Food safety governance One Health stewardship Nigeria Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 What was already known on this topic International agencies and systematic reviews have consistently highlighted the role of antimicrobial use in food animal production in driving global antimicrobial resistance, with milk and dairy products recognised as important vehicles for residues and resistant organisms in low - and middle-income countries. Studies from sub‑Saharan Africa have detected antimicrobial residues and resistance genes in smallholder and informal‑market milk. At the same time, Nigerian microbiological research has repeatedly reported unsatisfactory bacteriological quality in traditionally fermented products such as nono . Social and agricultural research has established that Fulani women are central actors in milking, processing, and trade within informal dairy systems. Yet, their knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antimicrobial residues had not previously been systematically examined. What this study adds This study provides the first systematic evidence on antimicrobial residue‑related knowledge, attitudes, and practices among Fulani women vendors in informal dairy markets in northern Nigeria. It reveals a juxtaposition of everyday hygiene efforts with critical gaps: limited awareness of residue hazards, reliance on sensory inspection as a surrogate for testing, widespread acceptance of selling milk during antibiotic treatment, and storage and transport conditions that permit residues to reach consumers unchecked. By foregrounding the perspectives and structural constraints of women vendors, this study repositions them as indispensable yet under-supported actors in food-safety governance. It identifies concrete, gender-sensitive entry points for One Health-aligned stewardship interventions in informal dairy value chains. Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the most pressing global public health threats, eroding the effectiveness of standard treatments and jeopardising progress toward universal health coverage. Misuse and overuse of antimicrobials across human, animal, and environmental domains accelerate the spread of resistant organisms, with food animal production representing a particularly critical arena. Antibiotic administration in livestock frequently leaves residues in edible products, directly exposing consumers and facilitating the transmission of resistance determinants along food chains. Residues in milk and dairy products constitute a neglected yet consequential dimension of this challenge. They arise when withdrawal periods are ignored or antimicrobials are misused, and they persist despite widespread assumptions that boiling or fermentation neutralises them. Such residues pose toxicological risks and contribute to the emergence of resistant bacteria within food systems. Evidence from Ethiopia and Tanzania has documented tetracycline, penicillin, and sulphonamide residues exceeding recommended limits, while studies in Egypt and Kuwait have detected multidrug-resistant organisms in dairy products. Reviews consistently confirm that informal and smallholder systems present the highest residue risk profiles globally. Patterns of antimicrobial use are shaped by access to veterinary services, production conditions, market incentives, and regulatory enforcement. Surveys in low-resource settings reveal limited understanding of withdrawal periods, reliance on informal prescribers, and structural constraints such as volatile milk prices and weak oversight. In Nigeria, Fulani pastoralists remain the principal producers of raw and fermented milk, which is traded largely through informal channels outside formal quality control systems. Studies repeatedly report unsatisfactory bacteriological quality of nono sold in markets, underscoring persistent food safety vulnerabilities. Gendered roles strongly influence decisions about animal care, medicine use, and food handling, yet women vendors’ perspectives on antimicrobial residues remain undocumented. This study addresses that gap by examining knowledge, attitudes, and practices among Fulani women vendors in Sabongari and Zaria, Kaduna State. Findings are interpreted through a One Health and gender-responsive lens to identify pragmatic entry points for stewardship interventions in informal dairy value chains. Residues also raise concerns for consumer trust and market access. Countries with robust monitoring systems often reject imports from regions dominated by informal supply chains, thereby limiting smallholder participation in formal trade. Beyond direct health risks, residues undermine universal health coverage by increasing treatment costs and reducing the effectiveness of essential medicines. In Nigeria, where milk is culturally significant, residue persistence threatens public health, food security, and livelihoods, particularly for Fulani pastoralists reliant on informal milk sales. Methods Study Setting We conducted a descriptive cross-sectional survey in Sabongari and Zaria, two local government areas in Kaduna State that serve as major hubs in northern Nigeria’s informal dairy network. In these settings, Fulani women sell raw milk and traditionally fermented products (nono, kindirmo) from small, itinerant vending points that operate outside formal inspection systems. Approximately 25 informal outlets were identified, including market clusters and “nono joints” that function as key nodes of milk distribution. These outlets supply raw and fermented products from Fulani pastoral and agro-pastoral households, underscoring the central role of women vendors. Vendors arrive daily with containers, occupy temporary spots, and sell directly to consumers, reflecting both the resilience and vulnerability of informal dairy systems. The residue module focused on behaviours and handling conditions that may allow antimicrobial residues to persist in milk and dairy products and reach consumers. Data collection occurred between June and December 2023 during routine market activity, ensuring that everyday practices rather than exceptional circumstances were captured. Study Design and Sampling We adopted a descriptive cross-sectional design using a pre-tested, face-to-face questionnaire ( 1 , 3 , 17 , 20 , 22 , 25 – 40 ). The sampling frame was built through systematic walks across Sabongari and Zaria LGAs, where approximately 25 informal “nono joints” and market clusters served as recruitment bases. Convenience sampling enrolled Fulani women vendors actively selling raw or fermented dairy products, ensuring representation across vending points. In total, 100 eligible vendors were identified and invited to participate. Seventy-seven women consented and completed the residue-focused questionnaire, while 23 declined or withdrew before the interview, largely due to competing livelihood demands or reluctance to engage with the research team. No completed questionnaires were excluded during data cleaning. All participants were actively engaged in selling raw milk, nono, or kindirmo at the time of data collection, providing a direct window onto practices shaping antimicrobial-residue exposure. Vendors selling packaged factory dairy were excluded. Participation was voluntary, with informed consent obtained. This manuscript reports residue-related KAP; antibiotic use and AMR concept-level KAP are reported separately in companion papers [39–41]. Questionnaire Development Data were collected using a structured, residue-focused questionnaire covering four domains: general information, knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to withdrawal periods, milk handling, and hygiene. Items were adapted from validated KAP tools used among veterinarians, farmers, healthcare workers, and rural communities across Africa, ensuring comparability and contextual relevance. Draft questions were reviewed by a multidisciplinary panel under the Ahmadu Bello University Committee on Human Subjects Research, developed in English, translated into Hausa and Fulfulde, and pre-tested with Fulani milk vendors in a neighbouring settlement. Minor wording revisions followed the pilot; core domains were retained. The questionnaire included items probing local terminology for antibiotics and residues, recognising that Hausa and Fulfulde lack direct equivalents for some technical terms. Fieldworkers reported that vendors often equated “medicine for cows” with antibiotics, requiring careful clarification to avoid bias. Recruitment was conducted during peak market hours, when vendors were busiest, which posed challenges for participation. To mitigate this, interviews were kept concise and conducted in shaded areas near vending points. Ethical safeguards included verbal explanations of study goals in local languages to ensure comprehension among vendors with limited literacy. These methodological adaptations highlight the importance of culturally sensitive approaches when studying AMR in informal food systems. Data Collection Trained assistants fluent in English, Hausa, and Fulfulde administered the questionnaire in the respondent’s preferred language, reading items aloud and recording responses. No personal identifiers were collected; each questionnaire was coded. Clarification of technical terms ensured comprehension without bias ( 1 , 3 , 17 , 20 , 22 , 25 – 40 ). Data Management and Analysis Items with missing or unclear responses were retained as a separate “no response” category. Social desirability and recall bias were minimised through anonymous coding, neutral prompting, and administration in the respondent’s preferred language. Completed questionnaires were checked for completeness before entry. Descriptive statistics summarised categorical variables, while Likert items were presented as means and domain scores. Composite scoring was performed by calculating domain-level indices for knowledge, attitudes, and practices, each expressed as a percentage of the maximum attainable score, and then averaging them to generate a composite KAP score for comparison across domains and against the stewardship midpoint. Frequency distributions are provided in Supplementary File 2 [Zenodo DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.19534066 ] ( 42 ). Associations between demographic variables and KAP categories were examined using chi-square tests, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. All analyses were conducted in Python (SciPy v1.13). Ethical Considerations This study received ethical approval from the Ahmadu Bello University Committee on Human Subjects Research (Approval No.: ABUCUHSR/2022/29). Written informed consent was obtained in English, Hausa, or Fulfulde, with assurances that participation was voluntary and refusal carried no consequences for livelihoods. No personal identifiers were collected; questionnaires were coded to preserve anonymity. The research was conducted in accordance with the World Medical Association’s Declaration of Helsinki (Seoul 2008 amendment) and reported in line with the STROBE guidelines for cross-sectional studies, with a completed checklist provided in Supplementary File 3. As all participants were female, sex disaggregation was integral to the study design, consistent with the Sex and Gender Equity in Research (SAGER) guidelines. Results General information on production and handling Responses were analysed from 77 Fulani women vendors, drawn from an initial pool of 100 identified at informal dairy points in Sabongari and Zaria; 23 declined participation. All respondents were actively engaged in selling raw milk or fermented products, predominantly at roadside or market-adjacent “nono joints,” with herd ownership as their primary source of supply. Production profiles reflected smallholder systems. Most vendors reported daily yields of 5–10 litres per animal with rapid turnover, and 87% marketed milk within two days of milking. Cold chain use was rare: nearly one-third stored milk at 30–40°C, only 19.5% reported refrigeration, and pasteurisation was inconsistent (50.6%). Fermentation relied on ambient conditions and leftover cultures. Storage and transport were typically at ambient temperature, often by tricycle or personal vehicle, increasing the likelihood of residue persistence. Vendors described reliance on plastic jerrycans and aluminium pots for storage, often reused without thorough cleaning. Some rinsed containers with untreated water from wells or streams, compounding contamination risks. Fermentation practices varied: some used starter cultures from previous batches, while others relied solely on ambient conditions, leading to inconsistent product quality. Transport practices reflected economic constraints: vendors using tricycles or personal vehicles lacked refrigeration, while those on foot carried milk in open containers. These behaviours illustrate how structural limitations, absence of cold chain infrastructure, reliance on traditional vessels, and informal transport compound residue persistence and food safety risks. Knowledge