Perceived Instrumentality and Motivational Self-Guides as Predictors of Listening Proficiency: Reconsidering the Role of Listening Anxiety

Perceived Instrumentality and Motivational Self-Guides as Predictors of Listening Proficiency: Reconsidering the Role of Listening Anxiety | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Perceived Instrumentality and Motivational Self-Guides as Predictors of Listening Proficiency: Reconsidering the Role of Listening Anxiety Chun Hao, Wei Xu, Fan Zhang, Paisan Sukjairungwattana This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6851741/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background This study examines the relationships among perceived instrumentality, ideal and ought-to second language (L2) selves, foreign language listening anxiety, and English listening performance among Chinese private college students. Method English listening performance and motivational-affective variables were assessed using a standardized test and questionnaire survey among 147 non-English major sophomores, and analyzed through descriptive statistics, correlation, regression, and mediation analyses. Results (1) perceived instrumentality positively influenced both the ideal and ought-to L2 selves; (2) the ideal L2 self mediated the relationship between perceived instrumentality and listening performance, while also suppressing the direct effect of the ought-to L2 self on listening anxiety; (3) listening anxiety was intensified rather than alleviated by the ideal L2 self and did not significantly impair listening performance. Conclusion These findings contrast with previous research, indicating that learners’ idealized self-images as proficient English users could increase anxiety. However, such heightened anxiety does not necessarily affect their listening performance, possibly due to the target population’s limited English proficiency. Further empirical and longitudinal research on this under-investigated demographic is recommended to better inform language teaching practices. Perceived instrumentality L2 self-guides foreign language listening anxiety English listening proficiency Chinese private college students Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction China has one of the largest populations of private college students worldwide [ 1 ], reflecting the rapid expansion of its private higher education (PHE) sector over the past two decades [ 2 ]. One drawback of this surging growth is the limited academic performance of private college students, who typically exhibit lower English proficiency [ 3 ], higher levels of foreign language anxiety (FLA) [ 4 ], and potentially unique L2 self-guides. These characteristics have positioned them as a distinct population in research on English as a foreign language (EFL). Although several studies have examined Chinese college students’ FLA [ 5 , 6 , 7 ] and foreign language listening anxiety (FLLA) [ 8 ], Chinese private college students remain a demographic that has been largely overlooked in EFL studies [ 4 ]. This oversight may derive from the high turnover rate of Chinese private higher institution (PHI) educators and the heavy teaching workload they face [ 9 ]. Meanwhile, Chinese PHI students are distinctive EFL learners, as they often shoulder intensified EFL learning responsibilities that elevate their ought-to L2 self (OL2S). This may arise not only from the high tuition fees that Chinese PHIs impose on them [ 1 ], but also from these students’ insufficient English performance, which may internally drive them to work harder in EFL learning [ 4 ] or to generate excessive tension or anxiety. Additionally, China’s PHIs prioritize the cultivation of students’ practical skills and emphasize future employment and career development [ 3 ]. This orientation may foster a usefulness-driven and externally motivated attitude toward English learning. In this context, students’ perceived instrumentality (PI) of learning English may play a role in shaping both their ideal L2 self (IL2S) and OL2S. Finally, given the limited research on EFL learners in Chinese private colleges [ 10 ], the present study seeks to explore the interconnections among PI and L2 self-guides, as well as their potential influences on students’ FLLA and listening proficiency. 2. Literature review 2.1 EFL studies on private higher education in China Unlike PHE systems outside China, which usually serve religious or elite education purposes [ 11 ], PHE in China mostly consists of undergraduate universities and vocational colleges formerly classified as tier-three or lower-tier institutions [ 4 ]. Chinese PHE has undergone rapid expansion in recent years and has gained an improved image as a complementary alternative to public universities, mainly due to growing public and private supports [ 1 ]. By the year 2022, China had the largest number of private HEIs worldwide, with 773 private HEIs and 7.08 million full-time private college students [ 1 ]. According to China’s Ministry of Education (MOE), this number increased to 789 by 2023, with enrollments reaching 9.94 million [ 12 ]. Alongside the expansion of PHE in China comes a range of issues, among which students’ insufficient academic performance is particularly concerning. Private HEIs provide opportunities to students, whose National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) results are below the cutoff for public institutions [ 4 ], thereby granting access to higher education for them. While the expansion has increased access to higher education, it may have also resulted in lower overall academic competence among students, potentially contributing to diminished motivation or increased anxiety. Rising enrollment also strains educational resources and infrastructure [ 11 ], for example, extremely large class sizes (often over 100 students per English class) and outdated teaching facilities (e.g., using loudspeakers to play audio), potentially aggravating negative emotions such as listening anxiety in EFL learning. 2.2 Negative impacts of foreign language listening anxiety FLA, as defined by MacIntyre and Gardner [ 13 ], refers to “the feeling of tension and anxiety specifically associated with second language contexts.” It is widely recognized for its ubiquitous yet disruptive impact on L2 acquisition [ 14 ]. Though the relationships of FLA with foreign language competence [ 15 ] and L2 motivation [ 16 , 17 ] have been extensively studied, research on FLLA remains comparatively limited [ 8 ], especially among Chinese private college students. This gap may stem from either the complex and transient nature of foreign language listening process [ 18 ] or the insufficient academic attention to EFL research in Chinese PHI sectors. Examining the FLLA of private college students in China is urgent, because a negative correlation was commonly found between FLLA and English listening proficiency. For instance, Liu’s [ 19 ] study demonstrated a negative impact of FLLA on both English listening strategy usage and listening learning outcomes. Li et al. [ 20 ] revealed that while general FLLA does not directly affect self-perceived performance, it increases listening test anxiety, which, in turn, negatively affects students’ test performance. An additional concern is that private college students may experience higher anxiety due to limited English proficiency [ 8 , 7 ]. This issue becomes particularly pronounced when they later face national English tests (e.g., College English Test, or CET) that demand well-developed listening proficiency. 2.3 Prominent effects of L2 self-guides and their interplay with FLLA L2 motivation has long been regarded as a driving force toward language achievement. Dörnyei [ 21 ] deemed it as the “primary impetus to initiate learning the L2 and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process.” Papi and Hiver [ 22 ] viewed the process of learning an L2 as the pursuit of language-related goals fueled by motivation. Though inherently complex and dynamic [ 23 ], L2 motivation is closely associated with effective language acquisition, as it enhances learners’ engagement and effort in learning [ 24 ]. Various theoretical frameworks have broadened the understanding of L2 motivation beyond Gardner and Lambert’s [ 25 ] classic dichotomy of integrative vs. instrumental motivation. One influential concept is Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), which synthesized several established L2 motivation constructs [ 26 ] and comprised three components: IL2S, OL2S, and the L2 learning experience [ 27 , 28 ]. The IL2S represents the level of language proficiency that learners aspire to achieve. In a cross-cultural study, Taguchi et al. [ 29 ] reconceptualized Gardner’s “integrativeness” within the IL2S framework and found that IL2S was a strong predictor of learners’ L2 motivation. Zhang et al. [ 30 ] examined motivational factors among Chinese students and found that IL2S, along with the L2 Learning Experience, were the strongest predictors of students’ L2 engagement, which then significantly enhanced their listening and speaking achievement. The OL2S, reflecting external expectations and obligations (such as pressures to avoid negative outcomes), has generally received less attention because of its comparatively weak or non-significant influence on motivated behavior [ 22 ]. Nevertheless, some studies have identified OL2S as a contributor to FLA or FLLA [ 23 , 30 ], which can indirectly undermine L2 motivation and hinder performance and engagement in L2 acquisition [ 18 ]. Private college students in China are often burdened with high tuition fees [ 3 ], which may heighten their perceived obligation to pursue higher education (i.e., OL2S). It is therefore worthwhile to examine whether this intensified OL2S correlates with IL2S and whether it might exacerbate FLLA, which could ultimately undermine academic performance. 2.4 Perceived instrumentality as a contributor to L2 motivation and outcomes PI consistently acts as a positive determinant of learners’ motivation and performance [ 31 ]. It relates to an individual’s comprehension of the instrumental value of a current conduct and was characterized as the degree to which individuals recognize their present activities as beneficial for achieving future objectives. While Dörnyei [ 28 ] differentiated the concept of instrumentality into instrumentality-promotion and instrumentality-prevention in an L2 context, this study examines students’ personal perceptions of instrumentality from a future-oriented perspective. Therefore, the concept of PI, instead of being confined to an L2-specific scope, is particularly pertinent to Chinese private college students, whose future-driven, value-oriented outlook may be collectively shaped by both their perceived necessity to secure desirable future outcomes and the pragmatic, market-responsive orientation of Chinese PHIs [ 3 , 11 ]. In Eren and Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez’s [ 32 ] study, PI significantly predicted EFL students’ engagement and was a key predictor of their English performance. Despite a few findings, further exploration is needed on the role of PI in affecting FLLA, L2 self-guides, and listening performance among Chinese private college students, a group that may place even greater value on learning English. Given the unique characteristics and challenges faced by Chinese private college students, this study examines the interactions among FLLA, L2 self-guides, and PI, as well as their influence on English listening performance. The following research questions guided the investigation: RQ1: What is the relationship between PI and L2 self-guides among private college students in China? RQ2: What are the relationships of PI and L2 self-guides with FLLA in this student demographic? RQ3: To what extent do PI, L2 self-guides, and FLLA predict English listening performance among private college students in China? 3. Methodology 3.1 Research design and Participants This study was conducted in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. It has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of City University of Macau, reference number: 2025-RE-12. Informed consent to participate was obtained from all participants in the study. Participation was voluntary, and students were assured they could withdraw at any time without penalty. This study adopted a quantitative design incorporating a standardized English listening test and a self-report questionnaire to investigate the relationships among FLLA, L2 self-guides, PI, and English listening performance. Using stratified cluster sampling, 160 sophomore students from seven non-English majors at one private university were initially recruited. These students had received minimal formal English listening instruction in secondary education. Participants were fully informed about the research process and their right to confidentiality; their responses would remain anonymous and be used solely for academic purposes. Participation was voluntary, and students were assured they could withdraw at any time without penalty. All data were anonymized to protect individual identities, and the study procedures were reviewed and deemed ethically appropriate. After data screening, 147 valid responses were retained for analysis. The participants represented seven majors: Hotel Management (9.4%), Tourism Management (9.4%), Chinese Language and Literature (21.8%), International Economics and Trade (12.5%), Urban Planning (9.4%), Visual Design (12.5%), and Teaching Chinese as an International Language (25%). 