Understanding the Interplay Between Language Teachers’ Efficacy and Constructivist Pedagogy in Ghana’s Evolving Education Landscape: A Structural Equation Modelling Analysis

Understanding the Interplay Between Language Teachers’ Efficacy and Constructivist Pedagogy in Ghana’s Evolving Education Landscape: A Structural Equation Modelling Analysis | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Understanding the Interplay Between Language Teachers’ Efficacy and Constructivist Pedagogy in Ghana’s Evolving Education Landscape: A Structural Equation Modelling Analysis Mr Ernest Nyamekye, Seth Asare-Danso, Emmanuel Amo Ofori This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4342564/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The education system in Ghana is undergoing a transition from a behaviorist instructional philosophy to a constructivist one, aiming to produce learners who can actively contribute to nation-building. Nonetheless, given the weighing demands on teachers regarding this abrupt shift into constructivist teaching, there is a need to examine teachers sense of efficacy related to the enactment of core principles of this novel instructional philosophy—i.e., social, cognitive, and critical constructivism— laid down in the newly introduced standards-based curriculum. An explanatory sequential mixed method was used to obtain data from basic school teachers in the Sunyani-west district of Bono Region, Ghana. Using adapted teacher self-efficacy and constructivist learning environment scales, quantitative data were gathered from 104 teachers. Qualitative data were also gathered from 61 conveniently sampled language teachers to augment the quantitative findings. Using partial least squares structural equation modelling, a significant positive association was discovered between teachers’ efficacy and the practice of social and cognitive constructivism. Nonetheless, teachers’ efficacy did not statistically predict their practice of critical constructivism. The qualitative results showed that sociocultural concerns probably accounted for the insignificant association between efficacy and critical constructivism. It was therefore concluded that sociocultural norms designed for bringing up a child in Ghana tend to inhibit the enactment of critical constructivism. The study recommends that the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, in partnership with the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission, should update teacher professional development programs in universities and colleges of education to incorporate constructivist principles, particularly critical pedagogy, aiming to produce competent teachers capable of fostering learners' autonomy, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills as outlined in the Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC).. constructivism language teaching Ghanaian language and culture curriculum standards-based curriculum self-efficacy Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1 Introduction The need for change in the philosophy of teaching—from traditional behaviorist teaching to constructivist instruction—has become an issue of concern for many African and low- and middle-income countries over the past two decades. The global interest in the constructivist teaching philosophy emanates from emerging concerns about the limitations associated with the traditional behaviorist approach to teaching. This traditional teaching approach has been criticized for its premium emphasis on teacher-centeredness. The widely held belief about this instructional philosophy is that its core principle—that is, the principle of reinforcement—fails to adequately address the complexities of critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making (Lockard & Abrams, 2004 ; Wakefield, 2007 ). Consequently, numerous countries and concerned agencies have advocated for the need to shift from the behaviorist philosophy of education to the constructivist philosophy of teaching to improve the quality of education and, most importantly, remedy the educational limitations associated with the behaviorist instructional philosophy (Basturk, 2016 ; Ogisu, 2022 ). Several African countries such as South Africa (Brodie et al., 2002 ), Namibia (O’Sullivan, 2004 ), Tanzania (Vavrus, 2009 ; Vavrus & Bartlett, 2013 ), Nigeria (Hardman et al., 2008 ), Ghana (Adom et al., 2016 ; Safori, 2019 ), Eritrea (Tadesse et al., 2021 ), and some Asian countries like Mongolia (Steiner-Khamsi & Stolpe, 2006 ), Cambodia (Bunlay et al., 2010 ), etc., have, therefore, devised educational reforms in which the constructivist teaching approach has been adopted as the new educational approach capable of ensuring quality education (Ogisu, 2022 ). Leveraging the academic benefits associated with the constructivist philosophy is, obviously, one of the core reasons why the Ministry of Education (MoE), in collaboration with the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) of Ghana, introduced the SBC in the year 2019. As clearly stated in the Ghanaian language and culture curriculum (GHLCC), teaching and learning are to be grounded in the constructivist philosophy. The underlying aim of this philosophical shift is to: …develop individuals who are literate, good problem solvers, have the ability to think creatively and have both the confidence and competence to participate fully in the Ghanaian society as responsible citizens, locally and globally (GES, 2019 , p.10) While the above goals demonstrate a promising educational future for basic school children in Ghana, existing reports show that teachers in the African context are resistant to this educational change since teacher-centered learning still dominates classroom practices (Akyeampong et al., 2006 ; Altinyelken, 2010 ; Tabulawa, 2013 ; Zeki & Guneyli, 2014 ; Muganga & Ssenkusu, 2019 ). Large class sizes, limited class hours, and inadequacy of resources are usually cited as the determinants of teachers' unwillingness to embrace constructivist teaching (Safori, 2019 ; Boadu et al., 2020 ). Teachers’ sense of efficacy regarding the constructivist philosophy is yet to be explored. Hence, there is a need for a further study that examines the role of efficacy in predicting teachers' practice of constructivism. In Section 2 of the paper, we offer a comprehensive discussion of constructivism, taking into consideration its variants. Following that is a detailed discussion of self-efficacy as a theoretical framework for the study. The section also presents the conceptualization of the proposed model and the development of hypotheses. In Section 3 , the research methods are meticulously discussed. Section 4 is devoted to the presentation of results, while sections 5 and 6 present a discussion of the findings and managerial implications of the study, respectively. 2 Literature Review 2.1 Constructivism as an Instructional Philosophy Constructivism, a learning theory, is commonly approached from a cognitive standpoint, often seen as a response to the information processing theory that explores how the human brain encodes information for storage (Loyens, 2007 ). Similar to other cognitive learning theories, it is a conceptual framework for understanding how prior information in human memory becomes the foundation for acquiring new knowledge (Doorslaer, 1988 ; Anderson & Piazza, 1996 ). It challenges the traditional learning environment, rejecting the linear transmission of knowledge from teacher to students. Advocates of constructivism argue that the transfer of knowledge from an expert to learners is not the most effective way to acquire knowledge; rather, learners benefit more from actively participating in constructing their own knowledge. Constructivism promotes a learner-centered approach, with the teacher playing the role of a facilitator or educational guide (Dejong & Groomes, 1996 ; Kroll & Laboskey, 1996 ; Baysen & Baysen, 2017 ; Kosnik et al., 2018 ). While many cognitive theories stress active learning, constructivism places particular emphasis on learners actively constructing their understanding of educational topics. Constructivism, as a theory of learning and instruction, manifests in various forms such as cognitive, social, and critical constructivism. Cognitive constructivism, also known as individual or psychological constructivism, focuses on how individuals create knowledge through existing schemas (Loyens, 2007 ). Piaget ( 1976 ), credited with the cognitive constructivist perspective, argues that knowledge is not merely received and absorbed but is constructed through coordinated cognitive activities based on experiences with the surrounding world. Individuals, according to Piaget, develop mental models or schemas through their interactions with the environment. Another variant of constructivism is social constructivism, introduced by Lev Vygotsky. In this theory, knowledge construction is viewed as a social process where individual efforts are complemented by significant contributions from others (Lourenço, 2012 ; Q. Zhang & Kou, 2012 ; Trif, 2015 ). Unlike cognitive constructivism, social constructivism emphasizes the collaborative aspect of learning, where the interactions with others play a vital role in the construction of knowledge. Critical constructivism, as a variant of constructivism, follows a similar learning approach. Notably, the distinguishing aspect of critical constructivism is its strong focus on fostering 'critical thinking' (Watts & Jofili, 1998 ). Educators within the critical constructivism framework prioritize equipping learners with 'emancipatory potentials' (Gilbert, 1994 ). Therefore, the emphasis lies on guiding students to develop critical thinking skills, enabling them to reflect on societal experiences and analyze social structures and powers. Critical constructivists advocate for change, aiming to contribute to the creation of a better society. Consequently, they promote an educational approach that goes beyond acquiring content knowledge to instill awareness of societal or national issues in learners. In a critical constructivist learning environment, students are often tasked with independent or collaborative reflection on social issues, providing constructive contributions towards resolving these challenges (Jofili & Watts, 1995 ; Stears, 2009 ). 