of antimicrobial residues Awareness was limited: 50.6% had heard the term “antibiotic residues,” but most relied on sensory inspection rather than testing. Nearly half (49.4%) considered it acceptable to sell milk during treatment, and many assumed residues degrade during boiling or fermentation. Knowledge scores averaged 22.1%, reflecting widespread misconceptions about residue persistence. Attitudes toward antimicrobial residues The cumulative mean attitude score across nine Likert items was 3.92/7 (56.0%), exceeding the permissive threshold. Vendors strongly agreed that residues could be detected visually (mean 4.36) and might improve fermentation (mean 4.03). Some acknowledged health risks (mean 4.10), but permissive beliefs predominated. Reported practices Withdrawal compliance was inconsistent: 44.2% adhered, 41.6% did not. Udder hygiene varied: 49.4% cleaned before milking, but 28.6% used shared cloths. Container cleaning involved disinfectants (36.4%) or water only (33.8%). Transport was mainly by tricycle (29.9%) or personal vehicles (22.1%), usually at ambient temperature. No vendor reported residue testing, and veterinary inputs were accessed through informal networks. Practice scores averaged 47.5%. Composite scoring Domain scores averaged 22.1% (knowledge), 56.0% (attitudes), and 47.5% (practices), yielding a composite KAP score of 41.9%. Chi-square analyses revealed no significant associations between education level or training received and residue-related KAP categories (all p > 0.05), suggesting that poor awareness and unsafe practices are uniformly distributed across the study population. Discussion This study reveals a paradox: Fulani women vendors sustain northern Nigeria’s informal dairy chains yet remain poorly equipped to recognise or manage antimicrobial residue hazards. Limited awareness, permissive beliefs regarding milk sales during treatment, and reliance on ambient storage and transport create sustained pathways for consumer exposure. These findings provide the first systematic evidence on residue-related KAP among this group, highlighting hygiene efforts coexisting with critical gaps in awareness and management. Results align with studies from Ethiopia and Tanzania, which documented tetracycline, penicillin, and sulphonamide residues in raw milk often exceeding recommended limits ( 8 – 10 ). Comparable risks have been reported in Egypt and Kuwait, where multidrug-resistant organisms and complex residue profiles were identified in dairy products, underscoring the transnational nature of residue hazards. Knowledge gaps were striking: just over half of respondents had heard of residues, and many assumed boiling or fermentation neutralised them. Similar misconceptions have been reported in Kenya and Uganda, where dairy actors believed heat treatment eliminated residues despite evidence of antimicrobial thermal stability ( 8 , 10 ). These findings reflect deficiencies in veterinary extension and public health communication, reinforcing the need for targeted education. Attitudinal data illustrate partial awareness coexisting with permissive orientations. While some respondents acknowledged health risks, many endorsed inaccurate assumptions about visibility or fermentation benefits. This mirrors findings from Ghana, where farmers expressed concern about AMR but justified non-compliance on economic grounds ( 30 ). In contrast, our respondents showed lower endorsement of financial rationalisation, suggesting that attitudes are rooted more in misconceptions than in economic necessity. Reported practices highlight systemic vulnerabilities. Fewer than half observed withdrawal periods, and none reported access to rapid testing kits. Similar deficits have been documented in Tanzania, where smallholders rarely test milk before sale and rely on agro-vet shops rather than qualified professionals ( 1 , 3 , 17 , 20 , 22 , 25 – 40 , 44 ). Reliance on informal networks underscores structural realities: limited access to services, fluctuating milk prices, and weak regulatory oversight. Notably, neither education level nor prior training was significantly associated with practice outcomes (all p > 0.05), confirming that behavioural change requires structural enablers beyond individual knowledge. Economic drivers strongly shape vendor behaviour. Daily price fluctuations create pressure to sell quickly, even during treatment periods, to avoid financial loss. Comparable findings have been reported in India and Pakistan, where farmers admitted selling milk during withdrawal periods to sustain income ( 16 , 17 ). Policy blind spots exacerbate the issue: Nigeria’s AMR surveillance focuses on hospitals and formal farms, leaving informal chains invisible. Without inclusion, interventions risk widening inequities. From a One Health perspective, residues not only affect consumers but also enter the environment through discarded milk and manure, contaminating water sources and soil. This environmental dimension has been documented in Nepal and Bangladesh, where resistant bacteria were isolated from rivers near dairy clusters ( 3 , 45 ). Addressing residues therefore requires integrated strategies linking human health, veterinary services, and environmental monitoring. From a gender perspective, Fulani women are central to milking, processing, and trade, yet their perspectives on residues remain largely absent from policy discourse. Conceptual work on gender and AMR highlights women’s roles in food handling and medicine use as critical to stewardship outcomes ( 23 ). By foregrounding women vendors’ knowledge and constraints, this study repositions them as indispensable yet under-supported stakeholders in food safety governance. Gender-responsive interventions, tailored training, participatory stewardship programmes, and accessible veterinary support are essential to bridge everyday practices with public health imperatives. The implications extend beyond Nigeria. Comparable findings in Cameroon, Indonesia, and Thailand confirm the persistence of residue risks across diverse dairy systems ( 3 , 38 , 45 ). Informal dairy chains across sub-Saharan Africa share common features: smallholder production, rapid turnover, limited infrastructure, and weak regulation ( 8 , 30 , 46 ). The persistence of antimicrobial residues in such systems threatens consumer health and undermines global containment efforts. Aligning interventions with One Health strategies is imperative, with practical entry points including strengthened veterinary extension, subsidised rapid residue testing, and embedding women vendors within local surveillance and stewardship initiatives. Limitations This study has several limitations. The use of convenience sampling may restrict generalisability, and reliance on self-reported practices introduces potential bias. Non-responses to certain items may reflect reluctance to disclose sensitive behaviours rather than true absence. The absence of laboratory testing of milk samples limited the ability to triangulate reported practices with direct residue detection, as demonstrated in Egypt, Kenya, and Kuwait ( 6 , 7 , 46 ). Findings are cross-sectional and descriptive, which constrains causal inference. Future research employing longitudinal or mixed-methods designs could provide deeper insights into how knowledge and attitudes evolve under different policy interventions. Policy and Practice Implications Strengthening veterinary extension and residue-testing capacity is an urgent priority. Vendors and farmers rarely access rapid residue testing and instead rely on informal prescribers. Subsidising rapid test kits and embedding them within local veterinary services would provide practical tools for detection in informal dairy chains. Gender-responsive training programmes should directly address misconceptions, particularly the belief that residues can be detected by sensory inspection or eliminated by boiling or fermentation. Training must emphasise the biochemical stability of antimicrobials and the associated health risks, while building on Fulani women’s oral knowledge traditions and trusted community networks rather than relying solely on top-down messaging. Recognising women vendors as frontline stakeholders and equipping them with accessible veterinary support would strengthen stewardship and food safety governance. Embedding informal dairy actors within national surveillance and One Health AMR strategies would reduce consumer exposure and enhance compliance with withdrawal periods. Such integration would also align Nigeria’s informal dairy sector with regional and global containment efforts, reinforcing both public health and livelihoods. Conclusion This residue-focused analysis demonstrates how constrained knowledge, permissive orientations, and structurally limited practices enable antimicrobial residues to reach consumers through informal dairy channels. Addressing these vulnerabilities requires interventions that are both technically robust and socially responsive. Gender-focused training, strengthened veterinary extension, and integration of women vendors into One Health AMR strategies are essential to bridge everyday practices with public health imperatives. Embedding informal dairy chains within Nigeria’s National Action Plan, supported by affordable rapid testing and regional collaboration through ECOWAS and the African Union, will reduce consumer exposure, reinforce food safety governance, and align local practices with global containment efforts. By foregrounding Fulani women as indispensable yet under-supported actors in food safety stewardship, this study underscores the urgency of inclusive, gender-responsive approaches to AMR mitigation in informal food systems. Declarations Authors' contributions Muhammad Muhsin Fathuddin: Conceptualisation, Methodology, Formal analysis, Visualisation, Writing — original draft. Rafeedah Fathuddin: Data curation, writing, review and editing. Cynthia Odili: Investigation, Writing — review and editing. Umaru Abdullahi: Investigation, Resources, Supervision, Writing — review and editing. Ahmad Muhammad: Investigation, Resources, Project administration, Writing — review and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements This study was made possible through the collective contributions of many. We gratefully acknowledge Prof. S.A. Ado, Prof. M.B. Tijjani, and Prof. H.M. Kazeem for their mentorship and commitment to advancing One Health scholarship. We thank the Fulani women milk vendors of Sabon Gari and Zaria markets for their openness, and the community leaders for facilitating access to study sites. Special appreciation is due to the field researchers and assistants, including Mallam A.M. Shittu, Mal. D. Dalhatu, Mal. B. Abdullahi, Mal. A. Tabari, Mal. M. Yusuf, and Mal. I. Adamu, for their diligence and cultural sensitivity. We acknowledge the Ahmadu Bello University Committee on Human Subjects Research (ABUCUHSR/2022/29) for ethical clearance, and the institutional support provided by the Departments of Microbiology and allied faculties at Ahmadu Bello University, Modibbo Adama University, and Kaduna State University. Use of Artificial Intelligence In the preparation of this manuscript, the authors made use of the following artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted tools: Grammarly (Grammarly Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA) for grammar checking, spelling correction and stylistic refinement; QuillBot (Course Hero Inc., Redwood City, CA, USA) for paraphrasing assistance and sentence restructuring; Perplexity AI (Perplexity AI Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA) for literature identification, reference verification and manuscript drafting support; and Microsoft Copilot (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA) for writing assistance and text refinement during manuscript preparation. All AI-generated or AI-assisted content was critically reviewed, verified and edited by the authors, who take full and sole responsibility for the accuracy, integrity, originality and ethical compliance of the final manuscript. No AI tool was used to generate, fabricate or manipulate data, figures or references. No AI tool is listed in the Acknowledgements section, in accordance with ICMJE guidelines and WHO Bulletin editorial policy. Funding: This research received no external funding. Competing interests: None declared. Data availability: All materials supporting this study are provided as supplementary files accompanying the manuscript. The survey instrument is included in Supplementary File 1, while the primary dataset analysed is available in Supplementary File 2. A completed STROBE checklist is presented in Supplementary File 3 to demonstrate adherence to established reporting standards. To promote transparency and reproducibility, these files have been deposited in Zenodo (DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.19534066 ) In addition, de-identified data may be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request, subject to the ethical approval conditions under which the study was conducted (Approval No.: ABUCUHSR/2022/29 ). Consistent with journal requirements, the dataset in Supplementary File 2 will also be archived in a public institutional repository and assigned a DOI. References Ogoina D, Iliyasu G, Kwaghe V, Otu A, Akase IE, Adekanmbi O, Mahmood D, Iroezindu M, Aliyu S, Oyeyemi AS, Rotifa S (2021) Predictors of antibiotic prescriptions: a knowledge, attitude and practice survey among physicians in tertiary hospitals in Nigeria. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 10(1):73. 10.1186/s13756-021-00940-9 Gunasekara YD, Kottawatta SA, Nisansala T, Wijewickrama IJ, Basnayake YI, Silva-Fletcher A, Kalupahana RS (2024) Antibiotic resistance through the lens of One Health: A study from an urban and a rural area in Sri Lanka. Zoonoses Public Health 71(1):84–97. 10.1111/zph.13087 Ratanapob N, Saengtienchai A, Rukkwamsuk T (2024) Knowledge, Attitude, and practice of Thai dairy farmers on the use of antibiotics. Veterinary Med Int 2024(1):5553760. 10.1155/2024/5553760 Hackman HK, Annison L, Arhin RE, Aidoo EK, Wilberforce EA, Mensah AC, Appiah L, Annison S, Ayim-Akonor M (2025) Awareness of antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic use among poultry farmers in Accra, Ghana: A cross-sectional survey. PLoS ONE 20(12):e0337531. 10.1371/journal.pone.0337531 Bushra R, Roy H, Maysha TI, Rahman S, Saha W, Ferdous FB, Rahman S, Alam MM (2026) Antibiotic residues in animal-derived foods: A growing food safety crisis and regulatory dilemma. J Food Prot Epub ahead print. 10.1016/j.jfp.2026.100783 Alenezi MS, Tartor YH, El-Sherbini M, Pet E, Ahmadi M, Abdelkhalek A (2024) Antibiotic residues in milk and milk-based products served in Kuwait hospitals: Multi-hazard risk assessment. Antibiotics 13(11):1073. 10.3390/antibiotics13111073 Ashraf D, Ombarak RA, Samir A, Abdel-Salam AB (2023) Characterization of multidrug-resistant potential pathogens isolated from milk and some dairy products in Egypt. J Adv Veterinary Anim Res 10(2):275. 10.5455/javar.2023.j679 Farrell S, McKernan C, Benson T, Elliott C, Dean M (2021) Understanding farmers' and veterinarians' behavior in relation to antimicrobial use and resistance in dairy cattle: A systematic review. J Dairy Sci 104(4):4584–4603. 10.3168/jds.2020-19614 Abebe T, Dione M, Ouma E et al (2024) Mitigating antibiotic misuse in dairy farming systems and milk value chain market in Rwanda. One Health 19:100843. 10.1016/j.onehlt.2024.100843 Mbih RA, Driever SL, Ndzeidze SK, Mbuh MJ, Bongadzem CS, Wirngo HM (2018) Fulani pastoralists’ transformation process: a sustainable development approach in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. Environ Dev Sustain 20(2):789–807. 10.1007/s10668-017-9910-3 Agboola AF, Ojo OA, Famakinwa M, Williams SO (2020) Gender Involvement of Sedentary Fulani in Dairy Farming Practices in Osun State, Nigeria. Contemp Agric 69(3–4):10–20. 10.2478/contagri-2020-0011 Abunna F, Gebresenbet G, Megersa B (2023) Knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) of University students regarding antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Ethiopia. Ethiop Veterinary J 27(2):1–22. 10.4314/evj.v27i2.1 Sánchez X, Landázuri A, Londo P, Manzano A, Moreno Roca A, Jimbo R (2020) Knowledge, attitudes and practices in antibiotic use in family medicine students. J Prim Care Community Health 11:2150132720984758. 10.1177/2150132720984758 Scott C, Bor N, Reyher KK, Tasker AJ, Buller H, Bueno I, Thomas LF (2025) A qualitative exploration of the enablers of and barriers to conformance with antibiotic withdrawal periods on smallholding, peri-urban pig farms in Kiambu County, Kenya. PLoS ONE 20(1):e0312362. 10.1371/journal.pone.0312362 Dhangar M, Kolhe S, Waskar V, Khanvilkar A, Sonawane G, Kolhe R Assessment of dairy farmer’s knowledge, attitude and practices on antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance. The Haryana Veterinarian 2023:62(SI-2): 6-1Retrieved from: https://www.luvas.edu.in/haryana-veterinarian/download/sept-2023-new/2.pdf Gonah L, Nyoka R, Gonah L, Murapa B (2024) Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of dairy farmers on antibiotic use and their effects to health in Gweru district. Zimbabwe Food Humanity 3:100384. 10.1016/j.foohum.2024.100384 Rahman ML, Ahsan MI, Ahmed S, Islam MK, Mahbub-E-Elahi AT, Uddin MB, Ahmed SS (2025 Oct) Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antibiotic use and resistance in ruminants and chickens among prescribers and farmers in Bangladesh. J Global Antimicrob Resist 28. 10.1016/j.jgar.2025.10.020 Sievers T, Blumenberg JA, Hölzel CS (2025) Invited review: Antimicrobial resistance genes in milk—A 10-year systematic review and critical comment. J Dairy Sci 108(5):4508–4543. 10.3168/jds.2024-25528 Agboola AF, Ojo OA, Famakinwa M, Williams SO (2020) Gender Involvement of Sedentary Fulani in Dairy Farming Practices in Osun State, Nigeria. Contemp Agric 69(3–4):10–20. 10.2478/contagri-2020-0011 Ghali-Mohammed I, Azeez AA, Adetona MA, Bakare AA, Isola TO, Olawoye DC, Alhaji NB, Odetokun IA (2025) Knowledge, attitude, and practice levels of Fulani milk processors toward milk contamination and hygiene in Northern Oyo State, Nigeria. Discover Food 5(1):205. 10.1007/s44187-025-00506-3 Bello A, Ejeh EF, Lawan FA, Bitrus AA Assessment of the bacteriological quality of locally fermented cow milk (nono) in Maiduguri, north eastern Nigeria. Indian J Veterinary Anim Sci Res, 47(3), 1330–1338. 10.56093/ijvasr.v47i3.137843 Subedi D, Jyoti S, Thapa B, Paudel S, Shrestha P, Sapkota D, Bhatt BR, Adhikari H, Poudel U, Gautam A, Nepal R (2023) Knowledge, attitude, and practice of antibiotic use and resistance among poultry farmers in Nepal. Antibiotics 12(9):1369. 10.3390/antibiotics12091369 Oduori DO, Kwoba E, Thomas L, Grace D, Mutua F (2022) Assessment of foodborne disease hazards in beverages consumed in Nigeria: a systematic literature review. Foodborne Pathog Dis 19(1):1–8. 10.1089/fpd.2021.0043 Abdullahi YB, Ahmed NI, Abdi YH, Bashir SG, Abdi MS, Hussein SA, Osman MM, Hassan MM, Hussein AA, Mohamed FA, Mohamed AH (2026) A One Health perspective on antimicrobial resistance in Sub-Saharan Africa: synthesizing human, animal, and environmental evidence for integrated action. Discover Public Health 23(1):348. 10.1186/s12982-026-01721-8 Bulcha B, Motuma B, Tamiru Y, Gurmessa WT (2024) Assessment of knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) regarding antimicrobial usage and resistance among animal health professionals of East Wallaga Zone, Oromiya, Ethiopia. Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports. Dec 31:57–70. 10.2147/VMRR.S443043 Toghroli R, Aghamolaei T, Hassani L, Sharifi H, Jajarmi M (2023) Determinants of antimicrobial resistance occurrence in animal-based food, perceived by livestock farmers: A qualitative phenomenological study. Health Sci Rep 6(3):e1160. 10.1002/hsr2.1160 Dankar I, Hassan H, Serhan M (2022) Knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of dairy farmers regarding antibiotic use: Lessons from a developing country. J Dairy Sci 105(2):1519–1532. 10.3168/jds.2021-20951 Ergano ME, Beriso TE, Mengistu TS (2023) Assessment of dairy farm’s hygienic practice and knowledge of farm workers on milk-borne zoonoses in three selected towns of the Wolaita Zone, Southern Ethiopia. Ethiop Veterinary J 27(2):45–66. 10.4314/evj.v27i2.3 Gunasekara YD, Kottawatta SA, Nisansala T, Wijewickrama IJ, Basnayake YI, Silva-Fletcher A, Kalupahana RS (2024) Antibiotic resistance through the lens of One Health: A study from an urban and a rural area in Sri Lanka. Zoonoses Public Health 71(1):84–97. 10.1111/zph.13087 Hackman HK, Annison L, Arhin RE, Aidoo EK, Wilberforce EA, Mensah AC, Appiah L, Annison S, Ayim-Akonor M (2025) Awareness of antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic use among poultry farmers in Accra, Ghana: A cross-sectional survey. PLoS ONE 20(12):e0337531. 10.1371/journal.pone.0337531 Farrell S, McKernan C, Benson T, Elliott C, Dean M (2021) Understanding farmers' and veterinarians' behavior in relation to antimicrobial use and resistance in dairy cattle: A systematic review. J Dairy Sci 104(4):4584–4603. 10.3168/jds.2020-19614 Patnaik N (2020 Jan) Field level study to understand dimensions of antimicrobial use in dairy farms of Punjab. Indian J Dairy Sci 1. 10.33785/IJDS.2020.v73i05.011 Rahman ML, Ahsan MI, Ahmed S, Islam MK, Mahbub-E-Elahi AT, Uddin MB, Ahmed SS (2025 Oct) Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antibiotic use and resistance in ruminants and chickens among prescribers and farmers in Bangladesh. J Global Antimicrob Resist 28. 10.1016/j.jgar.2025.10.020 Sakr S, Ghaddar A, Hamam B, Sheet I (2020) Antibiotic use and resistance: an unprecedented assessment of university students’ knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) in Lebanon. BMC Public Health 20(1):535. 10.1186/s12889-020-08676-8 Sánchez X, Landázuri A, Londo P, Manzano A, Moreno Roca A, Jimbo R (2020) Knowledge, attitudes and practices in antibiotic use in family medicine students. J Prim Care Community Health 11:2150132720984758. 10.1177/2150132720984758 Sharma G, Leahy E, Deka RP, Shome BR, Bandyopadhyay S, Dey TK, Goyal NK, Lundkvist Å, Grace D, Lindahl JF (2022) Antibiotic use, knowledge, and practices of milk vendors in India's informal dairy value chain. Front sustainable food Syst 6:1058384. 10.3389/fsufs.2022.1058384 Shutt MA, Mukherjee AS, Nampoothiri V, Holmes A, Charani E (2025) Current state of evidence and future direction for Knowledge Attitude and Practice studies in antimicrobial resistance - a novel conceptual framework. Int J Infect Dis 152:107539. 10.1016/j.ijid.2024.107539 Suherman DA, Sudarnika E, Purnawarman T (2023) Antibiotic resistance: A cross-sectional study on the characteristics, knowledge, attitudes, and practices of dairy farmers’ cooperative in North Cianjur (KPSCU), Cianjur District, Indonesia. Veterinary World 16(8):1736. 10.14202/vetworld.2023.1736-1746 AMU Hygiene AMR Fathuddin MM, Fathuddin R, Odili C, Yobe U, Muhammad A (2026) Supplementary Data – Antimicrobial Residues and Milk Handling Practices among Fulani Women Vendors in Informal Dairy Markets, Northern Nigeria: A Cross-Sectional Survey. 10.5281/zenodo.19534066 . Zenodo Agiri O, Osena G, Bahati F, Dill D, Kalanxhi E, Ashiru-Oredope D, Alimi YH (2025) Knowledge, attitudes and practices survey on antimicrobial resistance and stewardship among pharmacy healthcare workers in 28 African countries. BMJ Global Health 10(10). 10.1136/bmjgh-2025-019151 Toth AG, Csabai I, Krikó E, Tőzsér D, Maróti G, Patai ÁV, Makrai L, Szita G, Solymosi N (2020) Antimicrobial resistance genes in raw milk for human consumption. Sci Rep 10(1):7464. 10.1038/s41598-020-63675-4 Mbih RA, Driever SL, Ndzeidze SK, Mbuh MJ, Bongadzem CS, Wirngo HM (2018) Fulani pastoralists’ transformation process: a sustainable development approach in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. Environ Dev Sustain 20(2):789–807. 10.1007/s10668-017-9910-3 Rware H, Monica KK, Idah M, Fernadis M, Davis I, Buke W, Solveig D, Daniel K, Duncan C, Morten B, Keith H (2024) Examining antibiotic use in Kenya: farmers’ knowledge and practices in addressing antibiotic resistance. CABI Agric Bioscience 5(1):21. 