3.2 Instruments A 46-item questionnaire was organized. All substantive items were adapted from validated scales used in previous studies [ 33 , 34 , 29 ]. The questionnaire included four constructs: FLLA ( n = 18), OL2S ( n = 10), IL2S ( n = 10), and PI ( n = 8). Response options ranged from “ strongly disagree ” (1 point) to “ strongly agree ” (5 points). The author translated the scale into Chinese to enhance participants’ understanding. After that, all items were organized into an online questionnaire for accessibility, with a pilot test involving 25 college students performed to evaluate the reliability (Cronbach’s α = .894). Foreign language listening anxiety Items for FLLA were taken from the Foreign Language Listening Anxiety Scale in Zhang’s [ 35 ] study. The 20-item 5-point Likert scale was tailored into 18 questions by deducting two items (i.e., “English culture and ideas seem very foreign to me” and “You have to know so much about English history and culture in order to understand spoken English”) to focus exclusively on the mental factors contributing to anxiety rather than cultural aspects. L2 self-guides This section has 20 items from Taguchi et al. [ 29 ]. Ten items assessed participants’ ideal L2 self, and the other ten assessed their ought-to L2 self. Questions related to other dimensions from the original scale (e.g., family influence, cultural interest, attitudes toward the L2 community) were omitted to concentrate on the self-guide constructs. Perceived instrumentality : To measure students’ PI regarding EFL courses, eight items from two established scales were integrated: five items from Husman and Hilpert’s [ 33 ] 8-item scale, and three from Shin et al.’s [ 34 ] work. To make the items more specific to English, the phrase “the course selected above” in Husman and Hilpert’s items was replaced with “English.” Additionally, three items about the necessity of passing college English were removed, since passing the college English course is already a graduation prerequisite in this context. 3.3 Data collection The research was carried out in two steps. First, an English listening test was organized offline. To simulate real exam condition and guarantee the validity of test scores, examinees were assigned to seven classrooms to ensure adequate spacing, and four proctors supervised the exam. The questions and audio recording were adapted from an authentic College English Test Band Four (CET-4) test in the past five years, which comprises three short news, two long conversations and three passages, followed by 25 multiple-choice questions in total. Upon finishing the test, students were instructed to upload their answers to an online exam platform, where scores were automatically given and recorded. Then, students filled out the online questionnaire via Wenjuanxing. a Chinese online survey platform. The entire research process took approximately 30 to 40 minutes. 3.4 Data analysis Data screening was conducted using SPSS 26.0. No missing or invalid data were found. The presence of outliers was assessed through standardized scores and Mahalanobis distance. Cases with z -scores exceeding ± 2.58 (approximately p < .01) [ 36 ] or with Mahalanobis distances significant at p < .01 were removed. After this filtering, 147 cases remained for analysis. Descriptive statistics were executed, followed by Pearson correlation analysis among PI, FLLA, IL2S, OL2S, and listening test scores to provide an overview for subsequent analyses. To reveal the association between PI and the L2 self-guides, a series of univariate regression analyses were performed. Subsequently, multiple regression analyses were conducted, followed by hierarchical multiple regression analyses, so as to explore the predictive powers of PI, IL2S and OL2S on FLLA. The same methods were applied to test the combined effects of PI, FLLA, IL2S, and OL2S on listening performance. Finally, three mediation pathways were hypothesized based on the correlation and regression results, with their direct and indirect effects analyzed using PROCESS macro. One statistically significant partial mediation path and two full mediation paths were identified. 4. Findings The findings of the study indicated significantly positive relationships between PI and the L2 self-guides, between OL2S and listening anxiety, and between PI (as well as IL2S) and listening performance. Surprisingly, IL2S was found to positively contribute to FLLA, and FLLA showed no significant direct or indirect effect on listening performance. 4.1 Descriptive and correlational analysis As shown in Table 1 , all variables approximated a normal distribution, with skewness and kurtosis values within ± 1. The average listening test score ( M = 44.57 out of 100) reflects the limited English competence of these private college students, consistent with the context described earlier. In contrast, the mean PI score was relatively high ( M = 3.774 on a 5-point scale), suggesting that while these students have low English listening proficiency, they generally perceive English learning as helpful for their future. Bivariate Pearson correlation analysis was performed to assess the relationships among PI, IL2S, OL2S, FLLA, and listening scores. The correlation matrix (Table 1 ) revealed a strong positive correlation between PI and IL2S ( r = .604, p < .01), and a moderate correlation between PI and OL2S ( r = .283, p < .01), all of which implied a close tie between PI and L2 self-guides. FLLA demonstrated significant positive correlations with PI ( r = .333, p < .01), OL2S ( r = .248, p < .01), and IL2S ( r = .309, p < .01), implying that PI and OL2S may contribute to intensified listening anxiety. Listening test results showed notable positive correlations with PI ( r = .166, p < .05) and IL2S ( r = .271, p < .01), which suggested possible predictiveness of PI and IL2S on English listening performance. Table 1 Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlations ( n = 147) Mean Skew-ness Kurto-sis PI FLLA OL2S IL2S Score PI 3.774 0.292 -0.557 1 FLLA 3.487 0.099 -0.014 0.333 ** 1 OL2S 3.046 0.081 0.160 0.283 ** 0.248 ** 1 IL2S 3.572 0.086 -0.595 0.604 ** 0.309 ** 0.350 ** 1 Score 44.571 0.206 -0.458 0.166 * 0.015 0.025 0.271 ** 1 Note. PI = perceived instrumentality; FLLA = foreign language listening anxiety; OL2S = ought-to L2 self; IL2S = ideal L2 self; Score = English listening test scores; * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01. To further explore and visualize these observed relationships, a pairplot (see Fig. 1 ) was generated to complement the statistical findings. These visual patterns provide a concise summary of the correlation analysis results and offer preliminary insight into the linear relationships among key variables. The diagonal panels depict kernel density estimations, indicating that most variables approximate a normal distribution. This observation aligns with the skewness and kurtosis values reported earlier and justifies the use of linear regression in subsequent analyses. The off-diagonal panels present scatterplots with fitted regression lines (red). On one hand, the scatterplots visually demonstrate bivariate relationships among variables. For instance, the tight clustering and upward trends between PI and IL2S, and between IL2S and listening scores suggest potential linear associations. While the lack of clear trends in some plots (e.g., FLLA vs. score) suggests weak or nonsignificant relationships. On the other hand, the steep regression lines clearly demonstrated linear relationships among several key variables. Notably, both PI and IL2S display positive linear associations with listening performance, FLLA, and OL2S, indicating that PI and IL2S are likely to serve as core predictors in the subsequent regression and mediation models. 4.2 Univariate regression analysis Univariate regression analyses were conducted with PI as the independent variable and OL2S and IL2S as the dependent variables, separately. As demonstrated in Table 2 , all variance inflation factor (VIF) values were below 2, far under the threshold of 10 [ 36 ], indicating no multicollinearity concerns. Both regression models were statistically significant. PI was a significant positive predictor of both OL2S ( R² = .080, p = .001) and IL2S ( R² = .365, p < .001). Notably, PI exerted a substantially stronger influence on IL2S, explaining 36.5% of its variance, compared to 8% for OL2S. This suggests that students’ perceived usefulness of learning English manifests more as enhanced internal goals (IL2S) than as external obligations (OL2S). Table 2 Univariate regression coefficients ( n = 147) R² Adj. R² F p B β t VIF Dependent variable: OL2S Model .080 .074 12.645 ** .001 PI .325 .283 3.556 ** 1.000 Dependent variable: IL2S Model .365 .361 83.363 *** .000 PI .672 .604 9.130 *** 1.000 Note. ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. 4.3 Multiple regression and hierarchical regression analysis In the multiple regression analysis for FLLA (see Table 3 ), IL2S ( B = .208, β = .254, t = 3.035 ** ) emerged as the only significant predictor when OL2S and IL2S were entered together, indicating that a stronger IL2S was associated with higher listening anxiety. A follow-up hierarchical regression was run with OL2S entered in Model 1 and both OL2S and IL2S entered in Model 2. In this hierarchical analysis, OL2S was a significant predictor of FLLA ( B = .197, β = .248, t = 3.080 ** ) in Model 1 (when IL2S was not included), but OL2S became non-significant when IL2S was added, implying that OL2S influences listening anxiety primarily through its effect on IL2S. In other words, students’ ought-to selves can heighten their listening anxiety, but this effect appears to be mediated by their ideal selves. A similar pattern was observed in the analysis for listening performance. In a multiple regression including PI, FLLA, OL2S, and IL2S as predictors of listening test scores, IL2S was the sole significant predictor ( B = .518, β = .300, t = 2.873 ** ), whereas the effects of PI, OL2S, and FLLA were nonsignificant. To further probe this, a hierarchical regression for listening performance was conducted. In Model 3, without IL2S, PI showed a positive effect ( B = .356, β = .185, t = 2.067 * ), while OL2S and FLLA remained non-significant. In Model 4, after adding IL2S to the model, PI’s effect dropped to non-significance, and IL2S became a significant positive predictor ( B = .518, β = .300, t = 2.873 ** ). This underscores the crucial role of IL2S in determining students’ English listening outcomes, that is, the benefit of PI on listening performance was realized only through enhancing IL2S. Table 3 Multiple regression and hierarchical regression coefficients (n = 147) R² Adj. R² F p B β t VIF Multiple regression, dependent variable: FLLA Model .118 .106 9.620 *** .000 OL2S .127 .159 1.904 1.139 IL2S .208 .254 3.035 ** 1.139 Hierarchical regression, dependent variable: FLLA Model 1 .061 .055 9.488 ** .002 OL2S .197 .248 3.080 ** 1.000 Model 2 .118 .106 9.620 *** .000 OL2S .127 .159 1.904 1.139 IL2S .208 .254 3.035 ** 1.139 Multiple regression, dependent variable: Score Model .083 .057 3.212 * .015 IL2S .518 .300 2.873 ** 1.686 OL2S − .119 − .071 − .815 1.174 PI .054 .028 .274 1.643 FLLA − .146 − .069 − .795 1.172 Hierarchical regression, dependent variable: Score Model 3 .030 .009 1.458 .229 OL2S − .029 − .017 − .198 1.119 PI .356 .185 2.067 * 1.182 FLLA − .089 − .042 − .473 1.158 Model 4 .083 .057 3.212 .015 OL2S − .119 − .071 − .815 1.174 PI .054 .028 .274 1.643 FLLA − .146 − .069 − .795 1.172 IL2S .518 .300 2.873 ** 1.686 Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. 4.4 Mediation path analysis Given the strong correlation between OL2S and IL2S and the substantial contribution of PI to both (as observed in the above analyses), three mediation pathways were proposed. The first pathway (PI ◊ OL2S ◊ IL2S) was based on the idea that OL2S might mediate the effect of PI on IL2S. Additionally, the shifts in significance observed in the hierarchical regressions suggested two more mediation pathways: OL2S ◊ IL2S ◊ FLLA, and PI ◊ IL2S ◊ listening performance. All three mediation paths were tested using PROCESS (Model 4) with 5,000 bootstrap samples and 95% confidence intervals. For the first path, findings highlighted PI ( B = .325, β = .283, SE = .091) as a strong and direct predictor of OL2S. When PI controlled, OL2S ( B = .189, β = .194, SE = .065) still significantly predicted IL2S. Since the direct effect of PI on IL2S was still significant ( p < .01) when mediated by OL2S, a partial mediation pathway (Fig. 2 ) was confirmed. The effect size of the direct path (approximately .549) far exceeded that of the indirect path (about .055). In practical terms, this suggests that students’ perceived usefulness of English directly boosts their internal drive (IL2S) to a large extent. A small portion of PI’s effect operates through external pressures (OL2S) that are eventually internalized into personal goals, but this indirect effect is relatively minor compared to the direct influence. Subsequent analyses indicated two full mediation paths (Fig. 3 ). The results showed that OL2S ( B = .340, β = .350, SE = .076) was a significant positive predictor of IL2S, and IL2S ( B = .208, β = .254, SE = .068) then predicted FLLA when controlling for OL2S. The direct effect of OL2S on FLLA displayed no significance ( p = .059) but the indirect effect was still significant ( B = .071, SE = .033, 95% CI [.014, .142]) with an effect size of .089. This indicates a full mediation where students’ obligations to learn English (OL2S) did not directly heighten listening anxiety; rather, these external obligations had to be internalized as ideal selves (IL2S) to increase anxiety. This finding reveals a complex interplay between external pressures and internal aspirations in generating anxiety, illustrating how OL2S can flow into IL2S and thereby intensify FLLA. In a similar pattern, PI exhibited a strong and favorable effect on IL2S ( B = .672, β = .604, SE = .074), which then positively predicted listening performance ( B = .464, β = .268, SE = .174), resulting in a significant indirect effect ( B = .312, SE = .124, 95% CI [.078, .565]). The direct effect became nonsignificant ( p = .966) upon mediated by IL2S, indicating another full mediation path with an effect size of .162. In other words, PI does not directly improve students’ listening scores. Instead, perceiving English as useful enhances their IL2S, which in turn boosts listening performance. 