2. Self-Efficacy as a Predictor of Teachers’ Instructional Practices Teachers play a crucial role in implementing new curriculum strategies. Their perceived self-efficacy, which refers to their judgment of their ability to effectively complete an educational task (Bandura, 1982 ), significantly impacts their attitudes, motivation, and, most importantly, their success in that specific task (Bandura, 1997 ). An individual's thought processes and emotional responses to situations may be influenced by their sense of efficacy. This suggests that individuals with higher self-efficacy levels are more likely to remain composed and productive when faced with challenges. Conversely, individuals with lower self-efficacy tend to approach situations with pessimism, perceiving tasks as more difficult than they actually are. These negative thoughts can hinder their success by increasing stress and anxiety levels and, crucially, by diminishing the confidence required to overcome obstacles (Pajares, 2002 ). In this context, researchers in the field of education consistently show interest in and actively seek to assess the relationship between teacher efficacy and their conduct in the classroom, particularly in the context of new educational reforms. Numerous studies highlight that teachers' sense of efficacy stands out as a key predictor of students' academic success, effective classroom management, and the effort invested in implementing innovative teaching strategies (Guskey, 1988 ; Poulou et al., 2019 ). According to Bandura ( 1977 ), teachers' sense of efficacy, influencing the effort they dedicate to implementing educational innovations, stems from four primary sources: mastery experience (personal success), vicarious experience (inspiration from observing others), verbal persuasion (colleagues' words shaping decisions), and emotional states (how teachers' emotions affect their perceptions of capabilities). These sources collectively contribute to determining the level of teachers' self-efficacy, subsequently influencing their willingness and preparedness to adopt educational innovations. Numerous studies have indicated that teachers' willingness to embrace change, implement new ideas, and their enthusiasm for incorporating innovative teaching methods are closely linked to their self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001 ; Paraskeva et al., 2008 ; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010 ; Çobanoğlu, 2011 ; Kabaoğlu, 2015 ). This suggests that teachers with a high sense of efficacy have a greater likelihood of succeeding in implementing new educational or curriculum innovations compared to those with a low sense of efficacy (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003 ; Margolis & McCabe, 2006 ; Sehgal et al., 2017 ). Consequently, the need for an investigation into teachers' efficacy concerning the implementation of educational reforms has become a significant concern for researchers in the field of education. In recent literature exploring the integration of technology in language education, self-efficacy emerges as a prominent factor influencing various aspects of educators' engagement and acceptance of technology. Wang et al. ( 2023 ) conducted a study focusing on Chinese L2 students. Their study revealed that technological self-efficacy significantly predicts technology acceptance, explaining a substantial portion of its variance. Similarly, Wang and Pan ( 2023 ) investigated Chinese English as a foreign language (EFL) instructors’ self-efficacy level and its association with their classroom practices. The result of their study demonstrated that teacher self-efficacy notably influences work engagement, surpassing the impact of other factors like resilience. A study by Zhi et al. ( 2023 ) also underscores the significant role of efficacy in technology adoption among Chinese EFL teachers. Through structural equation modeling and regression analysis, they found that self-efficacy significantly predicted a considerable portion of the variance in teachers' technology adoption rates. This emphasis on self-efficacy suggests its pivotal role in shaping educators' attitudes and behaviors towards incorporating technology into language instruction. Collectively, these studies highlight the crucial influence of self-efficacy in driving technological acceptance and adoption within language education contexts. Recognizing the importance of bolstering educators' self-efficacy can offer valuable insights for stakeholders, including teachers, trainers, policymakers, and officials, aiming to enhance technology integration efforts in language learning environments. Thus, in light of the apprehensions surrounding teachers' resistance to implementing the constructivist teaching philosophy across various educational contexts (Tabulawa, 2013 ; Zeki & Guneyli, 2014 ; Muganga & Ssenkusu, 2019 ), including Ghana, it becomes crucial to comprehend the sense of efficacy among Ghanaian language (GHL) teachers regarding the adoption of constructivist teaching approaches specified in the recently introduced Standards-based Curriculum (SBC) at the elementary education level in Ghana. 2.3 Model Conceptualisation and Hypothesis Development The study was grounded in the self-efficacy theory of Bandura ( 1975 ). As previously discussed, the efficacy theory states that individuals’ perceived confidence regarding the accomplishment of a particular task or the performance of a particular behavior influences their actual practice. Thus, in the context of this study, we hypothesize that language teachers’ practice of social, critical, and cognitive construction would, among other factors, be contingent on their perceived confidence regarding the execution of the aforementioned forms of constructivism. Figure 1 is a diagrammatic representation of the proposed model developed to ascertain the influence of efficacy on the practice of the three forms of constructivism. Source: Author’s Construct Practically, this study seeks to achieve the above by statistically testing the following hypotheses: Teachers’ efficacy will influence their practice of cognitive constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching Teachers’ efficacy will influence their practice of social constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching Teachers’ efficacy will influence their practice of critical constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching 3 Methods 3.1 Study Design, Research Area and Selection of Study Participants An explanatory sequential mixed method research design was adopted. As Creswell, ( 2014 ), rightly states, an explanatory sequential mixed methods require an initial collection and analysis of quantitative data, followed by a collection of qualitative data to cross-validate the initial quantitative findings. Thus, in the context of this study, quantitative data were gathered during the initial phase of the data collection process. After analyzing the quantitative data, qualitative data were gathered to explain some of the quantitative results for a better understanding of the results. The study was conducted in the Sunyani West District, located in the Bono Region of Ghana. The Sunyani West district forms part of the 12 districts in the Bono region of Ghana. It has Odumase as its capital town. According to Nyamekye et al., ( 2023 , p. 6), the Sunyani-West municipality has 21 major settlements, including “Abesu, Abronye, Bofuor Adantia, Adei Boreso, Ahyiam, Ayakomaso, Chiraa, Chiraa-Asuakwa, Dumasua, Fiapre, Kantro, Kobedi, Kwabenakumakrom, Kwatire, Mantukwa, Nsesereso, Nsoatre, Odumase, Tainso, and Twumasi krom”. The total number of basic schools located in the district is 61. Apart from Adantia, Chiraa, Dumasua, Fiapre, Kwatire, Nsoatre, and Odumase, most of the major settlements in the district are extremely remote. For the collection of quantitative data, the researcher adopted the census survey technique to select all 104 participants. This technique for selecting research subjects is considered appropriate when the researcher intends to include all participants in a given population (Zhang et al., 2007 ). With regard to the qualitative data, a convenient sampling technique was used to sample participants for the study. This data collection procedure was adopted because it allows the researcher to gather data from participants who are willing to participate in the research. Regarding the number of participants who were involved in the qualitative data collection, the researcher engaged as many as possible until data saturation was reached. Data saturation—a situation where themes recur in the information given by subsequent respondents (Fusch & Ness, 2015 )—usually occurs after interviewing 6 to 12 people (Guest et al., 2006 ). In line with this, 61 teachers (1 from each school) were involved in the gathering of the qualitative data. 3.2 Instrumentation An adapted constructivist teacher self-efficacy scale (Uredi & Akbasli, 2015 ) was used to assess teachers’ self-efficacy related to constructivist pedagogy. The scale was measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (SD) to strongly agree (SA). The constructivist learning environment survey of Taylor et al. ( 1997 ) was also adapted to measure the extent to which the three forms of constructivism, namely cognitive constructivism (CC), social constructivism (SC), and critical constructivism (CCT), were practised in the classroom. A five-point Likert scale of frequency (ranging from never to always) was used to obtain teachers’ responses. The original CLES is composed of five aspects of constructivism: personal relevance, shared control, critical voice, student negotiation, and uncertainty of knowledge. However, per the aims of the current study, we adapted questions from personal relevance, student negotiation, and critical voice because the aforementioned dimensions of the CLES align with cognitive, social, and critical constructivism, respectively. Table 1 presents the various constructs and sample items. Table 1 Constructs and Sample Items Construct Sample items TSE I can facilitate active learning and student exploration I can present content that is relevant to pupils’ learning interests I can develop lessons based on the pupils’ previous linguistic competence CC Pupils are made to connect their previous knowledge to the topic Opportunities are created for learners to learn at home Learning is connected to the previous experiences of the learners SC Pupils are made to share their knowledge with others in the classroom Pupils are made to explain their ideas to each other Pupils are encouraged to critique the credibility of other pupils’ contributions CCT I give pupils the authority to ask me to change my teaching methods Pupils have the right to question the credibility of the book they are learning Pupils have the authority to question the essence of a particular topic A semi-structured interview guide was also used to gather further data on teachers’ views on the practice of constructivism in language teaching. Questions related to teachers’ practice of constructivism were focused, particularly, on the practice of cognitive constructivism, social constructivism, and critical constructivism. The researcher developed these qualitative constructivist-related interview questions by adapting questions from the Constructivist Environment Learning Survey (CLES) by Taylor et al. ( 1997 ). 3.3 Validity and Reliability Checks To ensure the reliability and validity of the research instruments to be adopted for this study, there was a pilot test in the Sunyani Municipality, where respondents had similar characteristics to those in the Sunyani-West district. A total of 150 questionnaires were pilot-tested to validate the research instrument. This number of questionnaires, according to Hoyle ( 1995 ) and Kline ( 2005 ), is enough for the validation of an instrument for research. After pilot testing the instrument, Cronbach’s alpha was used to assess the internal consistency of the initial version of the instrument. A good internal consistency value was obtained for TSE (α = 0.766; 5 items), CC (α = 0.803; 7 items), SC (α = 0.791; 5 items), and CCT (α = 0.891; 7 items). After the collection of the main data, PLS-SEM was used to evaluate the validity and reliability of the constructs. Particularly, the internal consistency, convergent, and discriminant validity values were used to confirm the suitability of the constructs and their respective items. 3.4 Ethical Consideration An ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Cape Coast’s Institutional Review Board (ID-UCCIRB/CHAS/2023/97). Thus, all schools were provided with an introductory letter that enabled the researcher to engage with the teaching staff as well as the learners. Also, the consent of all research participants was obtained before data collection. Hence, under no circumstances were any of the participants forced to respond to the interviews or complete a questionnaire. All research participants were assured of the anonymity and confidentiality of the information they provided. The purpose of the research was communicated to the research participants, and thus, they were informed that the information they provided would be used solely for academic purposes. 