10.1186/s43170-024-00223-4 Tables Table 1 Composite KAP Scores on Antimicrobial Residues Legend description : This table shows the distribution of respondents’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antimicrobial residues. Knowledge is categorized into Good (≥ 80%), Moderate (50–79%), and Poor (< 50%). Attitudes are classified as permissive (mean ≥ 4.0) or stewardship-oriented (mean < 4.0). Practices follow the same Good/Moderate/Poor thresholds. Domain Category Frequency (n) Percent (%) Knowledge Good (≥ 80%) 0 0.0 Moderate (50–79%) 2 2.6 Poor (< 50%) 75 97.4 Attitudes Permissive (mean ≥ 4.0) 77 100.0 Stewardship-oriented (mean < 4.0) 0 0.0 Practices Good (≥ 80%) 2 2.6 Moderate (50–79%) 20 26.0 Poor (< 50%) 55 71.4 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files Supplementary1Questionnaire.pdf · Supplementary File 1: Structured questionnaire (PDF) Supplementary2RawData.xlsx · Supplementary File 2: Response dataset (XLSX) Supplementary3STROBEChecklist.pdf · Supplementary File 3: STROBE checklist for cross-sectional studies (PDF) Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9475442","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":626521179,"identity":"560a183b-6039-4ea2-a25e-3464b4c30868","order_by":0,"name":"Muhammad Muhsin Fathuddin","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACHgaGBAY5BgYJIOIxALEYGA48IKzFmIEHqsUYrCWBkBYGuBYGhsQGEB+fFt0ZuYc/PNxhIG8v3WN4403BnfT5YYcfAm2xk9NtwK7F7EZemkTiGQPDHpkzxpZzDJ7lbrydZgDUkmxsdgCXlhwzhsS2P4w9Ejlm0jwGh3M3zk4AaTmQuA23FuMPiW0G9jAt6Yaz0z8Q0mIgAdSSCNOSIC+dQ8CWM2/MQFqSe26kFQP9cthwg3ROwYEEAzx+OZ5j/PFnm4Ft+4zkjTfe/DksLz87ffOHDxV2cri0YAIDsEoDYpWDgHwDKapHwSgYBaNgJAAAMx5iYl7pVPwAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9948-4081","institution":"Ahmadu Bello University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muhammad","middleName":"Muhsin","lastName":"Fathuddin","suffix":""},{"id":626521180,"identity":"4fa62401-38b8-4ea5-acb4-c53e997c7bd1","order_by":1,"name":"Rafeedah Fathuddin","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6528-3089","institution":"B. S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science \u0026 Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rafeedah","middleName":"","lastName":"Fathuddin","suffix":""},{"id":626521181,"identity":"51f173a4-046b-4e0d-adeb-c62196565a72","order_by":2,"name":"Cybthia Odili","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3592-2673","institution":"Ahmadu Bello University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cybthia","middleName":"","lastName":"Odili","suffix":""},{"id":626521182,"identity":"4f83391b-d36b-414b-b534-082f5b0def6e","order_by":3,"name":"Umar Abdullahi","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1513-3307","institution":"Modibbo Adama University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Umar","middleName":"","lastName":"Abdullahi","suffix":""},{"id":626521183,"identity":"584b81e9-1680-437d-89e5-3b964a772cf7","order_by":4,"name":"Ahmad Muhammad","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-4821-9876","institution":"Kaduna State University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ahmad","middleName":"","lastName":"Muhammad","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-20 17:54:30","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475442/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475442/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":107705308,"identity":"8c798b27-b491-49ba-a1c1-072dec52a7ba","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-24 09:11:17","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":45132,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGeneral Information Variables (GIRES1–GIRES6)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\nStacked bar chart illustrating general production and handling characteristics among Fulani women vendors in Sabongari and Zaria markets. Bars represent categorical distributions for daily milk yield, time to sale, duration of storage, freezing practices, storage conditions, and pasteurization, with percentages displayed within each segment. The figure highlights the predominance of smallholder yields (5–10 L per animal), rapid turnover of milk within two days, reliance on ambient or warm storage, and inconsistent pasteurization practices. \u003cem\u003eSmallholder production predominates, with rapid milk turnover, reliance on ambient storage, and inconsistent pasteurization, underscoring infrastructural and hygienic vulnerabilities in informal dairy chains.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9475442/v1/89d2b5ab92e750b3f5721f5c.png"},{"id":107501725,"identity":"52ec38ab-df47-437b-8a13-8e04d20459d9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-22 05:57:42","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":45413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKnowledge About Antimicrobial Residues (KRES1–KRES6)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\nHeatmap depicting vendor knowledge of antimicrobial residues across six domains. Rows correspond to knowledge items, columns to response categories (Yes, No, No response), with color intensity reflecting percentage magnitude. The figure demonstrates limited awareness of the concept of residues, reliance on sensory inspection rather than laboratory testing, widespread acceptance of selling milk during treatment, and complete non‑response regarding handling of milk from treated animals. \u003cem\u003eVendor knowledge of antimicrobial residues is limited and shaped by misconceptions, with sensory inspection widely perceived as a substitute for testing and permissive attitudes toward selling milk during treatment.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9475442/v1/66df9f551f8c0f5547e9644c.png"},{"id":107501728,"identity":"abc08352-c5d3-42c1-998e-f83ac7f0f710","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-22 05:57:42","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":69933,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAttitudes Toward Antimicrobial Residues (ARES1–ARES9)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\nHorizontal 100% stacked bar chart presenting attitudes toward antimicrobial residues across nine Likert‑scale items. Each bar shows the distribution of agreement levels (Strongly Agree, Agree, Somewhat Agree, Neutral, Somewhat Disagree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree), with percentages shown within each segment. The figure reveals borderline permissive attitudes overall, with the strongest agreement for the inaccurate belief that residues can be detected visually, moderate endorsement of residues as beneficial for fermentation, and partial recognition of residues as harmful to human health. \u003cem\u003eAttitudes are borderline permissive, marked by inaccurate beliefs about residue detection and fermentation benefits, yet tempered by partial recognition of residues as harmful to human health.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9475442/v1/29d3ca9e5cae5b934055419b.png"},{"id":107705365,"identity":"80fcc9d2-94e6-47ce-b236-128c7ad3f4ca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-24 09:11:55","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":139364,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePractices Concerning Antimicrobial Residues (PRES1–PRES18)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\nHorizontal 100% stacked bar chart consolidating 18 practice variables related to antimicrobial residues. Bars represent categorical distributions of behaviors including withdrawal‑period adherence, udder hygiene, container cleaning, fermentation methods, transport conditions, and residue testing, with percentages displayed within each segment. The figure highlights inconsistent withdrawal‑period compliance, widespread use of shared udder cloths, reliance on ambient transport and storage, and negligible access to residue testing, underscoring systemic vulnerabilities in informal dairy chains. \u003cem\u003eReported practices reveal systemic vulnerabilities, including inconsistent withdrawal‑period adherence, cross‑contamination risks from shared cloths, ambient transport and storage, and negligible access to residue testing.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9475442/v1/4dbb243d6b73ecd14b52112e.png"},{"id":107501731,"identity":"95a3b56a-bfd4-44f8-a441-2b7c5010d187","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-22 05:57:43","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":85053,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComposite KAP Scores on Antimicrobial Residues\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLegend description:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGreen polygon: Observed scores for \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices regarding antimicrobial residues.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRed dashed polygon: Benchmark threshold \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;set at 50% for each domain.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNumeric labels: Percent values for each \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;axis tip.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSubtitle: Composite score = 18%.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9475442/v1/fff2563b5198c8ab2a4ae64b.png"},{"id":108005970,"identity":"101b4bee-c62a-4ca1-9c9d-f65a52617f3e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-28 12:51:13","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":611992,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9475442/v1/a328f415-72ed-4eb9-bf32-73081f326fea.pdf"},{"id":107705765,"identity":"0c3d49e9-b87e-46dd-acee-aef289c510fa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-24 09:15:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":143141,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e· Supplementary File 1: Structured questionnaire (PDF)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Supplementary1Questionnaire.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9475442/v1/ddf3e3dc0b7eaa660c0b57a1.pdf"},{"id":107706056,"identity":"9aabbcb4-658b-493d-8834-dc8b85224342","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-24 09:17:15","extension":"xlsx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":18374,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e· Supplementary File 2: Response dataset (XLSX)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Supplementary2RawData.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9475442/v1/9fbfe9f2181b65823bc1eb43.xlsx"},{"id":107501729,"identity":"45ee3682-c05e-4b14-a783-6135839f3fec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-22 05:57:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":4036140,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e· Supplementary File 3: STROBE checklist for cross-sectional studies (PDF)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Supplementary3STROBEChecklist.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9475442/v1/bc54176dc57a679e90a33583.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial Residues and Milk‑Handling Practices among Fulani Women Vendors in Informal Dairy Markets, Northern Nigeria: A Cross‑Sectional Survey\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"What was already known on this topic","content":"\u003cp\u003eInternational agencies and systematic reviews have consistently highlighted the role of antimicrobial use in food animal production in driving global antimicrobial resistance, with milk and dairy products recognised as important vehicles for residues and resistant organisms in low - and middle-income countries. Studies from sub‑Saharan Africa have detected antimicrobial residues and resistance genes in smallholder and informal‑market milk. At the same time, Nigerian microbiological research has repeatedly reported unsatisfactory bacteriological quality in traditionally fermented products such as \u003cem\u003enono\u003c/em\u003e. Social and agricultural research has established that Fulani women are central actors in milking, processing, and trade within informal dairy systems. Yet, their knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antimicrobial residues had not previously been systematically examined.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhat this study adds\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study provides the first systematic evidence on antimicrobial residue‑related knowledge, attitudes, and practices among Fulani women vendors in informal dairy markets in northern Nigeria. It reveals a juxtaposition of everyday hygiene efforts with critical gaps: limited awareness of residue hazards, reliance on sensory inspection as a surrogate for testing, widespread acceptance of selling milk during antibiotic treatment, and storage and transport conditions that permit residues to reach consumers unchecked. By foregrounding the perspectives and structural constraints of women vendors, this study repositions them as indispensable yet under-supported actors in food-safety governance. It identifies concrete, gender-sensitive entry points for One Health-aligned stewardship interventions in informal dairy value chains.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the most pressing global public health threats, eroding the effectiveness of standard treatments and jeopardising progress toward universal health coverage. Misuse and overuse of antimicrobials across human, animal, and environmental domains accelerate the spread of resistant organisms, with food animal production representing a particularly critical arena. Antibiotic administration in livestock frequently leaves residues in edible products, directly exposing consumers and facilitating the transmission of resistance determinants along food chains.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidues in milk and dairy products constitute a neglected yet consequential dimension of this challenge. They arise when withdrawal periods are ignored or antimicrobials are misused, and they persist despite widespread assumptions that boiling or fermentation neutralises them. Such residues pose toxicological risks and contribute to the emergence of resistant bacteria within food systems. Evidence from Ethiopia and Tanzania has documented tetracycline, penicillin, and sulphonamide residues exceeding recommended limits, while studies in Egypt and Kuwait have detected multidrug-resistant organisms in dairy products. Reviews consistently confirm that informal and smallholder systems present the highest residue risk profiles globally.