5. Discussion 5.1 PI as a crucial contributor to L2 motivation Private college students in China, influenced by the skill-oriented educational approach of their institutions, tend to perceive English as a critical tool for achieving future academic and career success [ 4 ]. This perspective aligns with our findings, as evidenced by the high mean score of PI among participants ( M = 3.774). Moreover, the partial mediation pathway (PI ◊ OL2S ◊ IL2S) exhibited positive and direct relationships between PI and the L2 self-guides. This finding suggests that the PI of learning English not only increases students’ sense of external responsibility but also positively influences their internal motivation. This motivational effect aligns with the findings of Eren and Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez [ 32 ], who examined EFL learners in an Intensive English Program. Their study similarly demonstrated that learners with strong perceptions of instrumentality toward English learning exhibited heightened L2 motivation and active engagement. It appears that, irrespective of diverse educational backgrounds, the perceived value of learning English can be a significant factor in predicting L2 learners’ motivation. In addition, for Chinese private college students, OL2S and IL2S were found to be significantly correlated, indicating that students’ external obligations can positively transform into internal aspirations. This aligns with Dörnyei’s [ 28 ] proposition that there should be a harmonious congruence between the ought-to and ideal selves. Although OL2S and IL2S are treated as separate constructs in most cases [ 27 , 28 , 29 ], there may be contexts where the two converge. Kim [ 37 ] supported this convergence in a study of Korean EFL learners, suggesting that successful integration of OL2S and IL2S depends on aligning external pressures with internal goals. Chinese private college students may perceive learning English crucial to their graduation, or advantageous for job hunting, and this perceived value would result in enhanced OL2S. Furthermore, the financial burden from high tuition fees may reinforce this OL2S. However, instead of hindering their L2 learning, the elevated OL2S may motivate them to become proficient English users that could stand out in future job hunting or career development, which better guarantees a return on their educational investment. In this sense, their OL2S may merge with IL2S, therefore eventually boosting their L2 motivation. In a nutshell, the more they recognize English as valuable and beneficial, the more likely they are to internalize external responsibilities to learn the L2 as a personal goal. 5.2 The mediating and positive role of IL2S on FLLA Another mediation path (OL2S ◊ IL2S ◊ FLLA) observed in this study provides additional evidence for the positive predictive power of OL2S on FLLA [ 23 , 16 ]. As Papi and Khajavy [ 16 ] noted, external obligations can cause learners to become overly preoccupied with potential negative outcomes, which inherently provoke anxiety. In our results, however, the substantial effect of OL2S on FLLA was fully mediated by learners’ ideal selves, highlighting the dominant role of IL2S in generating FLLA among these students. Although Papi and Hiver [ 22 ] denoted that cultivating a strong IL2S could reduce the experience of anxiety, this study found that the listening anxiety of Chinese private college students primarily derives from an interplay of both L2 self-guides, rather than from OL2S alone. This could be justified by the convergence of OL2S with IL2S discussed above. Regarding the full medicating role of IL2S, it implies that OL2S may not directly give rise to students’ listening anxiety unless internalized as IL2S in this specific scenario. This makes sense, as private college students who do not aspire to become proficient English users are likely less concerned about external pressures to learn English, and consequently experience little anxiety. The positive association between IL2S and FLLA may be explained by the self-discrepancy between students' current listening ability and their envisioned ideal proficiency. According to self-discrepancy theory [ 38 ], individuals who perceive a gap between their actual and ideal selves are likely to experience negative emotions, such as disappointment or anxiety. Within the context of language learning, students who vividly envision an ideal L2 self but simultaneously recognize their limited real-world listening skills may encounter elevated anxiety during listening activities. This interpretation aligns with findings by Li et al. [ 20 ], who reported that learners with higher aspirations toward English proficiency often experience greater listening test anxiety due to unmet expectations. 5.3 Listening performance: Mediated contribution from IL2S and nonsignificant impact from FLLA In this study, the IL2S presented a predominant influence over PI in the full mediation pathway (PI ◊ IL2S ◊ Listening performance), where both PI and IL2S favorably predicted listening performance. This finding reaffirms the role of IL2S as a key determinant in favorably predicting L2 achievement. Meanwhile, the impact of PI on enhancing internal goals [ 31 ] was testified as well, underscoring that the perceived utility of learning English indirectly benefits listening performance via shaping robust IL2S. Additionally, this full mediation signifies that simply realizing the instrumental value of learning English is insufficient to improve private college students’ listening competence. Rather, such awareness needs to be developed into ideal selves to enhance their practical L2 skills. Meanwhile, unlike most prior research that has found FLLA to negatively affect listening outcomes [ 8 , 16 , 39 ], the present study observed a negative but non-significant effect of FLLA on English listening performance. This finding challenges the widely accepted notion that anxiety significantly impairs listening performance. Although few in number, some studies have reported similar results and offered potential explanations. For example, Liu [ 19 ] attributed the lack of a significant relationship between FLLA and listening performance to the low-stakes nature of the English listening test used in that study. Indeed, previous research has shown a positive relationship between test stakes and test anxiety [ 40 ]. In the current study, participants were aware that the listening test was conducted for research purposes, implying a relatively low-stakes context. This could partly explain the lack of a significant anxiety effect. However, the medium-to-high anxiety level indicated by the mean FLLA score ( M = 3.487) suggests that a low-stakes context may not fully account for the result. One plausible interpretation is that the limited English proficiency of Chinese private college students overshadowed any impact that listening anxiety might have on their performance. As Kim’s [ 37 ] work demonstrated, the predictive power of FLLA on listening performance does not derive solely from the emotional feelings of anxiety (e.g., worry or tension). For less proficient L2 listeners like those in our study (who scored on average 44.57 out of 100), their poor performance is likely due to inadequate English competence, insufficient listening practice, or a lack of systematic instruction, rather than anxiety per se. In such cases, FLLA, as an affective factor, might not yet play a significant role in further degrading performance. 5.4 Implications of practices By exploring the interrelation among PI, L2 self-guides, FLLA and listening performance, this study provides empirical insights into the English listening pedagogy in Chinese private colleges. In light of the significant effect of PI on L2 selves and the recurring strong connection between OL2S and IL2S, educators in China’s PHIs could assist their students, especially demotivated ones, to explore the practical utilities of learning English for their near future (e.g., test taking, certificate acquiring, etc.) and distant future (e.g., job hunting, academic pursuit, career development, etc.), thus transferring their OL2Ss (e.g., obligations to learn English, or expectations from significant others) to an internalized goal of becoming competent English learners. To enhance students’ PI of English, teachers could encourage them to explore the potential benefits of combining their own professional expertise with English proficiency (e.g., e-commerce livestreaming on social media, or teaching Chinese as a foreign language online). In this way, students’ IL2S would be strengthened while avoiding excessive apprehension associated with their OL2Ss. Concerning FLLA and English listening proficiency, students need to bridge gaps between their current English competence and ideal proficiency by means of strengthening fundamental English knowledge, mastering listening strategy use (e.g., cognitive and metacognitive strategies), or engaging in regular listening practice. Simultaneously, teachers and PHIs should formulate achievable listening objectives catered to students’ present English knowledge level, thus avoiding unrealistic discrepancies between their actual selves and ideal selves. In addition, the PHIs should consider ways of transforming students’ financial investment into learning resources, such as offering smaller-sized English listening classes (with fewer than 30 students per class), professional English listening training facilities (e.g., listening classrooms equipped with PCs and headphones, or online platforms for listening instruction and practice), or providing free access to internships that correspond to students’ vocational expectations and planning. In so doing, PHIs justify the students’ financial investment and improve their English proficiency, consequently narrowing the disparity between current selves and ideal selves, thereby reducing anxiety, maintaining motivation, and improving language performance. 5.5 Limitations and future direction This study has several limitations: The data were collected from one single PHI in China, which did not suffice for a comprehensive profiling of the EFL learning in China’s PHE, and the limited sample size was insufficient to support a more comprehensive analysis of the relationships among potential variables. Future research could include comparative studies between private colleges while targeting larger participants to capture the characteristics of EFL-related emotions and outcomes among China’s private college students. Additionally, as indicated by Papi et al. [ 41 ], the “asymmetricity in standpoints and lack of clear regulatory distinctions” embedded in Taguchi et al.’s [ 29 ] questionnaire design may have contributed to higher predictive power of ideal L2 self. Future study could apply Papi et al.’s [ 41 ] 2 x 2 model of L2 self-guides for balanced research on target students’ L2 motivation. 6. Conclusion This study investigated the relationships among PI, L2 self-guides, FLLA, and English listening performance of Chinese private college students, with three mediation pathways identified: PI significantly predicted IL2S while partially mediated by OL2S, and IL2S fully mediated the direct influences of OL2S on FLLA, as well as the effect of PI on listening performance. These findings suggest that private college teachers and policymakers should exhibit the practical value of learning English to students, formulate achievable English learning objectives, and improve educational resources, thereby helping students translate English learning obligations or educational investment into positive L2 learning goals that enhance EFL performance. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors extend their heartful gratitude to all those who participated in and supported this study, as well as to our beloved families and close friends. Authors’ contributions C. H. was responsible for the conception and design of the study, and conducted the data analysis and interpretation, and prepared the initial manuscript draft. W.X. was responsible for the methodology, and reviewed, revised, and proofread the manuscript. F.Z. contributed to data collection and acquisition. P.S. reviewed and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version. Funding The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, or publication of this article. Data availability The data used and analysed in the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was conducted in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. It has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of City University of Macau, reference number: 2025-RE-12. Informed consent to participate was obtained from all participants, and all procedures adhered to ethical standards. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare that there exists no competing financial interest or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. References Liu X, Zhang Y, Zhao X, Hunt S, Yan W, Wang Y. 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Mahmoodi MH, Yousefi M. Second language motivation research 2010–2019: A synthetic exploration. Lang Learn J. 2022;50(3):273–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2020.1869809 . Gardner RC, Lambert WE. Attitudes and motivation in second-language learning. Newbury House; 1972. You C, Dörnyei Z. Language learning motivation in China: Results of a large-scale stratified survey. Appl Linguist. 2016;37(4):495–519. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amu046 . Dörnyei Z. (2005). The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410613349 Dörnyei Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda, editors, Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9–42). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847691293-003 Taguchi T, Magid M, Papi M. 4. The L2 Motivational Self System among Japanese, Chinese and Iranian Learners of English: A Comparative Study. In: Dörnyei Z, Ushioda E, editors. Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self. Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters; 2009. pp. 66–97. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847691293-005 . Zhang X, Dai S, Ardasheva Y. Contributions of (de)motivation, engagement, and anxiety to English listening and speaking. Learn Individual Differences. 2020;79:101856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101856 . Husman J, Lens W. The role of the future in student motivation. Educational Psychol. 1999;34(2):113–25. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3402_4 . Eren A, Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez A. Language mindsets, perceived instrumentality, engagement and graded performance in English as a foreign language students. Lang Teach Res. 2023;27(3):544–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820958400 . Husman J, Hilpert J. The Intersection of Students’ Perceptions of Instrumentality, Self-Efficacy, and Goal Orientations in an Online Mathematics Course. Z Für Pädagogische Psychologie. 2007;21(3/4):229–39. https://doi.org/10.1024/1010-0652.21.3.229 . Shin J, Seo E, Hwang H. The effects of social supports on changes in students’ perceived instrumentality of schoolwork for future goal attainment. Educational Psychol. 2016;36(5):1024–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2015.1072135 . Zhang X. Foreign language listening anxiety and listening performance: Conceptualizations and causal relationships. System. 2013;41(1):164–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.01.004 . Field AP. Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. 5th ed. SAGE Publications Ltd.; 2018. Kim J-h. (2000). Foreign language listening anxiety: A study of Korean students learning English [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin]. The University of Texas at Austin. Higgins ET. Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychol Rev. 1987;94(3):319–40. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.94.3.319 . Zhang X. Foreign language anxiety and foreign language performance: A meta-analysis. Mod Lang J. 2019;103(4):763–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12590 . von der Embse N, Witmer SE. High-stakes accountability: Student anxiety and large-scale testing. J Appl School Psychol. 2014;30(2):132–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2014.888529 . Papi M, Bondarenko AV, Mansouri S, Feng L, Jiang C. Rethinking L2 motivation research: The 2 × 2 model of L2 self-guides. Stud Second Lang Acquisition. 2019;41(2):351. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000153 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6851741","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":485882268,"identity":"160dce1a-ebe6-48f4-940a-ebc4cd040f74","order_by":0,"name":"Chun Hao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Xinxiang Institute of Engineering","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chun","middleName":"","lastName":"Hao","suffix":""},{"id":485882269,"identity":"cab23ee8-0564-4c77-bbd8-1b7a1aabf56b","order_by":1,"name":"Wei Xu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAxklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACxgYGhgoGHgiHjWgtZxh4eEjQAtLVxsBAvBaD481t0rzz7GTsJXIMGD6UHWbQbW8goOXMwWZj3m3JPDxALYwzzh1mMDtzAL8WsxuJjY95tx0Aa2HmbQNquZFAQMv9hw2HeedAtfwlSssNRqAtDVAtjMRosT+T2Gw45xjQL2eeFRzsOZfOQ9Avku3Hn0m8qbGzZ29P3vjgR5m1nNnxBvxaEEAggQFkPA+x6oGAn4B7RsEoGAWjYOQCANBDQbDOjt1TAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"City University of Macau","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wei","middleName":"","lastName":"Xu","suffix":""},{"id":485882270,"identity":"f2999d09-685b-48b0-a05d-f552a1e718c6","order_by":2,"name":"Fan Zhang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Xinxiang Institute of Engineering","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fan","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""},{"id":485882271,"identity":"1899db8a-68fe-4028-932b-423add8fef32","order_by":3,"name":"Paisan Sukjairungwattana","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mahidol University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Paisan","middleName":"","lastName":"Sukjairungwattana","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-09 07:23:36","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6851741/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6851741/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":87052192,"identity":"9d17388b-937c-49c3-8892-7d66a3a70979","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 15:07:22","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":336284,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePairwise distributions and regression-based relationships among PI, FLLA, OL2S, IL2S, and English listening performance.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6851741/v1/5e627c3c15ed8fcda17440b8.png"},{"id":87048547,"identity":"89298ca2-0df3-495e-9898-e85e35e7d868","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 14:51:22","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8586,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe PI → OL2S → IL2S pathway\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6851741/v1/9929bc8f5b886299f4e3369d.png"},{"id":87048550,"identity":"b3313434-1b6c-41e8-b634-697c8d52a052","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 14:51:22","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16686,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe OL2S → IL2S → FLLA and PI → IL2S → Listening performance pathways\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6851741/v1/2d411253543b61c4c6b1c12b.png"},{"id":90863199,"identity":"3f31127c-1a68-42c2-89ea-5663d142cb98","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-09 06:38:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1456932,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6851741/v1/4b9a5f77-5798-4c81-9b81-97cc70d0ba5f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Perceived Instrumentality and Motivational Self-Guides as Predictors of Listening Proficiency: Reconsidering the Role of Listening Anxiety","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eChina has one of the largest populations of private college students worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], reflecting the rapid expansion of its private higher education (PHE) sector over the past two decades [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. One drawback of this surging growth is the limited academic performance of private college students, who typically exhibit lower English proficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], higher levels of foreign language anxiety (FLA) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], and potentially unique L2 self-guides. These characteristics have positioned them as a distinct population in research on English as a foreign language (EFL).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough several studies have examined Chinese college students\u0026rsquo; FLA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e] and foreign language listening anxiety (FLLA) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], Chinese private college students remain a demographic that has been largely overlooked in EFL studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. This oversight may derive from the high turnover rate of Chinese private higher institution (PHI) educators and the heavy teaching workload they face [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Meanwhile, Chinese PHI students are distinctive EFL learners, as they often shoulder intensified EFL learning responsibilities that elevate their ought-to L2 self (OL2S). This may arise not only from the high tuition fees that Chinese PHIs impose on them [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], but also from these students\u0026rsquo; insufficient English performance, which may internally drive them to work harder in EFL learning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e] or to generate excessive tension or anxiety. Additionally, China\u0026rsquo;s PHIs prioritize the cultivation of students\u0026rsquo; practical skills and emphasize future employment and career development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. This orientation may foster a usefulness-driven and externally motivated attitude toward English learning. In this context, students\u0026rsquo; perceived instrumentality (PI) of learning English may play a role in shaping both their ideal L2 self (IL2S) and OL2S. Finally, given the limited research on EFL learners in Chinese private colleges [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], the present study seeks to explore the interconnections among PI and L2 self-guides, as well as their potential influences on students\u0026rsquo; FLLA and listening proficiency.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 EFL studies on private higher education in China\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnlike PHE systems outside China, which usually serve religious or elite education purposes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], PHE in China mostly consists of undergraduate universities and vocational colleges formerly classified as tier-three or lower-tier institutions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Chinese PHE has undergone rapid expansion in recent years and has gained an improved image as a complementary alternative to public universities, mainly due to growing public and private supports [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. By the year 2022, China had the largest number of private HEIs worldwide, with 773 private HEIs and 7.08\u0026nbsp;million full-time private college students [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. According to China\u0026rsquo;s Ministry of Education (MOE), this number increased to 789 by 2023, with enrollments reaching 9.94\u0026nbsp;million [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlongside the expansion of PHE in China comes a range of issues, among which students\u0026rsquo; insufficient academic performance is particularly concerning. Private HEIs provide opportunities to students, whose National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) results are below the cutoff for public institutions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], thereby granting access to higher education for them. While the expansion has increased access to higher education, it may have also resulted in lower overall academic competence among students, potentially contributing to diminished motivation or increased anxiety. Rising enrollment also strains educational resources and infrastructure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], for example, extremely large class sizes (often over 100 students per English class) and outdated teaching facilities (e.g., using loudspeakers to play audio), potentially aggravating negative emotions such as listening anxiety in EFL learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Negative impacts of foreign language listening anxiety\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLA, as defined by MacIntyre and Gardner [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], refers to \u0026ldquo;the feeling of tension and anxiety specifically associated with second language contexts.