4 Presentation of Results 4.1 Demographic Background of Respondents Table 2 below presents the demographics of the respondents based on their age group, the highest academic qualification, and the number of years they have served as professional teachers. Table 2 Demographic characteristics of the research participants Variable Count Percentage Subgroup Gender Male 28 26.9% Female 76 73.1% Age Range Below 30 58 55.8% 30–34 40 38.5% 35–39 6 5.8% 40–44 0 0.0% Highest Academic Qualification Diploma 99 95.2% Degree 4 3.8% Masters 1 1.0% Years of Teaching Experience 1-5yrs 91 87.5% 6-10yrs 10 9.6% 11-15yrs 2 1.9% 16-20yrs 1 1.0% A total of 104 teachers participated in the quantitative survey. Of these, 26.9% identified as male, while the remaining 73.1% identified as female, suggesting that the majority of the study’s respondents were female. In terms of age distribution, 55.8% of the respondents were below the age of 30, 38.5% were within the age range of 30–34, and only 5.8% of the respondents were within the age range of 35–39. None of the respondents were in the age range of 40–44. The majority of the respondents (95.2%) had a diploma in basic education as their highest educational qualification. Only 4 respondents (3.8%) had a bachelor’s degree. One teacher (1.0%) indicated a master’s degree as his or her highest educational qualification. With regard to years of teaching experience, 87.5% have had one to five years of teaching experience, 9.6% have had six to ten years of teaching experience, and 1.9% have had 11 to 15 years of teaching experience. Only one teacher (1.0%) had taught for 16–20 years. 4.2 Measurement Model In PLS-SEM, assessment of the measurement model is a prerequisite for hypothesis testing. It is done to ascertain the validity and reliability of the constructs in the proposed model. Particularly, internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant validity were assessed to ascertain the appropriateness of the model meant to test the study’s proposed hypothesis. The subsequent subsections are devoted to presenting the statistical results for validity and reliability assessment. 4.2.1 Internal Consistency and Convergent Validity of Constructs The specific statistical criteria needed for validity and reliability checks, according to Hair et al. ( 2019 ), are composite reliability, Cronbach’s alpha (α), and the average variance extracted (AVE). Table 3 presents the statistical results of the convergent validity of the constructs based on indicator loadings, Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability—i.e., the composite of Jöreskog ( 1971 )—and the AVE values. Table 3 Internal Consistency and Convergent Validity of Constructs Construct Indicator Loadings (α) CR (rho_a) (rho_c) AVE TSE 0.795 0.829 0.858 0.548 tse1 0.739 tse2 0.833 tse3 0.634 tse4 0.750 tse5 0.732 CC 0.823 0.868 0.858 0.508 cc1 0.756 cc2 0.842 cc3 0.748 cc4 0.507 cc5 0.715 cc6 0.664 cc7 0.756 SC 0.760 0.792 0.836 0.508 sc1 0.667 sc2 0.802 sc3 0.806 sc4 0.685 sc5 0.577 CCT 0.845 0.819 0.861 0.557 cct1 0.829 cct2 0.813 cct3 0.696 cct4 0.793 cct5 0.570 The first consideration in assessing the measurement model is to check the appropriateness of the indicator loadings. Loadings that are equal to or above the recommended threshold of 0.70 are usually accepted because they are an indication that the underlying construct explains more than 50% of the indicator variable’s variance (Hair et al., 2019 ). Nonetheless, these authors further state that indicators that load as low as 0.40 could be retained in the model, especially when they do not affect other reliability values like those of the AVE. Thus, in the context of this study, as can be observed in Fig. 2 , it is safe to assume that the latent variables have met the recommended threshold of factor loadings. The second consideration in the measurement model assessment is the internal consistency analysis. In this study, both Cronbach’s alpha reliability and Jöreskog’s ( 1971 ) composite reliability were analysed. Composite reliability as an indicator of construct reliability is concerned with measuring the extent to which the underlying construct explains the variances in its indicators. The statistically accepted threshold for composite reliability is .70 (Hair et al., 2019 ; Hair et al., 2021 ). As presented in Table 3 , Cronbach’s alpha values and the composite reliability values of TSE, CCT, CC, and SC are clear indications that the model’s constructs have good internal consistency. It should also be noted that none of the composite reliability values is above 0.95. This indicates that there were no redundant items in each of the constructs. It further shows that undesirable response patterns—i.e., straightlining of responses—were minimal in the data, as Hair et al. ( 2019 ) suggest. The third consideration in the assessment of the measurement model in this study was the convergent validity analysis using the AVE. The AVE was used to ascertain the extent to which the construct converges to explain the variances in its latent variables. In other words, it was used to make a statistical claim that the construct indicators converge on a common underlying factor (dos Santos & Cirillo, 2023 ). Practically, an AVE value of 0.5 or more is considered a good indication of convergent validity. In line with the recommended threshold, the constructs in this model are above the statistically acceptable AVE values. This shows, therefore, that the indicators measured a common construct. 4.2.2 Discriminant Validity Assessment Discriminant validity analysis was also conducted to measure the quality of the proposed model. This validity analysis is concerned with ascertaining how the various constructs in the model are theoretically distinct from each other (Voorhees et al., 2016 ; Franke & Sarstedt, 2019 ). Establishing discriminant validity in PLS-SEM is usually based on the Fornell-Larcker criterion, the heterotrait-monotrait criterion, and cross-loading statistics (Hair et al., 2019 ; Hair et al., 2021 ). The current model’s discriminant validity based on the three aforementioned criteria is analyzed in the subsequent paragraphs. Based on the Fornell-Larcker criterion, discriminant validity of the constructs is established when the square root of the AVE of each construct is higher than the interfactor correlations, as suggested by Fornell and Larcker ( 1981 ). In line with this criterion, it could be concluded that discriminant validity has been established. Table 4 presents the results in this regard. Table 4 Fornell-Larcker criterion CC CCT SC TSE CC 0.713 CCT 0.258 0.747 SC 0.276 0.25 0.713 TSE 0.373 0.237 0.35 0.740 Per the statistics presented in Table 4 , the square root of the AVEs of all the constructs is higher than their correlations with other factors. This indicated, therefore, that the constructs are very distinct from each other. It also indicates that the items set to measure the constructs do measure their respective underlying constructs but not any other constructs. The HTMT ratio is also another means of establishing discriminant validity in PLS-SEM. Discriminant validity using the HTMT is established when the average of item correlations across constructs is significantly lower than the average of correlations of items measuring the same constructs. Discriminant validity is met when none of the HTMT correlations is higher than the 0.90 threshold (Henseler et al., 2015 ; Hair et al., 2019 ). Table 5 presents the HTMT of the current model. Table 5 HTMT Ratio CC CCT SC TSE CC CCT 0.284 SC 0.311 0.276 TSE 0.367 0.220 0.422 As can be seen, all the HTMT values are below the recommended threshold. Thus, the HTMT criterion has also provided enough evidence of discriminant validity in the constructs of the proposed model. 4.3 Structural Model Results Following the assessment of the measurement model, the various hypotheses were tested using PLS-SEM bootstrapping method. The PLS-SEM bootstrapping aimed to ascertain how teachers’ constructivist self-efficacy influenced their practice of the various constructivist teaching approaches. Using PLS-SEM bootstrapping, the researcher focused on the strength and direction of the relationship ( β) between the exogenous and endogenous variables, the coefficient of determination ( R 2 ), the effect size of the predicted relationship ( f 2 ) and the predictive validity ( Q 2 ) of the model. Figure 3 and Table 6 present the results of the PLS-SEM bootstrapping Table 6 Bootstrapping results H Path β SD t p f 2 R 2 Q 2 Decision H1 TSE -> CC 0.373 0.066 5.637 SC 0.350 0.082 4.270 CCT 0.237 0.124 1.911 0.056 0.060 0.056 0.027 Not Supported Table 6 presents the results on how teachers’ constructivist self-efficacy predicts their constructivist practices. The influence of teachers' sense of efficacy and their practice of cognitive constructivism (β = 0.371; t = 5.521; p < .001) was found to be statistically significant; research hypothesis 1 was therefore supported. This indicates that an increase in teachers’ sense of efficacy is likely to increase in the extent to which they use cognitive constructivist means of enhancing students’ learning of indigenous languages. The effect size for this prediction (f2 = 0.162) indicates that the magnitude of the impact of teachers’ efficacy on their practice of cognitive constructivism is moderate. As suggested by Cohen ( 1988 ), an f 2 of 0.02, 0.15 or greater, and 0.35 or greater represent small, moderate, and large effect sizes, respectively. The R2 value of 0.139 is an indication that, out of a host of many factors that may influence teachers' practice of cognitive constructivism, only efficacy accounts for 13.9% of the variation in this endogenous variable. As with cognitive constructivism, the test also confirmed that the teachers’ self-efficacy statistically influenced their practice of social constructivism (β = 0.352; t = 4.287; p < .001); hence, research hypothesis 2 was also supported. This also indicates that teachers’ sense of efficacy tends to have an impact on the extent to which they create a language learning environment conducive to the enhancement of students’ construction of knowledge through socially interactive means. The effect size (f 2 ) of 0.140 shows that teachers’ sense of efficacy has a moderate influence on their enactment of social constructivism. The R 2 value indicates that efficacy accounts for 12.3% of the variation in social constructivism. Unlike the first two forms of constructivism, the model’s results indicate that teachers' self-efficacy does not statistically influence their practice of critical constructivism (β = 0.237; t = 1.199; p = 0.056); consequently, H3 is rejected. This statistical revelation suggests that irrespective of teachers’ level of confidence as professional teachers, they are less likely to enact the principles of critical constructivism to enhance students’ learning of the Ghanaian language and culture. Put succinctly, teachers’ sense of confidence does not seem to compel them to give learners an authoritative voice in the classroom. Finally, the predictive validity of the model was also assessed. According to Hair et al. ( 2019 ), predictive relevance is established in a model when the Q 2 exceeds zero. Precisely, a predictive relevance of 0, approximately 0.25, and 0.50 is an indication of small, medium, and large predictive relevance, respectively. In line with this, the Q 2 values of 0.073 for CC, 0.028 for SC, and 0.027 for CCT show that predictive relevance was established for all of the endogenous variables. 4.3 Qualitative Findings In line with Creswell and Clark ( 2017 ), collecting qualitative data to provide a comprehensive explanation of the quantitative results was deemed a necessity in this study. The primary goal of the qualitative inquiry was to understand why teachers’ efficacy was statistically significant with all the variants of constructivist practices except for critical constructivism. It could be inferred from the qualitative results that socio-cultural concerns probably affected teachers’ efficacy and the enactment of critical constructivism. Teachers’ views from the qualitative inquiry suggest that instructional principles that grant learners the voice to critique teachers’ pedagogical plans and, most importantly, critique authoritative instruction, norms, and knowledge conflict with the cultural means of educating a child in the Ghanaian context. This is evident on the except below: The Ghanaian culture is quite different. We all know that when an adult is at fault, you can not explicitly tell an adult that s/he is at fault. However, there are polite ways of telling the adult to admit his/her fault. This and similar other submissions offered by the respondents show that teachers are less inclined, or better yet, less confident, about executing an instructional approach that breaches the existing norm of Ghanaian society. The implication of this is that, even if teachers have the confidence to execute critical constructivism in language teaching, they would like to do so by applying the concept of politeness to make sure the cultural principles of raising the Ghanaian child are adhered to. Teachers view such an instruction approach as a weird educational concept. As a teacher clearly states, “That’s not how it is done. "Throughout our educational journey, I have never seen a teacher ask learners to make decisions on which instructional technique to employ." This view implies that irrespective of the magnitude of confidence teachers may develop, they are less likely to accept and implement any form of education that grants the learner the opportunity to be critical and, most importantly, an active member in instructional decision-making in the classroom. 