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePatterns of antimicrobial use are shaped by access to veterinary services, production conditions, market incentives, and regulatory enforcement. Surveys in low-resource settings reveal limited understanding of withdrawal periods, reliance on informal prescribers, and structural constraints such as volatile milk prices and weak oversight. In Nigeria, Fulani pastoralists remain the principal producers of raw and fermented milk, which is traded largely through informal channels outside formal quality control systems. Studies repeatedly report unsatisfactory bacteriological quality of nono sold in markets, underscoring persistent food safety vulnerabilities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGendered roles strongly influence decisions about animal care, medicine use, and food handling, yet women vendors\u0026rsquo; perspectives on antimicrobial residues remain undocumented. This study addresses that gap by examining knowledge, attitudes, and practices among Fulani women vendors in Sabongari and Zaria, Kaduna State. Findings are interpreted through a One Health and gender-responsive lens to identify pragmatic entry points for stewardship interventions in informal dairy value chains.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidues also raise concerns for consumer trust and market access. Countries with robust monitoring systems often reject imports from regions dominated by informal supply chains, thereby limiting smallholder participation in formal trade. Beyond direct health risks, residues undermine universal health coverage by increasing treatment costs and reducing the effectiveness of essential medicines. In Nigeria, where milk is culturally significant, residue persistence threatens public health, food security, and livelihoods, particularly for Fulani pastoralists reliant on informal milk sales.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Setting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted a descriptive cross-sectional survey in Sabongari and Zaria, two local government areas in Kaduna State that serve as major hubs in northern Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s informal dairy network. In these settings, Fulani women sell raw milk and traditionally fermented products (nono, kindirmo) from small, itinerant vending points that operate outside formal inspection systems. Approximately 25 informal outlets were identified, including market clusters and \u0026ldquo;nono joints\u0026rdquo; that function as key nodes of milk distribution. These outlets supply raw and fermented products from Fulani pastoral and agro-pastoral households, underscoring the central role of women vendors. Vendors arrive daily with containers, occupy temporary spots, and sell directly to consumers, reflecting both the resilience and vulnerability of informal dairy systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe residue module focused on behaviours and handling conditions that may allow antimicrobial residues to persist in milk and dairy products and reach consumers. Data collection occurred between June and December 2023 during routine market activity, ensuring that everyday practices rather than exceptional circumstances were captured.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy Design and Sampling\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe adopted a descriptive cross-sectional design using a pre-tested, face-to-face questionnaire (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26 CR27 CR28 CR29 CR30 CR31 CR32 CR33 CR34 CR35 CR36 CR37 CR38 CR39\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e). The sampling frame was built through systematic walks across Sabongari and Zaria LGAs, where approximately 25 informal \u0026ldquo;nono joints\u0026rdquo; and market clusters served as recruitment bases. Convenience sampling enrolled Fulani women vendors actively selling raw or fermented dairy products, ensuring representation across vending points.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn total, 100 eligible vendors were identified and invited to participate. Seventy-seven women consented and completed the residue-focused questionnaire, while 23 declined or withdrew before the interview, largely due to competing livelihood demands or reluctance to engage with the research team. No completed questionnaires were excluded during data cleaning. All participants were actively engaged in selling raw milk, nono, or kindirmo at the time of data collection, providing a direct window onto practices shaping antimicrobial-residue exposure. Vendors selling packaged factory dairy were excluded. Participation was voluntary, with informed consent obtained. This manuscript reports residue-related KAP; antibiotic use and AMR concept-level KAP are reported separately in companion papers [39\u0026ndash;41].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eQuestionnaire Development\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were collected using a structured, residue-focused questionnaire covering four domains: general information, knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to withdrawal periods, milk handling, and hygiene. Items were adapted from validated KAP tools used among veterinarians, farmers, healthcare workers, and rural communities across Africa, ensuring comparability and contextual relevance. Draft questions were reviewed by a multidisciplinary panel under the Ahmadu Bello University Committee on Human Subjects Research, developed in English, translated into Hausa and Fulfulde, and pre-tested with Fulani milk vendors in a neighbouring settlement. Minor wording revisions followed the pilot; core domains were retained.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire included items probing local terminology for antibiotics and residues, recognising that Hausa and Fulfulde lack direct equivalents for some technical terms. Fieldworkers reported that vendors often equated \u0026ldquo;medicine for cows\u0026rdquo; with antibiotics, requiring careful clarification to avoid bias. Recruitment was conducted during peak market hours, when vendors were busiest, which posed challenges for participation. To mitigate this, interviews were kept concise and conducted in shaded areas near vending points. Ethical safeguards included verbal explanations of study goals in local languages to ensure comprehension among vendors with limited literacy. These methodological adaptations highlight the importance of culturally sensitive approaches when studying AMR in informal food systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTrained assistants fluent in English, Hausa, and Fulfulde administered the questionnaire in the respondent\u0026rsquo;s preferred language, reading items aloud and recording responses. No personal identifiers were collected; each questionnaire was coded. Clarification of technical terms ensured comprehension without bias (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26 CR27 CR28 CR29 CR30 CR31 CR32 CR33 CR34 CR35 CR36 CR37 CR38 CR39\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Management and Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eItems with missing or unclear responses were retained as a separate \u0026ldquo;no response\u0026rdquo; category. Social desirability and recall bias were minimised through anonymous coding, neutral prompting, and administration in the respondent\u0026rsquo;s preferred language. Completed questionnaires were checked for completeness before entry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics summarised categorical variables, while Likert items were presented as means and domain scores. Composite scoring was performed by calculating domain-level indices for knowledge, attitudes, and practices, each expressed as a percentage of the maximum attainable score, and then averaging them to generate a composite KAP score for comparison across domains and against the stewardship midpoint.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency distributions are provided in Supplementary File 2 [Zenodo DOI: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.5281/zenodo.19534066\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5281/zenodo.19534066\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e] (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e). Associations between demographic variables and KAP categories were examined using chi-square tests, with statistical significance set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. All analyses were conducted in Python (SciPy v1.13).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEthical Considerations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e This study received ethical approval from the Ahmadu Bello University Committee on Human Subjects Research (Approval No.: ABUCUHSR/2022/29). Written informed consent was obtained in English, Hausa, or Fulfulde, with assurances that participation was voluntary and refusal carried no consequences for livelihoods. No personal identifiers were collected; questionnaires were coded to preserve anonymity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The research was conducted in accordance with the World Medical Association\u0026rsquo;s Declaration of Helsinki (Seoul 2008 amendment) and reported in line with the STROBE guidelines for cross-sectional studies, with a completed checklist provided in Supplementary File 3. As all participants were female, sex disaggregation was integral to the study design, consistent with the Sex and Gender Equity in Research (SAGER) guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGeneral information on production and handling\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponses were analysed from 77 Fulani women vendors, drawn from an initial pool of 100 identified at informal dairy points in Sabongari and Zaria; 23 declined participation. All respondents were actively engaged in selling raw milk or fermented products, predominantly at roadside or market-adjacent \u0026ldquo;nono joints,\u0026rdquo; with herd ownership as their primary source of supply.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction profiles reflected smallholder systems. Most vendors reported daily yields of 5\u0026ndash;10 litres per animal with rapid turnover, and 87% marketed milk within two days of milking. Cold chain use was rare: nearly one-third stored milk at 30\u0026ndash;40\u0026deg;C, only 19.5% reported refrigeration, and pasteurisation was inconsistent (50.6%). Fermentation relied on ambient conditions and leftover cultures. Storage and transport were typically at ambient temperature, often by tricycle or personal vehicle, increasing the likelihood of residue persistence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVendors described reliance on plastic jerrycans and aluminium pots for storage, often reused without thorough cleaning. Some rinsed containers with untreated water from wells or streams, compounding contamination risks. Fermentation practices varied: some used starter cultures from previous batches, while others relied solely on ambient conditions, leading to inconsistent product quality. Transport practices reflected economic constraints: vendors using tricycles or personal vehicles lacked refrigeration, while those on foot carried milk in open containers. These behaviours illustrate how structural limitations, absence of cold chain infrastructure, reliance on traditional vessels, and informal transport compound residue persistence and food safety risks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eKnowledge of antimicrobial residues\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAwareness was limited: 50.6% had heard the term \u0026ldquo;antibiotic residues,\u0026rdquo; but most relied on sensory inspection rather than testing. Nearly half (49.4%) considered it acceptable to sell milk during treatment, and many assumed residues degrade during boiling or fermentation. Knowledge scores averaged 22.1%, reflecting widespread misconceptions about residue persistence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAttitudes toward antimicrobial residues\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cumulative mean attitude score across nine Likert items was 3.92/7 (56.0%), exceeding the permissive threshold. Vendors strongly agreed that residues could be detected visually (mean 4.36) and might improve fermentation (mean 4.03). Some acknowledged health risks (mean 4.10), but permissive beliefs predominated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eReported practices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithdrawal compliance was inconsistent: 44.2% adhered, 41.6% did not. Udder hygiene varied: 49.4% cleaned before milking, but 28.6% used shared cloths. Container cleaning involved disinfectants (36.4%) or water only (33.8%). Transport was mainly by tricycle (29.9%) or personal vehicles (22.1%), usually at ambient temperature. No vendor reported residue testing, and