\u0026rdquo; It is widely recognized for its ubiquitous yet disruptive impact on L2 acquisition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Though the relationships of FLA with foreign language competence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] and L2 motivation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] have been extensively studied, research on FLLA remains comparatively limited [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e], especially among Chinese private college students. This gap may stem from either the complex and transient nature of foreign language listening process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] or the insufficient academic attention to EFL research in Chinese PHI sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExamining the FLLA of private college students in China is urgent, because a negative correlation was commonly found between FLLA and English listening proficiency. For instance, Liu\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] study demonstrated a negative impact of FLLA on both English listening strategy usage and listening learning outcomes. Li et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] revealed that while general FLLA does not directly affect self-perceived performance, it increases listening test anxiety, which, in turn, negatively affects students\u0026rsquo; test performance. An additional concern is that private college students may experience higher anxiety due to limited English proficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. This issue becomes particularly pronounced when they later face national English tests (e.g., College English Test, or CET) that demand well-developed listening proficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Prominent effects of L2 self-guides and their interplay with FLLA\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eL2 motivation has long been regarded as a driving force toward language achievement. D\u0026ouml;rnyei [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] deemed it as the \u0026ldquo;primary impetus to initiate learning the L2 and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process.\u0026rdquo; Papi and Hiver [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] viewed the process of learning an L2 as the pursuit of language-related goals fueled by motivation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThough inherently complex and dynamic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], L2 motivation is closely associated with effective language acquisition, as it enhances learners\u0026rsquo; engagement and effort in learning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Various theoretical frameworks have broadened the understanding of L2 motivation beyond Gardner and Lambert\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] classic dichotomy of integrative vs. instrumental motivation. One influential concept is D\u0026ouml;rnyei\u0026rsquo;s L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), which synthesized several established L2 motivation constructs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] and comprised three components: IL2S, OL2S, and the L2 learning experience [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe IL2S represents the level of language proficiency that learners aspire to achieve. In a cross-cultural study, Taguchi et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] reconceptualized Gardner\u0026rsquo;s \u0026ldquo;integrativeness\u0026rdquo; within the IL2S framework and found that IL2S was a strong predictor of learners\u0026rsquo; L2 motivation. Zhang et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] examined motivational factors among Chinese students and found that IL2S, along with the L2 Learning Experience, were the strongest predictors of students\u0026rsquo; L2 engagement, which then significantly enhanced their listening and speaking achievement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe OL2S, reflecting external expectations and obligations (such as pressures to avoid negative outcomes), has generally received less attention because of its comparatively weak or non-significant influence on motivated behavior [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, some studies have identified OL2S as a contributor to FLA or FLLA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e], which can indirectly undermine L2 motivation and hinder performance and engagement in L2 acquisition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Private college students in China are often burdened with high tuition fees [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], which may heighten their perceived obligation to pursue higher education (i.e., OL2S). It is therefore worthwhile to examine whether this intensified OL2S correlates with IL2S and whether it might exacerbate FLLA, which could ultimately undermine academic performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Perceived instrumentality as a contributor to L2 motivation and outcomes\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePI consistently acts as a positive determinant of learners\u0026rsquo; motivation and performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. It relates to an individual\u0026rsquo;s comprehension of the instrumental value of a current conduct and was characterized as the degree to which individuals recognize their present activities as beneficial for achieving future objectives. While D\u0026ouml;rnyei [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] differentiated the concept of instrumentality into instrumentality-promotion and instrumentality-prevention in an L2 context, this study examines students\u0026rsquo; personal perceptions of instrumentality from a future-oriented perspective. Therefore, the concept of PI, instead of being confined to an L2-specific scope, is particularly pertinent to Chinese private college students, whose future-driven, value-oriented outlook may be collectively shaped by both their perceived necessity to secure desirable future outcomes and the pragmatic, market-responsive orientation of Chinese PHIs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Eren and Rakıcıoğlu-S\u0026ouml;ylemez\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] study, PI significantly predicted EFL students\u0026rsquo; engagement and was a key predictor of their English performance. Despite a few findings, further exploration is needed on the role of PI in affecting FLLA, L2 self-guides, and listening performance among Chinese private college students, a group that may place even greater value on learning English.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Given the unique characteristics and challenges faced by Chinese private college students, this study examines the interactions among FLLA, L2 self-guides, and PI, as well as their influence on English listening performance. The following research questions guided the investigation:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRQ1: What is the relationship between PI and L2 self-guides among private college students in China?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRQ2: What are the relationships of PI and L2 self-guides with FLLA in this student demographic?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e RQ3: To what extent do PI, L2 self-guides, and FLLA predict English listening performance among private college students in China?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Research design and Participants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e This study was conducted in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. It has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of City University of Macau, reference number: 2025-RE-12. Informed consent to participate was obtained from all participants in the study. Participation was voluntary, and students were assured they could withdraw at any time without penalty. This study adopted a quantitative design incorporating a standardized English listening test and a self-report questionnaire to investigate the relationships among FLLA, L2 self-guides, PI, and English listening performance. Using stratified cluster sampling, 160 sophomore students from seven non-English majors at one private university were initially recruited. These students had received minimal formal English listening instruction in secondary education. Participants were fully informed about the research process and their right to confidentiality; their responses would remain anonymous and be used solely for academic purposes. Participation was voluntary, and students were assured they could withdraw at any time without penalty. All data were anonymized to protect individual identities, and the study procedures were reviewed and deemed ethically appropriate.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter data screening, 147 valid responses were retained for analysis. The participants represented seven majors: Hotel Management (9.4%), Tourism Management (9.4%), Chinese Language and Literature (21.8%), International Economics and Trade (12.5%), Urban Planning (9.4%), Visual Design (12.5%), and Teaching Chinese as an International Language (25%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Instruments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA 46-item questionnaire was organized. All substantive items were adapted from validated scales used in previous studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. The questionnaire included four constructs: FLLA (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18), OL2S (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10), IL2S (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10), and PI (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8). Response options ranged from \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; (1 point) to \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; (5 points). The author translated the scale into Chinese to enhance participants\u0026rsquo; understanding. After that, all items were organized into an online questionnaire for accessibility, with a pilot test involving 25 college students performed to evaluate the reliability (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.894).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eForeign language listening anxiety\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eItems for FLLA were taken from the Foreign Language Listening Anxiety Scale in Zhang\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] study. The 20-item 5-point Likert scale was tailored into 18 questions by deducting two items (i.e., \u0026ldquo;English culture and ideas seem very foreign to me\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;You have to know so much about English history and culture in order to understand spoken English\u0026rdquo;) to focus exclusively on the mental factors contributing to anxiety rather than cultural aspects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eL2 self-guides\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis section has 20 items from Taguchi et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Ten items assessed participants\u0026rsquo; ideal L2 self, and the other ten assessed their ought-to L2 self. Questions related to other dimensions from the original scale (e.g., family influence, cultural interest, attitudes toward the L2 community) were omitted to concentrate on the self-guide constructs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePerceived instrumentality\u003c/em\u003e: To measure students\u0026rsquo; PI regarding EFL courses, eight items from two established scales were integrated: five items from Husman and Hilpert\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] 8-item scale, and three from Shin et al.\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e] work. To make the items more specific to English, the phrase \u0026ldquo;the course selected above\u0026rdquo; in Husman and Hilpert\u0026rsquo;s items was replaced with \u0026ldquo;English.\u0026rdquo; Additionally, three items about the necessity of passing college English were removed, since passing the college English course is already a graduation prerequisite in this context.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Data collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe research was carried out in two steps. First, an English listening test was organized offline. To simulate real exam condition and guarantee the validity of test scores, examinees were assigned to seven classrooms to ensure adequate spacing, and four proctors supervised the exam. The questions and audio recording were adapted from an authentic College English Test Band Four (CET-4) test in the past five years, which comprises three short news, two long conversations and three passages, followed by 25 multiple-choice questions in total. Upon finishing the test, students were instructed to upload their answers to an online exam platform, where scores were automatically given and recorded. Then, students filled out the online questionnaire via Wenjuanxing. a Chinese online survey platform. The entire research process took approximately 30 to 40 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData screening was conducted using SPSS 26.0. No missing or invalid data were found. The presence of outliers was assessed through standardized scores and Mahalanobis distance. Cases with \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e-scores exceeding\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.58 (approximately \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] or with Mahalanobis distances significant at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01 were removed. After this filtering, 147 cases remained for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were executed, followed by Pearson correlation analysis among PI, FLLA, IL2S, OL2S, and listening test scores to provide an overview for subsequent analyses. To reveal the association between PI and the L2 self-guides, a series of univariate regression analyses were performed. Subsequently, multiple regression analyses were conducted, followed by hierarchical multiple regression analyses, so as to explore the predictive powers of PI, IL2S and OL2S on FLLA. The same methods were applied to test the combined effects of PI, FLLA, IL2S, and OL2S on listening performance. Finally, three mediation pathways were hypothesized based on the correlation and regression results, with their direct and indirect effects analyzed using PROCESS macro. One statistically significant partial mediation path and two full mediation paths were identified.