5 Discussions and Conclusions This study modelled the relationship between teachers' perceived efficacy and their use of constructivist approaches in indigenous language teaching. Precisely, they attempted to model how teachers’ sense of efficacy predicts their practice of cognitive, social, and critical constructivism. The findings from the statistical modelling are not counterintuitive because they appear to reflect the realities as far as education in Ghana is concerned. From the model’s results, it is safe to assume that a teacher’s sense of efficacy predicts what I consider ‘explicit constructivist practices’, which include social and cognitive constructivism. I consider these forms ‘explicit constructivist practices’ because their core principles are explicitly outlined in the school curriculum to be implemented by the teachers. Thus, teachers are conscious of these approaches and are likely to implement them as expected. This probably explains why their sense of confidence significantly predicted their practice. The findings of this study align with Nyamekye et al. ( 2023 ), who found that teachers believed that their instructional practices aligned well with the social and cognitive constructivist way of improving learning at the basic level of education in Ghana. Nonetheless, teachers’ sense of efficacy did not statistically predict the practice of critical constructivism, which we consider a ‘peripheral constructivist practice’. This form of constructivism was considered peripheral in the context of this study because it deviates from the mere idea of developing children’s cognitive abilities to a form of education that grants learners the democracy to explore knowledge, questioning suppressive social structures, as well as the liberty to question the validity and reliability of knowledge irrespective of its source. The insignificant statistical association between teachers’ efficacy and critical constructivism as well as the insights from the qualitative inquiry provide further evidence that strengthens our belief in existing scholarly assertions that African teachers are more likely to reject instructional philosophies that conflict with the cultured way of bringing up children (Nthontho, 2017 ; Nyamekye et al., 2023 ). Ideally, the culture of Ghana and most other African countries expects children to grow submissively. Since children are usually considered developing human beings, their views are likely to be considered immature by adults or more experienced ones (Ndofirepi & Cross, 2015 ; Nthontho, 2017 ). Such cultured thoughts are probably ingrained in Ghanaian teachers and are subconsciously manifesting in the instructional approaches as well as how teachers treat the learners. In the Taiwanese educational context, Aldridge et al. ( 2000 ) discovered similar issues. They concluded in their study that critical voice as an aspect of constructivist practices was less observed in the lessons due to the demand for respect from children. Teachers were unwilling to enact such a constructivist principle because they were very concerned about their authoritative status as teachers. This and other factors, not included in the model, could probably account for the non-significant association between teachers’ efficacy and their enactment of critical voice as an aspect of constructivism. It follows, therefore, that no matter the degree of confidence basic school teachers develop in ensuring constructivist learning, there is little chance that they will give students an authoritative voice in the classroom setting. It is noteworthy, however, that teachers’ unwillingness to embrace the critical aspect of constructivism seems quite disastrous to the achievement of the core goals of the standards-based curriculum, i.e., producing literate, effective problem solvers and, most importantly, producing individuals who possess the ability to think critically (GES, 2019 ). We argue in this respect because the possibility of developing children to become critical thinkers and problem solvers, for instance, would be very challenging in an educational system where children's desire to explore knowledge, question authority, and partake actively in decision-making is interpreted as a deviation from the societal norm and thus frowned upon. 6 Managerial Implication of the Study Given the above discourse, we offer some suggestions for policymakers, including the GES, NaCCA, and MoE, to take into consideration. We suggest that for an effective realization of the stated goals of the standards-based curriculum, there is a need for culturally sensitive training for teachers to understand that this is, perhaps, the time for them to surrender their traditional thoughts about how children should be nurtured. Particularly, the NaCCA, in collaboration with the Ghana Tertiary Commission (GTEC), should consider revising all teacher professional development programmes in various universities and colleges of education to align with current innovations in the basic school curriculum. A premium must be placed on the integration of professional courses that recognize the importance of constructivist principles, including critical pedagogy. This will enhance the production of competent teachers who would help in achieving the overarching goals of the SBC—i.e., the development of learners' autonomous learning, critical thinking and problem-solving skills. 7. Limitations and Recommendations for Further Studies The current study offered insight into how teachers’ perceived sense of constructivist efficacy influenced their enactment of three constructivist practices: cognitive, social, and critical constructivism. Despite the valuable insight from the findings of this study, there is a need for further exploration because the current study relied largely on quantitative methods, characterised by self-reported data from teachers. It is therefore recommended that in-depth qualitative methods such as classroom observations be used to cross-validate teachers’ actual constructivist practices. Moreover, the study relied solely on language teachers at the basic level of education in Ghana. Given the relevance of this instructional philosophy in all fields of study at the basic level of education, there is a need for further research in other subject areas to deepen our understanding of how this instructional philosophy is enacted across all disciplines. Declarations Competing Interest Statement The author declares no conflict of interest Data Availability Statement We declare that the data for this study is available and could be access through this link: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/BUKKEB During the preparation of this work the author used ChatGPT and Quillbot in order to check the grammatical accuracy of the manuscript. After using these tools, the author reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the publication. References Adom, D., Yeboah, A., & Ankrah, A. K. (2016). Constructivism philosophical paradigm: Implication for research, teaching and learning. Global journal of arts humanities and social sciences, 4 (10), 1-9. Akyeampong, K., Pryor, J., & Ampiah, J. G. (2006). A vision of successful schooling: Ghanaian teachers’ understandings of learning, teaching and assessment. Comparative Education, 42 (2), 155-176. doi:10.1080/03050060600627936 Aldridge, J. M., Fraser, B. 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DOI: 10.1007/s40299-023-00750-0. Zhi R, Wang Y and Wang Y (2023) The Role of Emotional Intelligence and Self-efficacy in EFL Teachers’ Technology Adoption. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher . DOI: 10.1007/s40299-023-00782-6. Creswell JW (2014) Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods approaches Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4342564","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":303979254,"identity":"3b662c60-a079-4a39-91d6-ec9c83931ab9","order_by":0,"name":"Mr Ernest 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Model\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author’s Construct\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePractically, this study seeks to achieve the above by statistically testing the following hypotheses:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eH1:Teachers’ efficacy will influence their practice of cognitive constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eH2:Teachers’ efficacy will influence their practice of social constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eH3:Teachers’ efficacy will influence their practice of critical constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4342564/v1/de33a75bdd050d363cf7c829.png"},{"id":56888027,"identity":"b98b3d64-8f74-4a4d-8f58-3bd59dabe2f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-21 19:00:13","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":55663,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSmartPLS Measurement Model\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4342564/v1/ec38c5e6d582507a40f88496.png"},{"id":56887985,"identity":"426669d9-9637-4460-a260-174c67c23bf0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-21 19:00:12","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56404,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePLS-SEM bootstrapping results\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4342564/v1/acb606080ea96307219773e1.png"},{"id":60060195,"identity":"54f42241-bb15-44dd-b15b-253716b2c6b2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-11 08:23:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1027266,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4342564/v1/196513f1-3cb6-482e-b248-303c23e64b20.