veterinary inputs were accessed through informal networks. Practice scores averaged 47.5%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eComposite scoring\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDomain scores averaged 22.1% (knowledge), 56.0% (attitudes), and 47.5% (practices), yielding a composite KAP score of 41.9%. Chi-square analyses revealed no significant associations between education level or training received and residue-related KAP categories (all p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), suggesting that poor awareness and unsafe practices are uniformly distributed across the study population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study reveals a paradox: Fulani women vendors sustain northern Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s informal dairy chains yet remain poorly equipped to recognise or manage antimicrobial residue hazards. Limited awareness, permissive beliefs regarding milk sales during treatment, and reliance on ambient storage and transport create sustained pathways for consumer exposure. These findings provide the first systematic evidence on residue-related KAP among this group, highlighting hygiene efforts coexisting with critical gaps in awareness and management. Results align with studies from Ethiopia and Tanzania, which documented tetracycline, penicillin, and sulphonamide residues in raw milk often exceeding recommended limits (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Comparable risks have been reported in Egypt and Kuwait, where multidrug-resistant organisms and complex residue profiles were identified in dairy products, underscoring the transnational nature of residue hazards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnowledge gaps were striking: just over half of respondents had heard of residues, and many assumed boiling or fermentation neutralised them. Similar misconceptions have been reported in Kenya and Uganda, where dairy actors believed heat treatment eliminated residues despite evidence of antimicrobial thermal stability (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). These findings reflect deficiencies in veterinary extension and public health communication, reinforcing the need for targeted education. Attitudinal data illustrate partial awareness coexisting with permissive orientations. While some respondents acknowledged health risks, many endorsed inaccurate assumptions about visibility or fermentation benefits. This mirrors findings from Ghana, where farmers expressed concern about AMR but justified non-compliance on economic grounds (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, our respondents showed lower endorsement of financial rationalisation, suggesting that attitudes are rooted more in misconceptions than in economic necessity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReported practices highlight systemic vulnerabilities. Fewer than half observed withdrawal periods, and none reported access to rapid testing kits. Similar deficits have been documented in Tanzania, where smallholders rarely test milk before sale and rely on agro-vet shops rather than qualified professionals (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26 CR27 CR28 CR29 CR30 CR31 CR32 CR33 CR34 CR35 CR36 CR37 CR38 CR39\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e). Reliance on informal networks underscores structural realities: limited access to services, fluctuating milk prices, and weak regulatory oversight. Notably, neither education level nor prior training was significantly associated with practice outcomes (all p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), confirming that behavioural change requires structural enablers beyond individual knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic drivers strongly shape vendor behaviour. Daily price fluctuations create pressure to sell quickly, even during treatment periods, to avoid financial loss. Comparable findings have been reported in India and Pakistan, where farmers admitted selling milk during withdrawal periods to sustain income (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). Policy blind spots exacerbate the issue: Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s AMR surveillance focuses on hospitals and formal farms, leaving informal chains invisible. Without inclusion, interventions risk widening inequities. From a One Health perspective, residues not only affect consumers but also enter the environment through discarded milk and manure, contaminating water sources and soil. This environmental dimension has been documented in Nepal and Bangladesh, where resistant bacteria were isolated from rivers near dairy clusters (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e). Addressing residues therefore requires integrated strategies linking human health, veterinary services, and environmental monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a gender perspective, Fulani women are central to milking, processing, and trade, yet their perspectives on residues remain largely absent from policy discourse. Conceptual work on gender and AMR highlights women\u0026rsquo;s roles in food handling and medicine use as critical to stewardship outcomes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). By foregrounding women vendors\u0026rsquo; knowledge and constraints, this study repositions them as indispensable yet under-supported stakeholders in food safety governance. Gender-responsive interventions, tailored training, participatory stewardship programmes, and accessible veterinary support are essential to bridge everyday practices with public health imperatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe implications extend beyond Nigeria. Comparable findings in Cameroon, Indonesia, and Thailand confirm the persistence of residue risks across diverse dairy systems (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e). Informal dairy chains across sub-Saharan Africa share common features: smallholder production, rapid turnover, limited infrastructure, and weak regulation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e). The persistence of antimicrobial residues in such systems threatens consumer health and undermines global containment efforts. Aligning interventions with One Health strategies is imperative, with practical entry points including strengthened veterinary extension, subsidised rapid residue testing, and embedding women vendors within local surveillance and stewardship initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations. The use of convenience sampling may restrict generalisability, and reliance on self-reported practices introduces potential bias. Non-responses to certain items may reflect reluctance to disclose sensitive behaviours rather than true absence. The absence of laboratory testing of milk samples limited the ability to triangulate reported practices with direct residue detection, as demonstrated in Egypt, Kenya, and Kuwait (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e). Findings are cross-sectional and descriptive, which constrains causal inference. Future research employing longitudinal or mixed-methods designs could provide deeper insights into how knowledge and attitudes evolve under different policy interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePolicy and Practice Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrengthening veterinary extension and residue-testing capacity is an urgent priority. Vendors and farmers rarely access rapid residue testing and instead rely on informal prescribers. Subsidising rapid test kits and embedding them within local veterinary services would provide practical tools for detection in informal dairy chains. Gender-responsive training programmes should directly address misconceptions, particularly the belief that residues can be detected by sensory inspection or eliminated by boiling or fermentation. Training must emphasise the biochemical stability of antimicrobials and the associated health risks, while building on Fulani women\u0026rsquo;s oral knowledge traditions and trusted community networks rather than relying solely on top-down messaging.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognising women vendors as frontline stakeholders and equipping them with accessible veterinary support would strengthen stewardship and food safety governance. Embedding informal dairy actors within national surveillance and One Health AMR strategies would reduce consumer exposure and enhance compliance with withdrawal periods. Such integration would also align Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s informal dairy sector with regional and global containment efforts, reinforcing both public health and livelihoods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis residue-focused analysis demonstrates how constrained knowledge, permissive orientations, and structurally limited practices enable antimicrobial residues to reach consumers through informal dairy channels. Addressing these vulnerabilities requires interventions that are both technically robust and socially responsive. Gender-focused training, strengthened veterinary extension, and integration of women vendors into One Health AMR strategies are essential to bridge everyday practices with public health imperatives. Embedding informal dairy chains within Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s National Action Plan, supported by affordable rapid testing and regional collaboration through ECOWAS and the African Union, will reduce consumer exposure, reinforce food safety governance, and align local practices with global containment efforts. By foregrounding Fulani women as indispensable yet under-supported actors in food safety stewardship, this study underscores the urgency of inclusive, gender-responsive approaches to AMR mitigation in informal food systems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMuhammad Muhsin Fathuddin: Conceptualisation, Methodology, Formal analysis, Visualisation, Writing \u0026mdash; original draft. Rafeedah Fathuddin: Data curation, writing, review and editing. Cynthia Odili: Investigation, Writing \u0026mdash; review and editing. Umaru Abdullahi: Investigation, Resources, Supervision, Writing \u0026mdash; review and editing. Ahmad Muhammad: Investigation, Resources, Project administration, Writing \u0026mdash; review and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was made possible through the collective contributions of many. We gratefully acknowledge Prof. S.A. Ado, Prof. M.B. Tijjani, and Prof. H.M. Kazeem for their mentorship and commitment to advancing One Health scholarship. We thank the Fulani women milk vendors of Sabon Gari and Zaria markets for their openness, and the community leaders for facilitating access to study sites. Special appreciation is due to the field researchers and assistants, including Mallam A.M. Shittu, Mal. D. Dalhatu, Mal. B. Abdullahi, Mal. A. Tabari, Mal. M. Yusuf, and Mal. I. Adamu, for their diligence and cultural sensitivity. We acknowledge the Ahmadu Bello University Committee on Human Subjects Research (ABUCUHSR/2022/29) for ethical clearance, and the institutional support provided by the Departments of Microbiology and allied faculties at Ahmadu Bello University, Modibbo Adama University, and Kaduna State University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUse of Artificial Intelligence\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the preparation of this manuscript, the authors made use of the following artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted tools: Grammarly (Grammarly Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA) for grammar checking, spelling correction and stylistic refinement; QuillBot (Course Hero Inc., Redwood City, CA, USA) for paraphrasing assistance and sentence restructuring; Perplexity AI (Perplexity AI Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA) for literature identification, reference verification and manuscript drafting support; and Microsoft Copilot (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA) for writing assistance and text refinement during manuscript preparation. All AI-generated or AI-assisted content was critically reviewed, verified and edited by the authors, who take full and sole responsibility for the accuracy, integrity, originality and ethical compliance of the final manuscript. No AI tool was used to generate, fabricate or manipulate data, figures or references. No AI tool is listed in the Acknowledgements section, in accordance with ICMJE guidelines and WHO Bulletin editorial policy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e This research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/strong\u003e None declared.