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003e The findings of the study indicated significantly positive relationships between PI and the L2 self-guides, between OL2S and listening anxiety, and between PI (as well as IL2S) and listening performance. Surprisingly, IL2S was found to positively contribute to FLLA, and FLLA showed no significant direct or indirect effect on listening performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Descriptive and correlational analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, all variables approximated a normal distribution, with skewness and kurtosis values within \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1. The average listening test score (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;44.57 out of 100) reflects the limited English competence of these private college students, consistent with the context described earlier. In contrast, the mean PI score was relatively high (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.774 on a 5-point scale), suggesting that while these students have low English listening proficiency, they generally perceive English learning as helpful for their future.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBivariate Pearson correlation analysis was performed to assess the relationships among PI, IL2S, OL2S, FLLA, and listening scores. The correlation matrix (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) revealed a strong positive correlation between PI and IL2S (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.604, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), and a moderate correlation between PI and OL2S (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.283, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), all of which implied a close tie between PI and L2 self-guides. FLLA demonstrated significant positive correlations with PI (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.333, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), OL2S (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.248, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), and IL2S (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.309, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), implying that PI and OL2S may contribute to intensified listening anxiety. Listening test results showed notable positive correlations with PI (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.166, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05) and IL2S (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.271, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), which suggested possible predictiveness of PI and IL2S on English listening performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics and Pearson correlations (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;147)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSkew-ness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKurto-sis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.774\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.292\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.557\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.487\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.099\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.014\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.333\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e**\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.046\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.081\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.160\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.283\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e**\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.248\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e**\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.572\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.086\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.595\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.604\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e**\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.309\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e**\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.350\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e**\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.571\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.206\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.458\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.166\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.271\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e**\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e PI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;perceived instrumentality; FLLA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;foreign language listening anxiety; OL2S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;ought-to L2 self; IL2S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;ideal L2 self; Score\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;English listening test scores;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e* \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo further explore and visualize these observed relationships, a pairplot (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) was generated to complement the statistical findings. These visual patterns provide a concise summary of the correlation analysis results and offer preliminary insight into the linear relationships among key variables.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe diagonal panels depict kernel density estimations, indicating that most variables approximate a normal distribution. This observation aligns with the skewness and kurtosis values reported earlier and justifies the use of linear regression in subsequent analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe off-diagonal panels present scatterplots with fitted regression lines (red). On one hand, the scatterplots visually demonstrate bivariate relationships among variables. For instance, the tight clustering and upward trends between PI and IL2S, and between IL2S and listening scores suggest potential linear associations. While the lack of clear trends in some plots (e.g., FLLA vs. score) suggests weak or nonsignificant relationships. On the other hand, the steep regression lines clearly demonstrated linear relationships among several key variables. Notably, both PI and IL2S display positive linear associations with listening performance, FLLA, and OL2S, indicating that PI and IL2S are likely to serve as core predictors in the subsequent regression and mediation models.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Univariate regression analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnivariate regression analyses were conducted with PI as the independent variable and OL2S and IL2S as the dependent variables, separately. As demonstrated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, all variance inflation factor (VIF) values were below 2, far under the threshold of 10 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e], indicating no multicollinearity concerns. Both regression models were statistically significant. PI was a significant positive predictor of both OL2S (\u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .080, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001) and IL2S (\u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .365, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Notably, PI exerted a substantially stronger influence on IL2S, explaining 36.5% of its variance, compared to 8% for OL2S. This suggests that students\u0026rsquo; perceived usefulness of learning English manifests more as enhanced internal goals (IL2S) than as external obligations (OL2S).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnivariate regression coefficients (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;147)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"17\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdj. \u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c16\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVIF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"16\" nameend=\"c16\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDependent variable: OL2S\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eModel\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.080\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.074\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.645\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c16\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.325\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.283\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.556\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c16\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"16\" nameend=\"c16\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDependent variable: IL2S\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eModel\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.365\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.361\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83.363\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.672\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.604\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.130\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"17\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Multiple regression and hierarchical regression analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the multiple regression analysis for FLLA (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), IL2S (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.208, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.254, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.035\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e) emerged as the only significant predictor when OL2S and IL2S were entered together, indicating that a stronger IL2S was associated with higher listening anxiety. A follow-up hierarchical regression was run with OL2S entered in Model 1 and both OL2S and IL2S entered in Model 2. In this hierarchical analysis, OL2S was a significant predictor of FLLA (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.197, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.248, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.080\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e) in Model 1 (when IL2S was not included), but OL2S became non-significant when IL2S was added, implying that OL2S influences listening anxiety primarily through its effect on IL2S. In other words, students\u0026rsquo; ought-to selves can heighten their listening anxiety, but this effect appears to be mediated by their ideal selves.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA similar pattern was observed in the analysis for listening performance. In a multiple regression including PI, FLLA, OL2S, and IL2S as predictors of listening test scores, IL2S was the sole significant predictor (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.518, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.300, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.873\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e), whereas the effects of PI, OL2S, and FLLA were nonsignificant. To further probe this, a hierarchical regression for listening performance was conducted. In Model 3, without IL2S, PI showed a positive effect (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.356, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.185, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.067\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e), while OL2S and FLLA remained non-significant. In Model 4, after adding IL2S to the model, PI\u0026rsquo;s effect dropped to non-significance, and IL2S became a significant positive predictor (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.518, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.300, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.873\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e). This underscores the crucial role of IL2S in determining students\u0026rsquo; English listening outcomes, that is, the benefit of PI on listening performance was realized only through enhancing IL2S.