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Understanding the Interplay Between Language Teachers’ Efficacy and Constructivist Pedagogy in Ghana’s Evolving Education Landscape: A Structural Equation Modelling Analysis","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe need for change in the philosophy of teaching\u0026mdash;from traditional behaviorist teaching to constructivist instruction\u0026mdash;has become an issue of concern for many African and low- and middle-income countries over the past two decades. The global interest in the constructivist teaching philosophy emanates from emerging concerns about the limitations associated with the traditional behaviorist approach to teaching. This traditional teaching approach has been criticized for its premium emphasis on teacher-centeredness. The widely held belief about this instructional philosophy is that its core principle\u0026mdash;that is, the principle of reinforcement\u0026mdash;fails to adequately address the complexities of critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making (Lockard \u0026amp; Abrams, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Wakefield, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, numerous countries and concerned agencies have advocated for the need to shift from the behaviorist philosophy of education to the constructivist philosophy of teaching to improve the quality of education and, most importantly, remedy the educational limitations associated with the behaviorist instructional philosophy (Basturk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ogisu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Several African countries such as South Africa (Brodie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), Namibia (O\u0026rsquo;Sullivan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), Tanzania (Vavrus, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Vavrus \u0026amp; Bartlett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), Nigeria (Hardman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), Ghana (Adom et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Safori, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), Eritrea (Tadesse et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and some Asian countries like Mongolia (Steiner-Khamsi \u0026amp; Stolpe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), Cambodia (Bunlay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), etc., have, therefore, devised educational reforms in which the constructivist teaching approach has been adopted as the new educational approach capable of ensuring quality education (Ogisu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeveraging the academic benefits associated with the constructivist philosophy is, obviously, one of the core reasons why the Ministry of Education (MoE), in collaboration with the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) of Ghana, introduced the SBC in the year 2019. As clearly stated in the Ghanaian language and culture curriculum (GHLCC), teaching and learning are to be grounded in the constructivist philosophy. The underlying aim of this philosophical shift is to:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;develop individuals who are literate, good problem solvers, have the ability to think creatively and have both the confidence and competence to participate fully in the Ghanaian society as responsible citizens, locally and globally (GES, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e, p.10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the above goals demonstrate a promising educational future for basic school children in Ghana, existing reports show that teachers in the African context are resistant to this educational change since teacher-centered learning still dominates classroom practices (Akyeampong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Altinyelken, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Tabulawa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Zeki \u0026amp; Guneyli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Muganga \u0026amp; Ssenkusu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Large class sizes, limited class hours, and inadequacy of resources are usually cited as the determinants of teachers' unwillingness to embrace constructivist teaching (Safori, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Boadu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Teachers\u0026rsquo; sense of efficacy regarding the constructivist philosophy is yet to be explored. Hence, there is a need for a further study that examines the role of efficacy in predicting teachers' practice of constructivism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e of the paper, we offer a comprehensive discussion of constructivism, taking into consideration its variants. Following that is a detailed discussion of self-efficacy as a theoretical framework for the study. The section also presents the conceptualization of the proposed model and the development of hypotheses. In Section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the research methods are meticulously discussed. Section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e is devoted to the presentation of results, while sections \u003cspan refid=\"Sec18\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Sec19\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e present a discussion of the findings and managerial implications of the study, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Constructivism as an Instructional Philosophy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstructivism, a learning theory, is commonly approached from a cognitive standpoint, often seen as a response to the information processing theory that explores how the human brain encodes information for storage (Loyens, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Similar to other cognitive learning theories, it is a conceptual framework for understanding how prior information in human memory becomes the foundation for acquiring new knowledge (Doorslaer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Anderson \u0026amp; Piazza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). It challenges the traditional learning environment, rejecting the linear transmission of knowledge from teacher to students. Advocates of constructivism argue that the transfer of knowledge from an expert to learners is not the most effective way to acquire knowledge; rather, learners benefit more from actively participating in constructing their own knowledge. Constructivism promotes a learner-centered approach, with the teacher playing the role of a facilitator or educational guide (Dejong \u0026amp; Groomes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Kroll \u0026amp; Laboskey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Baysen \u0026amp; Baysen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Kosnik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). While many cognitive theories stress active learning, constructivism places particular emphasis on learners actively constructing their understanding of educational topics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstructivism, as a theory of learning and instruction, manifests in various forms such as cognitive, social, and critical constructivism. Cognitive constructivism, also known as individual or psychological constructivism, focuses on how individuals create knowledge through existing schemas (Loyens, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Piaget (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1976\u003c/span\u003e), credited with the cognitive constructivist perspective, argues that knowledge is not merely received and absorbed but is constructed through coordinated cognitive activities based on experiences with the surrounding world. Individuals, according to Piaget, develop mental models or schemas through their interactions with the environment. Another variant of constructivism is social constructivism, introduced by Lev Vygotsky. In this theory, knowledge construction is viewed as a social process where individual efforts are complemented by significant contributions from others (Louren\u0026ccedil;o, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Q. Zhang \u0026amp; Kou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Trif, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Unlike cognitive constructivism, social constructivism emphasizes the collaborative aspect of learning, where the interactions with others play a vital role in the construction of knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCritical constructivism, as a variant of constructivism, follows a similar learning approach. Notably, the distinguishing aspect of critical constructivism is its strong focus on fostering 'critical thinking' (Watts \u0026amp; Jofili, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Educators within the critical constructivism framework prioritize equipping learners with 'emancipatory potentials' (Gilbert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the emphasis lies on guiding students to develop critical thinking skills, enabling them to reflect on societal experiences and analyze social structures and powers. Critical constructivists advocate for change, aiming to contribute to the creation of a better society. Consequently, they promote an educational approach that goes beyond acquiring content knowledge to instill awareness of societal or national issues in learners. In a critical constructivist learning environment, students are often tasked with independent or collaborative reflection on social issues, providing constructive contributions towards resolving these challenges (Jofili \u0026amp; Watts, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Stears, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2. Self-Efficacy as a Predictor of Teachers’ Instructional Practices\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTeachers play a crucial role in implementing new curriculum strategies. Their perceived self-efficacy, which refers to their judgment of their ability to effectively complete an educational task (Bandura, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e), significantly impacts their attitudes, motivation, and, most importantly, their success in that specific task (Bandura, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). An individual's thought processes and emotional responses to situations may be influenced by their sense of efficacy. This suggests that individuals with higher self-efficacy levels are more likely to remain composed and productive when faced with challenges. Conversely, individuals with lower self-efficacy tend to approach situations with pessimism, perceiving tasks as more difficult than they actually are. These negative thoughts can hinder their success by increasing stress and anxiety levels and, crucially, by diminishing the confidence required to overcome obstacles (Pajares, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). In this context, researchers in the field of education consistently show interest in and actively seek to assess the relationship between teacher efficacy and their conduct in the classroom, particularly in the context of new educational reforms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous studies highlight that teachers' sense of efficacy stands out as a key predictor of students' academic success, effective classroom management, and the effort invested in implementing innovative teaching strategies (Guskey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Poulou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). According to Bandura (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e), teachers' sense of efficacy, influencing the effort they dedicate to implementing educational innovations, stems from four primary sources: mastery experience (personal success), vicarious experience (inspiration from observing others), verbal persuasion (colleagues' words shaping decisions), and emotional states (how teachers' emotions affect their perceptions of capabilities). These sources collectively contribute to determining the level of teachers' self-efficacy, subsequently influencing their willingness and preparedness to adopt educational innovations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous studies have indicated that teachers' willingness to embrace change, implement new ideas, and their enthusiasm for incorporating innovative teaching methods are closely linked to their self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran \u0026amp; Hoy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Paraskeva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Skaalvik \u0026amp; Skaalvik, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; \u0026Ccedil;obanoğlu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Kabaoğlu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that teachers with a high sense of efficacy have a greater likelihood of succeeding in implementing new educational or curriculum innovations compared to those with a low sense of efficacy (Bray-Clark \u0026amp; Bates, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Margolis \u0026amp; McCabe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Sehgal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, the