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll materials supporting this study are provided as supplementary files accompanying the manuscript. The survey instrument is included in Supplementary File 1, while the primary dataset analysed is available in Supplementary File 2. A completed STROBE checklist is presented in Supplementary File 3 to demonstrate adherence to established reporting standards. To promote transparency and reproducibility, these files have been deposited in Zenodo (DOI: \u003cem\u003e10.5281/zenodo.19534066\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition, de-identified data may be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request, subject to the ethical approval conditions under which the study was conducted (Approval No.: \u003cem\u003eABUCUHSR/2022/29\u003c/em\u003e). Consistent with journal requirements, the dataset in Supplementary File 2 will also be archived in a public institutional repository and assigned a DOI.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOgoina D, Iliyasu G, Kwaghe V, Otu A, Akase IE, Adekanmbi O, Mahmood D, Iroezindu M, Aliyu S, Oyeyemi AS, Rotifa S (2021) Predictors of antibiotic prescriptions: a knowledge, attitude and practice survey among physicians in tertiary hospitals in Nigeria. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 10(1):73. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/s13756-021-00940-9\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s13756-021-00940-9\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGunasekara YD, Kottawatta SA, Nisansala T, Wijewickrama IJ, Basnayake YI, Silva-Fletcher A, Kalupahana RS (2024) Antibiotic resistance through the lens of One Health: A study from an urban and a rural area in Sri Lanka. Zoonoses Public Health 71(1):84\u0026ndash;97. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1111/zph.13087\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/zph.13087\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRatanapob N, Saengtienchai A, Rukkwamsuk T (2024) Knowledge, Attitude, and practice of Thai dairy farmers on the use of antibiotics. Veterinary Med Int 2024(1):5553760. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1155/2024/5553760\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1155/2024/5553760\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHackman HK, Annison L, Arhin RE, Aidoo EK, Wilberforce EA, Mensah AC, Appiah L, Annison S, Ayim-Akonor M (2025) Awareness of antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic use among poultry farmers in Accra, Ghana: A cross-sectional survey. PLoS ONE 20(12):e0337531. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1371/journal.pone.0337531\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0337531\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBushra R, Roy H, Maysha TI, Rahman S, Saha W, Ferdous FB, Rahman S, Alam MM (2026) Antibiotic residues in animal-derived foods: A growing food safety crisis and regulatory dilemma. J Food Prot Epub ahead print. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.jfp.2026.100783\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jfp.2026.100783\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlenezi MS, Tartor YH, El-Sherbini M, Pet E, Ahmadi M, Abdelkhalek A (2024) Antibiotic residues in milk and milk-based products served in Kuwait hospitals: Multi-hazard risk assessment. Antibiotics 13(11):1073. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/antibiotics13111073\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/antibiotics13111073\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAshraf D, Ombarak RA, Samir A, Abdel-Salam AB (2023) Characterization of multidrug-resistant potential pathogens isolated from milk and some dairy products in Egypt. J Adv Veterinary Anim Res 10(2):275. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.5455/javar.2023.j679\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5455/javar.2023.j679\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFarrell S, McKernan C, Benson T, Elliott C, Dean M (2021) Understanding farmers' and veterinarians' behavior in relation to antimicrobial use and resistance in dairy cattle: A systematic review. J Dairy Sci 104(4):4584\u0026ndash;4603. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3168/jds.2020-19614\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3168/jds.2020-19614\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbebe T, Dione M, Ouma E et al (2024) Mitigating antibiotic misuse in dairy farming systems and milk value chain market in Rwanda. One Health 19:100843. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.onehlt.2024.100843\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.onehlt.2024.100843\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMbih RA, Driever SL, Ndzeidze SK, Mbuh MJ, Bongadzem CS, Wirngo HM (2018) Fulani pastoralists\u0026rsquo; transformation process: a sustainable development approach in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. Environ Dev Sustain 20(2):789\u0026ndash;807. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s10668-017-9910-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10668-017-9910-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAgboola AF, Ojo OA, Famakinwa M, Williams SO (2020) Gender Involvement of Sedentary Fulani in Dairy Farming Practices in Osun State, Nigeria. Contemp Agric 69(3\u0026ndash;4):10\u0026ndash;20. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.2478/contagri-2020-0011\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2478/contagri-2020-0011\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbunna F, Gebresenbet G, Megersa B (2023) Knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) of University students regarding antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Ethiopia. Ethiop Veterinary J 27(2):1\u0026ndash;22. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4314/evj.v27i2.1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4314/evj.v27i2.1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eS\u0026aacute;nchez X, Land\u0026aacute;zuri A, Londo P, Manzano A, Moreno Roca A, Jimbo R (2020) Knowledge, attitudes and practices in antibiotic use in family medicine students. J Prim Care Community Health 11:2150132720984758. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1177/2150132720984758\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/2150132720984758\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eScott C, Bor N, Reyher KK, Tasker AJ, Buller H, Bueno I, Thomas LF (2025) A qualitative exploration of the enablers of and barriers to conformance with antibiotic withdrawal periods on smallholding, peri-urban pig farms in Kiambu County, Kenya. PLoS ONE 20(1):e0312362. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1371/journal.pone.0312362\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0312362\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDhangar M, Kolhe S, Waskar V, Khanvilkar A, Sonawane G, Kolhe R Assessment of dairy farmer\u0026rsquo;s knowledge, attitude and practices on antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance. The Haryana Veterinarian 2023:62(SI-2): 6-1Retrieved from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.luvas.edu.in/haryana-veterinarian/download/sept-2023-new/2.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.luvas.edu.in/haryana-veterinarian/download/sept-2023-new/2.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGonah L, Nyoka R, Gonah L, Murapa B (2024) Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of dairy farmers on antibiotic use and their effects to health in Gweru district. Zimbabwe Food Humanity 3:100384. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.foohum.2024.100384\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.foohum.2024.100384\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRahman ML, Ahsan MI, Ahmed S, Islam MK, Mahbub-E-Elahi AT, Uddin MB, Ahmed SS (2025 Oct) Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antibiotic use and resistance in ruminants and chickens among prescribers and farmers in Bangladesh. J Global Antimicrob Resist 28. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.jgar.2025.10.020\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jgar.2025.10.020\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSievers T, Blumenberg JA, H\u0026ouml;lzel CS (2025) Invited review: Antimicrobial resistance genes in milk\u0026mdash;A 10-year systematic review and critical comment. J Dairy Sci 108(5):4508\u0026ndash;4543. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3168/jds.2024-25528\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3168/jds.2024-25528\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAgboola AF, Ojo OA, Famakinwa M, Williams SO (2020) Gender Involvement of Sedentary Fulani in Dairy Farming Practices in Osun State, Nigeria. Contemp Agric 69(3\u0026ndash;4):10\u0026ndash;20. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.2478/contagri-2020-0011\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2478/contagri-2020-0011\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGhali-Mohammed I, Azeez AA, Adetona MA, Bakare AA, Isola TO, Olawoye DC, Alhaji NB, Odetokun IA (2025) Knowledge, attitude, and practice levels of Fulani milk processors toward milk contamination and hygiene in Northern Oyo State, Nigeria. Discover Food 5(1):205. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s44187-025-00506-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s44187-025-00506-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBello A, Ejeh EF, Lawan FA, Bitrus AA Assessment of the bacteriological quality of locally fermented cow milk (nono) in Maiduguri, north eastern Nigeria. Indian J Veterinary Anim Sci Res, 47(3), 1330\u0026ndash;1338. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.56093/ijvasr.v47i3.137843\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.56093/ijvasr.v47i3.137843\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSubedi D, Jyoti S, Thapa B, Paudel S, Shrestha P, Sapkota D, Bhatt BR, Adhikari H, Poudel U, Gautam A, Nepal R (2023) Knowledge, attitude, and practice of antibiotic use and resistance among poultry farmers in Nepal. Antibiotics 12(9):1369. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/antibiotics12091369\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/antibiotics12091369\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOduori DO, Kwoba E, Thomas L, Grace D, Mutua F (2022) Assessment of foodborne disease hazards in beverages consumed in Nigeria: a systematic literature review. Foodborne Pathog Dis 19(1):1\u0026ndash;8. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1089/fpd.2021.0043\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1089/fpd.2021.0043\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdullahi YB, Ahmed NI, Abdi YH, Bashir SG, Abdi MS, Hussein SA, Osman MM, Hassan MM, Hussein AA, Mohamed FA, Mohamed AH (2026) A One Health perspective on antimicrobial resistance in Sub-Saharan Africa: synthesizing human, animal, and environmental evidence for integrated action. Discover Public Health 23(1):348. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/s12982-026-01721-8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s12982-026-01721-8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBulcha B, Motuma B, Tamiru Y, Gurmessa WT (2024) Assessment of knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) regarding antimicrobial usage and resistance among animal health professionals of East Wallaga Zone, Oromiya, Ethiopia. Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports. Dec 31:57\u0026ndash;70. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.2147/VMRR.S443043\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2147/VMRR.S443043\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eToghroli R, Aghamolaei T, Hassani L, Sharifi H, Jajarmi M (2023) Determinants of antimicrobial resistance occurrence in animal-based food, perceived by livestock farmers: A qualitative phenomenological study. Health Sci Rep 6(3):e1160. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1002/hsr2.1160\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/hsr2.1160\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDankar I, Hassan H, Serhan M (2022) Knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of dairy farmers regarding antibiotic use: Lessons from a developing country. J Dairy Sci 105(2):1519\u0026ndash;1532. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3168/jds.2021-20951\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3168/jds.2021-20951\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eErgano ME, Beriso TE, Mengistu TS (2023) Assessment of dairy farm\u0026rsquo;s hygienic practice and knowledge of farm workers on milk-borne zoonoses in three selected towns of the Wolaita Zone, Southern Ethiopia. Ethiop Veterinary J 27(2):45\u0026ndash;66. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4314/evj.v27i2.3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4314/evj.v27i2.3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGunasekara YD, Kottawatta SA, Nisansala T, Wijewickrama IJ, Basnayake YI, Silva-Fletcher A, Kalupahana RS (2024) Antibiotic resistance through the lens of One Health: A study from an urban and a rural area in Sri Lanka. Zoonoses Public Health 71(1):84\u0026ndash;97. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1111/zph.13087\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/zph.13087\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHackman HK, Annison L, Arhin RE, Aidoo EK, Wilberforce EA, Mensah AC, Appiah L, Annison S, Ayim-Akonor M (2025) Awareness of antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic use among poultry farmers in Accra, Ghana: A cross-sectional survey. PLoS ONE 20(12):e0337531. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1371/journal.pone.0337531\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0337531\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFarrell S, McKernan C, Benson T, Elliott C, Dean M (2021) Understanding farmers' and veterinarians' behavior in relation to antimicrobial use and resistance in dairy cattle: A systematic review. J Dairy Sci 104(4):4584\u0026ndash;4603. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3168/jds.2020-19614\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3168/jds.2020-19614\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePatnaik N (2020 Jan) Field level study to understand dimensions of antimicrobial use in dairy farms of Punjab. Indian J Dairy Sci 1. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.33785/IJDS.2020.v73i05.011\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.33785/IJDS.2020.v73i05.011\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRahman ML, Ahsan MI, Ahmed S, Islam MK, Mahbub-E-Elahi AT, Uddin MB, Ahmed SS (2025 Oct) Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antibiotic use and resistance in ruminants and chickens among prescribers and farmers in Bangladesh. J Global Antimicrob Resist 28. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.jgar.2025.10.020\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jgar.2025.10.020\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSakr S, Ghaddar A, Hamam B, Sheet I (2020) Antibiotic use and resistance: an unprecedented assessment of university students\u0026rsquo; knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) in Lebanon. BMC Public Health 20(1):535. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/s12889-020-08676-8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s12889-020-08676-8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eS\u0026aacute;nchez X, Land\u0026aacute;zuri A, Londo P, Manzano A, Moreno Roca A, Jimbo R (2020) Knowledge, attitudes and practices in antibiotic use in family medicine students. J Prim Care Community Health 11:2150132720984758. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1177/2150132720984758\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/2150132720984758\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSharma G, Leahy E, Deka RP, Shome BR, Bandyopadhyay S, Dey TK, Goyal NK, Lundkvist \u0026Aring;, Grace D, Lindahl JF (2022) Antibiotic use, knowledge, and practices of milk vendors in India's informal dairy value chain. Front sustainable food Syst 6:1058384. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3389/fsufs.2022.1058384\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fsufs.2022.1058384\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShutt MA, Mukherjee AS, Nampoothiri V, Holmes A, Charani E (2025) Current state of evidence and future direction for Knowledge Attitude and Practice studies in antimicrobial resistance - a novel conceptual framework. Int J Infect Dis 152:107539. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.ijid.2024.107539\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.ijid.2024.107539\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSuherman DA, Sudarnika E, Purnawarman T (2023) Antibiotic resistance: A cross-sectional study on the characteristics, knowledge, attitudes, and practices of dairy farmers\u0026rsquo; cooperative in North Cianjur (KPSCU), Cianjur District, Indonesia. Veterinary World 16(8):1736. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.14202/vetworld.2023.1736-1746\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.14202/vetworld.2023.1736-1746\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAMU\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHygiene\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAMR\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFathuddin MM, Fathuddin R, Odili C, Yobe U, Muhammad A (2026) Supplementary Data \u0026ndash; Antimicrobial Residues and Milk Handling Practices among Fulani Women Vendors in Informal Dairy Markets, Northern Nigeria: A Cross-Sectional Survey. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.5281/zenodo.19534066\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5281/zenodo.19534066\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. Zenodo\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAgiri O, Osena G, Bahati F, Dill D, Kalanxhi E, Ashiru-Oredope D, Alimi YH (2025) Knowledge, attitudes and practices survey on antimicrobial resistance and stewardship among pharmacy healthcare workers in 28 African countries. BMJ Global Health 10(10). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1136/bmjgh-2025-019151\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1136/bmjgh-2025-019151\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eToth AG, Csabai I, Krik\u0026oacute; E, Tőzs\u0026eacute;r D, Mar\u0026oacute;ti G, Patai \u0026Aacute;V, Makrai L, Szita G, Solymosi N (2020) Antimicrobial resistance genes in raw milk for human consumption. Sci Rep 10(1):7464. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1038/s41598-020-63675-4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s41598-020-63675-4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMbih RA, Driever SL, Ndzeidze SK, Mbuh MJ, Bongadzem CS, Wirngo HM (2018) Fulani pastoralists\u0026rsquo; transformation process: a sustainable development approach in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. Environ Dev Sustain 20(2):789\u0026ndash;807. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s10668-017-9910-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10668-017-9910-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRware H, Monica KK, Idah M, Fernadis M, Davis I, Buke W, Solveig D, Daniel K, Duncan C, Morten B, Keith H (2024) Examining antibiotic use in Kenya: farmers\u0026rsquo; knowledge and practices in addressing antibiotic resistance. CABI Agric Bioscience 5(1):21. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/s43170-024-00223-4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s43170-024-00223-4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":" \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Bold\" class=\"Bold\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eComposite KAP Scores on Antimicrobial Residues Legend description\u003c/span\u003e: This table shows the distribution of respondents\u0026rsquo; knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antimicrobial residues. Knowledge is categorized into Good (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;80%), Moderate (50\u0026ndash;79%), and Poor (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50%). Attitudes are classified as permissive (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;4.0) or stewardship-oriented (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4.0). Practices follow the same Good/Moderate/Poor thresholds.\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eDomain\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eCategory\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eFrequency (n)\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePercent (%)\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eKnowledge\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eGood (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;80%)\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.0\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eModerate (50\u0026ndash;79%)\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2.6\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePoor (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50%)\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e75\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e97.4\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eAttitudes\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePermissive (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;4.0)\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e77\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e100.0\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eStewardship-oriented (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4.0)\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e0.0\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePractices\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eGood (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;80%)\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e2.6\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003eModerate (50\u0026ndash;79%)\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e20\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e26.0\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003ePoor (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50%)\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e55\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"SimplePara\"\u003e71.4\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Ahmadu Bello University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Antimicrobial residues, Informal dairy markets, Fulani women vendors, Knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP), Withdrawal periods, Food safety governance, One Health stewardship, Nigeria","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475442/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475442/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial residues in milk and dairy products contribute to the transmission of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) through food systems, particularly in informal dairy markets where regulation and veterinary access remain limited. In northern Nigeria, Fulani women are central actors in milk production, processing, and marketing, yet their knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding residue risks remain poorly documented.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe conducted a cross-sectional survey of 77 Fulani women vendors in Sabongari and Zaria, Kaduna State, using a structured, pretested questionnaire administered in Hausa, Fulfulde, and English. Data were analysed descriptively, and composite scores were used to evaluate knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) associated with antimicrobial-residue risk pathways.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFindings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAwareness of antimicrobial residues was limited (54.5%), nearly half (49.4%) considered it acceptable to sell milk during antibiotic treatment, and only 44.2% consistently observed withdrawal periods. Unsafe practices such as ambient storage, shared udder cloths, and non-refrigerated transport were widespread. None reported use of rapid residue-testing kits. Composite scoring revealed low overall performance (knowledge: 19%; attitudes: 11%; practices: 23%; total: 18%), highlighting systemic gaps in awareness, compliance, and hygiene.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings underscore the need for gender-responsive training, accessible veterinary extension, and integration of women vendors into One Health-aligned stewardship frameworks to reduce consumer exposure risks and strengthen food safety governance.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Antimicrobial Residues and Milk‑Handling Practices among Fulani Women Vendors in Informal Dairy Markets, Northern Nigeria: A Cross‑Sectional Survey","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-22 05:57:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9475442/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"daed7acc-5b4a-481e-972a-e814dcd141f4","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 22nd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":66680557,"name":"Food Science \u0026 Technology"},{"id":66680558,"name":"General Microbiology"},{"id":66680559,"name":"Agricultural Economics and Policy"},{"id":66680560,"name":"Large Animal Medicine"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-22T05:57:34+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-22 05:57:34","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9475442","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9475442","identity":"rs-9475442","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}