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMultiple regression and hierarchical regression coefficients (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;147)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdj. \u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVIF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMultiple regression, dependent variable: FLLA\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eModel\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.118\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.620\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.127\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.159\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.904\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.208\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.254\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.035\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHierarchical regression, dependent variable: FLLA\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eModel 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.061\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.055\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.488\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.197\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.248\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.080\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eModel 2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.118\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.620\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.127\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.159\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.904\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.208\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.254\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.035\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMultiple regression, dependent variable: Score\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eModel\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.083\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.057\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.212\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.015\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.518\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.873\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.686\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.119\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.071\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.815\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.174\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.054\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.028\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.274\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.643\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.146\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.069\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.795\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.172\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHierarchical regression, dependent variable: Score\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eModel 3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.030\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.009\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.458\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.229\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.029\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.198\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.119\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.356\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.185\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.067\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.182\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.089\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.042\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.473\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eModel 4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.083\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.057\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.212\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.015\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.119\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.071\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.815\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.174\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.054\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.028\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.274\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.643\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.146\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.069\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.795\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.172\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIL2S\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.518\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.873\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.686\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.4 Mediation path analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the strong correlation between OL2S and IL2S and the substantial contribution of PI to both (as observed in the above analyses), three mediation pathways were proposed. The first pathway (PI \u0026loz; OL2S \u0026loz; IL2S) was based on the idea that OL2S might mediate the effect of PI on IL2S. Additionally, the shifts in significance observed in the hierarchical regressions suggested two more mediation pathways: OL2S \u0026loz; IL2S \u0026loz; FLLA, and PI \u0026loz; IL2S \u0026loz; listening performance. All three mediation paths were tested using PROCESS (Model 4) with 5,000 bootstrap samples and 95% confidence intervals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the first path, findings highlighted PI (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.325, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.283, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.091) as a strong and direct predictor of OL2S. When PI controlled, OL2S (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.189, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.194, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.065) still significantly predicted IL2S. Since the direct effect of PI on IL2S was still significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) when mediated by OL2S, a partial mediation pathway (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) was confirmed. The effect size of the direct path (approximately .549) far exceeded that of the indirect path (about .055). In practical terms, this suggests that students\u0026rsquo; perceived usefulness of English directly boosts their internal drive (IL2S) to a large extent. A small portion of PI\u0026rsquo;s effect operates through external pressures (OL2S) that are eventually internalized into personal goals, but this indirect effect is relatively minor compared to the direct influence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubsequent analyses indicated two full mediation paths (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The results showed that OL2S (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.340, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.350, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.076) was a significant positive predictor of IL2S, and IL2S (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.208, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.254, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.068) then predicted FLLA when controlling for OL2S. The direct effect of OL2S on FLLA displayed no significance (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.059) but the indirect effect was still significant (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.071, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.033, 95% CI [.014, .142]) with an effect size of .089. This indicates a full mediation where students\u0026rsquo; obligations to learn English (OL2S) did not directly heighten listening anxiety; rather, these external obligations had to be internalized as ideal selves (IL2S) to increase anxiety. This finding reveals a complex interplay between external pressures and internal aspirations in generating anxiety, illustrating how OL2S can flow into IL2S and thereby intensify FLLA.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn a similar pattern, PI exhibited a strong and favorable effect on IL2S (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.672, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.604, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.074), which then positively predicted listening performance (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.464, \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.268, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.174), resulting in a significant indirect effect (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.312, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.124, 95% CI [.078, .565]). The direct effect became nonsignificant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.966) upon mediated by IL2S, indicating another full mediation path with an effect size of .162. In other words, PI does not directly improve students\u0026rsquo; listening scores. Instead, perceiving English as useful enhances their IL2S, which in turn boosts listening performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1 PI as a crucial contributor to L2 motivation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrivate college students in China, influenced by the skill-oriented educational approach of their institutions, tend to perceive English as a critical tool for achieving future academic and career success [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. This perspective aligns with our findings, as evidenced by the high mean score of PI among participants (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.774). Moreover, the partial mediation pathway (PI \u0026loz; OL2S \u0026loz; IL2S) exhibited positive and direct relationships between PI and the L2 self-guides. This finding suggests that the PI of learning English not only increases students\u0026rsquo; sense of external responsibility but also positively influences their internal motivation. This motivational effect aligns with the findings of Eren and Rakıcıoğlu-S\u0026ouml;ylemez [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e], who examined EFL learners in an Intensive English Program. Their study similarly demonstrated that learners with strong perceptions of instrumentality toward English learning exhibited heightened L2 motivation and active engagement. It appears that, irrespective of diverse educational backgrounds, the perceived value of learning English can be a significant factor in predicting L2 learners\u0026rsquo; motivation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, for Chinese private college students, OL2S and IL2S were found to be significantly correlated, indicating that students\u0026rsquo; external obligations can positively transform into internal aspirations. This aligns with D\u0026ouml;rnyei\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] proposition that there should be a harmonious congruence between the ought-to and ideal selves. Although OL2S and IL2S are treated as separate constructs in most cases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], there may be contexts where the two converge. Kim [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] supported this convergence in a study of Korean EFL learners, suggesting that successful integration of OL2S and IL2S depends on aligning external pressures with internal goals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChinese private college students may perceive learning English crucial to their graduation, or advantageous for job hunting, and this perceived value would result in enhanced OL2S. Furthermore, the financial burden from high tuition fees may reinforce this OL2S. However, instead of hindering their L2 learning, the elevated OL2S may motivate them to become proficient English users that could stand out in future job hunting or career development, which better guarantees a return on their educational investment. In this sense, their OL2S may merge with IL2S, therefore eventually boosting their L2 motivation. In a nutshell, the more they recognize English as valuable and beneficial, the more likely they are to internalize external responsibilities to learn the L2 as a personal goal.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2 The mediating and positive role of IL2S on FLLA\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother mediation path (OL2S \u0026loz; IL2S \u0026loz; FLLA) observed in this study provides additional evidence for the positive predictive power of OL2S on FLLA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. As Papi and Khajavy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e] noted, external obligations can cause learners to become overly preoccupied with potential negative outcomes, which inherently provoke anxiety. In our results, however, the substantial effect of OL2S on FLLA was fully mediated by learners\u0026rsquo; ideal selves, highlighting the dominant role of IL2S in generating FLLA among these students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough Papi and Hiver [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] denoted that cultivating a strong IL2S could reduce the experience of anxiety, this study found that the listening anxiety of Chinese private college students primarily derives from an interplay of both L2 self-guides, rather than from OL2S alone. This could be justified by the convergence of OL2S with IL2S discussed above. Regarding the full medicating role of IL2S, it implies that OL2S may not directly give rise to students\u0026rsquo; listening anxiety unless internalized as IL2S in this specific scenario. This makes sense, as private college students who do not aspire to become proficient English users are likely less concerned about external pressures to learn English, and consequently experience little anxiety.