need for an investigation into teachers' efficacy concerning the implementation of educational reforms has become a significant concern for researchers in the field of education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn recent literature exploring the integration of technology in language education, self-efficacy emerges as a prominent factor influencing various aspects of educators' engagement and acceptance of technology. Wang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a study focusing on Chinese L2 students. Their study revealed that technological self-efficacy significantly predicts technology acceptance, explaining a substantial portion of its variance. Similarly, Wang and Pan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) investigated Chinese English as a foreign language (EFL) instructors\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy level and its association with their classroom practices. The result of their study demonstrated that teacher self-efficacy notably influences work engagement, surpassing the impact of other factors like resilience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA study by Zhi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) also underscores the significant role of efficacy in technology adoption among Chinese EFL teachers. Through structural equation modeling and regression analysis, they found that self-efficacy significantly predicted a considerable portion of the variance in teachers' technology adoption rates. This emphasis on self-efficacy suggests its pivotal role in shaping educators' attitudes and behaviors towards incorporating technology into language instruction. Collectively, these studies highlight the crucial influence of self-efficacy in driving technological acceptance and adoption within language education contexts. Recognizing the importance of bolstering educators' self-efficacy can offer valuable insights for stakeholders, including teachers, trainers, policymakers, and officials, aiming to enhance technology integration efforts in language learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, in light of the apprehensions surrounding teachers' resistance to implementing the constructivist teaching philosophy across various educational contexts (Tabulawa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Zeki \u0026amp; Guneyli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Muganga \u0026amp; Ssenkusu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), including Ghana, it becomes crucial to comprehend the sense of efficacy among Ghanaian language (GHL) teachers regarding the adoption of constructivist teaching approaches specified in the recently introduced Standards-based Curriculum (SBC) at the elementary education level in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Model Conceptualisation and Hypothesis Development\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was grounded in the self-efficacy theory of Bandura (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e). As previously discussed, the efficacy theory states that individuals\u0026rsquo; perceived confidence regarding the accomplishment of a particular task or the performance of a particular behavior influences their actual practice. Thus, in the context of this study, we hypothesize that language teachers\u0026rsquo; practice of social, critical, and cognitive construction would, among other factors, be contingent on their perceived confidence regarding the execution of the aforementioned forms of constructivism. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e is a diagrammatic representation of the proposed model developed to ascertain the influence of efficacy on the practice of the three forms of constructivism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSource: Author\u0026rsquo;s Construct\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractically, this study seeks to achieve the above by statistically testing the following hypotheses:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; efficacy will influence their practice of cognitive constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; efficacy will influence their practice of social constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; efficacy will influence their practice of critical constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Study Design, Research Area and Selection of Study Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn explanatory sequential mixed method research design was adopted. As Creswell, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), rightly states, an explanatory sequential mixed methods require an initial collection and analysis of quantitative data, followed by a collection of qualitative data to cross-validate the initial quantitative findings. Thus, in the context of this study, quantitative data were gathered during the initial phase of the data collection process. After analyzing the quantitative data, qualitative data were gathered to explain some of the quantitative results for a better understanding of the results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in the Sunyani West District, located in the Bono Region of Ghana. The Sunyani West district forms part of the 12 districts in the Bono region of Ghana. It has Odumase as its capital town. According to Nyamekye et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, p. 6), the Sunyani-West municipality has 21 major settlements, including \u0026ldquo;Abesu, Abronye, Bofuor Adantia, Adei Boreso, Ahyiam, Ayakomaso, Chiraa, Chiraa-Asuakwa, Dumasua, Fiapre, Kantro, Kobedi, Kwabenakumakrom, Kwatire, Mantukwa, Nsesereso, Nsoatre, Odumase, Tainso, and Twumasi krom\u0026rdquo;. The total number of basic schools located in the district is 61. Apart from Adantia, Chiraa, Dumasua, Fiapre, Kwatire, Nsoatre, and Odumase, most of the major settlements in the district are extremely remote.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the collection of quantitative data, the researcher adopted the census survey technique to select all 104 participants. This technique for selecting research subjects is considered appropriate when the researcher intends to include all participants in a given population (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). With regard to the qualitative data, a convenient sampling technique was used to sample participants for the study. This data collection procedure was adopted because it allows the researcher to gather data from participants who are willing to participate in the research. Regarding the number of participants who were involved in the qualitative data collection, the researcher engaged as many as possible until data saturation was reached. Data saturation\u0026mdash;a situation where themes recur in the information given by subsequent respondents (Fusch \u0026amp; Ness, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;usually occurs after interviewing 6 to 12 people (Guest et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). In line with this, 61 teachers (1 from each school) were involved in the gathering of the qualitative data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Instrumentation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn adapted constructivist teacher self-efficacy scale (Uredi \u0026amp; Akbasli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) was used to assess teachers\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy related to constructivist pedagogy. The scale was measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (SD) to strongly agree (SA). The constructivist learning environment survey of Taylor et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) was also adapted to measure the extent to which the three forms of constructivism, namely cognitive constructivism (CC), social constructivism (SC), and critical constructivism (CCT), were practised in the classroom. A five-point Likert scale of frequency (ranging from never to always) was used to obtain teachers\u0026rsquo; responses. The original CLES is composed of five aspects of constructivism: personal relevance, shared control, critical voice, student negotiation, and uncertainty of knowledge. However, per the aims of the current study, we adapted questions from personal relevance, student negotiation, and critical voice because the aforementioned dimensions of the CLES align with cognitive, social, and critical constructivism, respectively. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the various constructs and sample items.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstructs and Sample Items\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstruct\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample items\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI can facilitate active learning and student exploration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI can present content that is relevant to pupils\u0026rsquo; learning interests\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI can develop lessons based on the pupils\u0026rsquo; previous linguistic competence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePupils are made to connect their previous knowledge to the topic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOpportunities are created for learners to learn at home\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLearning is connected to the previous experiences of the learners\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePupils are made to share their knowledge with others in the classroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePupils are made to explain their ideas to each other\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePupils are encouraged to critique the credibility of other pupils\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCCT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI give pupils the authority to ask me to change my teaching methods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePupils have the right to question the credibility of the book they are learning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePupils have the authority to question the essence of a particular topic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA semi-structured interview guide was also used to gather further data on teachers\u0026rsquo; views on the practice of constructivism in language teaching. Questions related to teachers\u0026rsquo; practice of constructivism were focused, particularly, on the practice of cognitive constructivism, social constructivism, and critical constructivism. The researcher developed these qualitative constructivist-related interview questions by adapting questions from the Constructivist Environment Learning Survey (CLES) by Taylor et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Validity and Reliability Checks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ensure the reliability and validity of the research instruments to be adopted for this study, there was a pilot test in the Sunyani Municipality, where respondents had similar characteristics to those in the Sunyani-West district. A total of 150 questionnaires were pilot-tested to validate the research instrument. This number of questionnaires, according to Hoyle (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) and Kline (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), is enough for the validation of an instrument for research. After pilot testing the instrument, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha was used to assess the internal consistency of the initial version of the instrument. A good internal consistency value was obtained for TSE (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.766; 5 items), CC (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.803; 7 items), SC (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.791; 5 items), and CCT (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.891; 7 items). After the collection of the main data, PLS-SEM was used to evaluate the validity and reliability of the constructs. Particularly, the internal consistency, convergent, and discriminant validity values were used to confirm the suitability of the constructs and their respective items.