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe positive association between IL2S and FLLA may be explained by the self-discrepancy between students' current listening ability and their envisioned ideal proficiency. According to self-discrepancy theory [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e], individuals who perceive a gap between their actual and ideal selves are likely to experience negative emotions, such as disappointment or anxiety. Within the context of language learning, students who vividly envision an ideal L2 self but simultaneously recognize their limited real-world listening skills may encounter elevated anxiety during listening activities. This interpretation aligns with findings by Li et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], who reported that learners with higher aspirations toward English proficiency often experience greater listening test anxiety due to unmet expectations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.3 Listening performance: Mediated contribution from IL2S and nonsignificant impact from FLLA\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the IL2S presented a predominant influence over PI in the full mediation pathway (PI \u0026loz; IL2S \u0026loz; Listening performance), where both PI and IL2S favorably predicted listening performance. This finding reaffirms the role of IL2S as a key determinant in favorably predicting L2 achievement. Meanwhile, the impact of PI on enhancing internal goals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] was testified as well, underscoring that the perceived utility of learning English indirectly benefits listening performance via shaping robust IL2S. Additionally, this full mediation signifies that simply realizing the instrumental value of learning English is insufficient to improve private college students\u0026rsquo; listening competence. Rather, such awareness needs to be developed into ideal selves to enhance their practical L2 skills.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeanwhile, unlike most prior research that has found FLLA to negatively affect listening outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e], the present study observed a negative but non-significant effect of FLLA on English listening performance. This finding challenges the widely accepted notion that anxiety significantly impairs listening performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough few in number, some studies have reported similar results and offered potential explanations. For example, Liu [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] attributed the lack of a significant relationship between FLLA and listening performance to the low-stakes nature of the English listening test used in that study. Indeed, previous research has shown a positive relationship between test stakes and test anxiety [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. In the current study, participants were aware that the listening test was conducted for research purposes, implying a relatively low-stakes context. This could partly explain the lack of a significant anxiety effect. However, the medium-to-high anxiety level indicated by the mean FLLA score (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.487) suggests that a low-stakes context may not fully account for the result.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne plausible interpretation is that the limited English proficiency of Chinese private college students overshadowed any impact that listening anxiety might have on their performance. As Kim\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] work demonstrated, the predictive power of FLLA on listening performance does not derive solely from the emotional feelings of anxiety (e.g., worry or tension). For less proficient L2 listeners like those in our study (who scored on average 44.57 out of 100), their poor performance is likely due to inadequate English competence, insufficient listening practice, or a lack of systematic instruction, rather than anxiety per se. In such cases, FLLA, as an affective factor, might not yet play a significant role in further degrading performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.4 Implications of practices\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e By exploring the interrelation among PI, L2 self-guides, FLLA and listening performance, this study provides empirical insights into the English listening pedagogy in Chinese private colleges. In light of the significant effect of PI on L2 selves and the recurring strong connection between OL2S and IL2S, educators in China\u0026rsquo;s PHIs could assist their students, especially demotivated ones, to explore the practical utilities of learning English for their near future (e.g., test taking, certificate acquiring, etc.) and distant future (e.g., job hunting, academic pursuit, career development, etc.), thus transferring their OL2Ss (e.g., obligations to learn English, or expectations from significant others) to an internalized goal of becoming competent English learners. To enhance students\u0026rsquo; PI of English, teachers could encourage them to explore the potential benefits of combining their own professional expertise with English proficiency (e.g., e-commerce livestreaming on social media, or teaching Chinese as a foreign language online). In this way, students\u0026rsquo; IL2S would be strengthened while avoiding excessive apprehension associated with their OL2Ss.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConcerning FLLA and English listening proficiency, students need to bridge gaps between their current English competence and ideal proficiency by means of strengthening fundamental English knowledge, mastering listening strategy use (e.g., cognitive and metacognitive strategies), or engaging in regular listening practice. Simultaneously, teachers and PHIs should formulate achievable listening objectives catered to students\u0026rsquo; present English knowledge level, thus avoiding unrealistic discrepancies between their actual selves and ideal selves. In addition, the PHIs should consider ways of transforming students\u0026rsquo; financial investment into learning resources, such as offering smaller-sized English listening classes (with fewer than 30 students per class), professional English listening training facilities (e.g., listening classrooms equipped with PCs and headphones, or online platforms for listening instruction and practice), or providing free access to internships that correspond to students\u0026rsquo; vocational expectations and planning. In so doing, PHIs justify the students\u0026rsquo; financial investment and improve their English proficiency, consequently narrowing the disparity between current selves and ideal selves, thereby reducing anxiety, maintaining motivation, and improving language performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.5 Limitations and future direction\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations: The data were collected from one single PHI in China, which did not suffice for a comprehensive profiling of the EFL learning in China\u0026rsquo;s PHE, and the limited sample size was insufficient to support a more comprehensive analysis of the relationships among potential variables. Future research could include comparative studies between private colleges while targeting larger participants to capture the characteristics of EFL-related emotions and outcomes among China\u0026rsquo;s private college students. Additionally, as indicated by Papi et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], the \u0026ldquo;asymmetricity in standpoints and lack of clear regulatory distinctions\u0026rdquo; embedded in Taguchi et al.\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] questionnaire design may have contributed to higher predictive power of ideal L2 self. Future study could apply Papi et al.\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e] 2 x 2 model of L2 self-guides for balanced research on target students\u0026rsquo; L2 motivation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003e This study investigated the relationships among PI, L2 self-guides, FLLA, and English listening performance of Chinese private college students, with three mediation pathways identified: PI significantly predicted IL2S while partially mediated by OL2S, and IL2S fully mediated the direct influences of OL2S on FLLA, as well as the effect of PI on listening performance. These findings suggest that private college teachers and policymakers should exhibit the practical value of learning English to students, formulate achievable English learning objectives, and improve educational resources, thereby helping students translate English learning obligations or educational investment into positive L2 learning goals that enhance EFL performance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors extend their heartful gratitude to all those who participated in and supported this study, as well as to our beloved families and close friends.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC. H. was responsible for the conception and design of the study, and conducted the data analysis and interpretation, and prepared the initial manuscript draft. W.X. was responsible for the methodology, and reviewed, revised, and proofread the manuscript. F.Z. contributed to data collection and acquisition. P.S. reviewed and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data used and analysed in the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. It has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of City University of Macau, reference number: 2025-RE-12. Informed consent to participate was obtained from all participants, and all procedures adhered to ethical standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eapplicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there exists no competing financial interest or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu X, Zhang Y, Zhao X, Hunt S, Yan W, Wang Y. The development of independent colleges and their separation from their parent public universities in China. 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Stud Second Lang Acquisition. 2019;41(2):351. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000153\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/S0272263118000153\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Perceived instrumentality, L2 self-guides, foreign language listening anxiety, English listening proficiency, Chinese private college students","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6851741/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6851741/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study examines the relationships among perceived instrumentality, ideal and ought-to second language (L2) selves, foreign language listening anxiety, and English listening performance among Chinese private college students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethod\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnglish listening performance and motivational-affective variables were assessed using a standardized test and questionnaire survey among 147 non-English major sophomores, and analyzed through descriptive statistics, correlation, regression, and mediation analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1) perceived instrumentality positively influenced both the ideal and ought-to L2 selves; (2) the ideal L2 self mediated the relationship between perceived instrumentality and listening performance, while also suppressing the direct effect of the ought-to L2 self on listening anxiety; (3) listening anxiety was intensified rather than alleviated by the ideal L2 self and did not significantly impair listening performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings contrast with previous research, indicating that learners\u0026rsquo; idealized self-images as proficient English users could increase anxiety. However, such heightened anxiety does not necessarily affect their listening performance, possibly due to the target population\u0026rsquo;s limited English proficiency. Further empirical and longitudinal research on this under-investigated demographic is recommended to better inform language teaching practices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Perceived Instrumentality and Motivational Self-Guides as Predictors of Listening Proficiency: Reconsidering the Role of Listening Anxiety","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-18 14:51:17","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6851741/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8b065213-8cc7-4b42-8f7b-19b7981f6641","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-09T06:38:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-18 14:51:17","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6851741","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6851741","identity":"rs-6851741","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}