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Ethical Consideration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e An ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Cape Coast\u0026rsquo;s Institutional Review Board (ID-UCCIRB/CHAS/2023/97). Thus, all schools were provided with an introductory letter that enabled the researcher to engage with the teaching staff as well as the learners. Also, the consent of all research participants was obtained before data collection. Hence, under no circumstances were any of the participants forced to respond to the interviews or complete a questionnaire. All research participants were assured of the anonymity and confidentiality of the information they provided. The purpose of the research was communicated to the research participants, and thus, they were informed that the information they provided would be used solely for academic purposes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Presentation of Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Demographic Background of Respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e below presents the demographics of the respondents based on their age group, the highest academic qualification, and the number of years they have served as professional teachers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemographic characteristics of the research participants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCount\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubgroup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGender\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge Range\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBelow 30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHighest Academic Qualification\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiploma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMasters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eYears of Teaching Experience\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1-5yrs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6-10yrs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11-15yrs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16-20yrs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 104 teachers participated in the quantitative survey. Of these, 26.9% identified as male, while the remaining 73.1% identified as female, suggesting that the majority of the study\u0026rsquo;s respondents were female. In terms of age distribution, 55.8% of the respondents were below the age of 30, 38.5% were within the age range of 30\u0026ndash;34, and only 5.8% of the respondents were within the age range of 35\u0026ndash;39. None of the respondents were in the age range of 40\u0026ndash;44. The majority of the respondents (95.2%) had a diploma in basic education as their highest educational qualification. Only 4 respondents (3.8%) had a bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree. One teacher (1.0%) indicated a master\u0026rsquo;s degree as his or her highest educational qualification. With regard to years of teaching experience, 87.5% have had one to five years of teaching experience, 9.6% have had six to ten years of teaching experience, and 1.9% have had 11 to 15 years of teaching experience. Only one teacher (1.0%) had taught for 16\u0026ndash;20 years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Measurement Model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn PLS-SEM, assessment of the measurement model is a prerequisite for hypothesis testing. It is done to ascertain the validity and reliability of the constructs in the proposed model. Particularly, internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant validity were assessed to ascertain the appropriateness of the model meant to test the study\u0026rsquo;s proposed hypothesis. The subsequent subsections are devoted to presenting the statistical results for validity and reliability assessment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.1 Internal Consistency and Convergent Validity of Constructs\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe specific statistical criteria needed for validity and reliability checks, according to Hair et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), are composite reliability, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha (α), and the average variance extracted (AVE). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the statistical results of the convergent validity of the constructs based on indicator loadings, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha, composite reliability\u0026mdash;i.e., the composite of J\u0026ouml;reskog (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;and the AVE values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternal Consistency and Convergent Validity of Constructs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstruct\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicator\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoadings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(α)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCR (rho_a)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(rho_c)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAVE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.795\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.829\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.858\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.548\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003etse1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.739\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003etse2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.833\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003etse3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.634\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003etse4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.750\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003etse5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.732\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.823\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.868\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.858\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.508\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecc1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.756\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecc2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.842\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecc3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.748\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecc4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.507\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecc5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.715\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecc6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.664\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecc7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.756\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.760\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.792\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.836\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.508\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esc1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.667\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esc2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.802\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esc3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.806\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esc4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.685\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esc5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.577\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCCT\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.845\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.819\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.861\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.557\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecct1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.829\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecct2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.813\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecct3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.696\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecct4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.793\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecct5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.570\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first consideration in assessing the measurement model is to check the appropriateness of the indicator loadings. Loadings that are equal to or above the recommended threshold of 0.70 are usually accepted because they are an indication that the underlying construct explains more than 50% of the indicator variable\u0026rsquo;s variance (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Nonetheless, these authors further state that indicators that load as low as 0.40 could be retained in the model, especially when they do not affect other reliability values like those of the AVE. Thus, in the context of this study, as can be observed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, it is safe to assume that the latent variables have met the recommended threshold of factor loadings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe second consideration in the measurement model assessment is the internal consistency analysis. In this study, both Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha reliability and J\u0026ouml;reskog\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e) composite reliability were analysed. Composite reliability as an indicator of construct reliability is concerned with measuring the extent to which the underlying construct explains the variances in its indicators. The statistically accepted threshold for composite reliability is .70 (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). As presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha values and the composite reliability values of TSE, CCT, CC, and SC are clear indications that the model\u0026rsquo;s constructs have good internal consistency. It should also be noted that none of the composite reliability values is above 0.95. This indicates that there were no redundant items in each of the constructs. It further shows that undesirable response patterns\u0026mdash;i.e., straightlining of responses\u0026mdash;were minimal in the data, as Hair et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) suggest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe third consideration in the assessment of the measurement model in this study was the convergent validity analysis using the AVE. The AVE was used to ascertain the extent to which the construct converges to explain the variances in its latent variables. In other words, it was used to make a statistical claim that the construct indicators converge on a common underlying factor (dos Santos \u0026amp; Cirillo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Practically, an AVE value of 0.5 or more is considered a good indication of convergent validity. In line with the recommended threshold, the constructs in this model are above the statistically acceptable AVE values. This shows, therefore, that the indicators measured a common construct.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.2 Discriminant Validity Assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiscriminant validity analysis was also conducted to measure the quality of the proposed model. This validity analysis is concerned with ascertaining how the various constructs in the model are theoretically distinct from each other (Voorhees et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Franke \u0026amp; Sarstedt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Establishing discriminant validity in PLS-SEM is usually based on the Fornell-Larcker criterion, the heterotrait-monotrait criterion, and cross-loading statistics (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The current model\u0026rsquo;s discriminant validity based on the three aforementioned criteria is analyzed in the subsequent paragraphs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the Fornell-Larcker criterion, discriminant validity of the constructs is established when the square root of the AVE of each construct is higher than the interfactor correlations, as suggested by Fornell and Larcker (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e). In line with this criterion, it could be concluded that discriminant validity has been established. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the results in this regard.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFornell-Larcker criterion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCCT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.713\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCCT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.258\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.747\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.276\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.713\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.373\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.237\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.740\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePer the statistics presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the square root of the AVEs of all the constructs is higher than their correlations with other factors. This indicated, therefore, that the constructs are very distinct from each other. It also indicates that the items set to measure the constructs do measure their respective underlying constructs but not any other constructs. The HTMT ratio is also another means of establishing discriminant validity in PLS-SEM. Discriminant validity using the HTMT is established when the average of item correlations across constructs is significantly lower than the average of correlations of items measuring the same constructs. Discriminant validity is met when none of the HTMT correlations is higher than the 0.90 threshold (Henseler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e presents the HTMT of the current model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHTMT Ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCCT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCCT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.284\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.311\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.276\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.367\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.220\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.422\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs can be seen, all the HTMT values are below the recommended threshold. Thus, the HTMT criterion has also provided enough evidence of discriminant validity in the constructs of the proposed model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Structural Model Results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing the assessment of the measurement model, the various hypotheses were tested using PLS-SEM bootstrapping method. The PLS-SEM bootstrapping aimed to ascertain how teachers\u0026rsquo; constructivist self-efficacy influenced their practice of the various constructivist teaching approaches. Using PLS-SEM bootstrapping, the researcher focused on the strength and direction of the relationship (\u003cb\u003eβ)\u003c/b\u003e between the exogenous and endogenous variables, the coefficient of determination (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e), the effect size of the predicted relationship (\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) and the predictive validity (\u003cb\u003eQ\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e of the model. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e present the results of the PLS-SEM bootstrapping\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBootstrapping results\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePath\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecision\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSE -\u0026gt; CC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.373\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.066\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.637\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.162\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.139\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.073\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSE -\u0026gt; SC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.082\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.270\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.123\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSE -\u0026gt; CCT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.237\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.911\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot Supported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e presents the results on how teachers\u0026rsquo; constructivist self-efficacy predicts their constructivist practices. The influence of teachers' sense of efficacy and their practice of cognitive constructivism (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.371; \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.521; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) was found to be statistically significant; research hypothesis 1 was therefore supported. This indicates that an increase in teachers\u0026rsquo; sense of efficacy is likely to increase in the extent to which they use cognitive constructivist means of enhancing students\u0026rsquo; learning of indigenous languages. The effect size for this prediction (f2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.162) indicates that the magnitude of the impact of teachers\u0026rsquo; efficacy on their practice of cognitive constructivism is moderate. As suggested by Cohen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e), an \u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e of 0.02, 0.15 or greater, and 0.35 or greater represent small, moderate, and large effect sizes, respectively. The R2 value of 0.139 is an indication that, out of a host of many factors that may influence teachers' practice of cognitive constructivism, only efficacy accounts for 13.9% of the variation in this endogenous variable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs with cognitive constructivism, the test also confirmed that the teachers\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy statistically influenced their practice of social constructivism (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.352; t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.287; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001); hence, research hypothesis 2 was also supported. This also indicates that teachers\u0026rsquo; sense of efficacy tends to have an impact on the extent to which they create a language learning environment conducive to the enhancement of students\u0026rsquo; construction of knowledge through socially interactive means. The effect size (f\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) of 0.140 shows that teachers\u0026rsquo; sense of efficacy has a moderate influence on their enactment of social constructivism. The R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e value indicates that efficacy accounts for 12.3% of the variation in social constructivism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnlike the first two forms of constructivism, the model\u0026rsquo;s results indicate that teachers' self-efficacy does not statistically influence their practice of critical constructivism (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.237; t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.199; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.056); consequently, H3 is rejected. This statistical revelation suggests that irrespective of teachers\u0026rsquo; level of confidence as professional teachers, they are less likely to enact the principles of critical constructivism to enhance students\u0026rsquo; learning of the Ghanaian language and culture. Put succinctly, teachers\u0026rsquo; sense of confidence does not seem to compel them to give learners an authoritative voice in the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the predictive validity of the model was also assessed. According to Hair et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), predictive relevance is established in a model when the Q\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e exceeds zero. Precisely, a predictive relevance of 0, approximately 0.25, and 0.50 is an indication of small, medium, and large predictive relevance, respectively. In line with this, the Q\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e values of 0.073 for CC, 0.028 for SC, and 0.027 for CCT show that predictive relevance was established for all of the endogenous variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Qualitative Findings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn line with Creswell and Clark (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), collecting qualitative data to provide a comprehensive explanation of the quantitative results was deemed a necessity in this study. The primary goal of the qualitative inquiry was to understand why teachers\u0026rsquo; efficacy was statistically significant with all the variants of constructivist practices except for critical constructivism. It could be inferred from the qualitative results that socio-cultural concerns probably affected teachers\u0026rsquo; efficacy and the enactment of critical constructivism. Teachers\u0026rsquo; views from the qualitative inquiry suggest that instructional principles that grant learners the voice to critique teachers\u0026rsquo; pedagogical plans and, most importantly, critique authoritative instruction, norms, and knowledge conflict with the cultural means of educating a child in the Ghanaian context. This is evident on the except below:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Ghanaian culture is quite different. We all know that when an adult is at fault, you can not explicitly tell an adult that s/he is at fault. However, there are polite ways of telling the adult to admit his/her fault.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis and similar other submissions offered by the respondents show that teachers are less inclined, or better yet, less confident, about executing an instructional approach that breaches the existing norm of Ghanaian society. The implication of this is that, even if teachers have the confidence to execute critical constructivism in language teaching, they would like to do so by applying the concept of politeness to make sure the cultural principles of raising the Ghanaian child are adhered to.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeachers view such an instruction approach as a weird educational concept. As a teacher clearly states, \u0026ldquo;That\u0026rsquo;s not how it is done. \"Throughout our educational journey, I have never seen a teacher ask learners to make decisions on which instructional technique to employ.\" This view implies that irrespective of the magnitude of confidence teachers may develop, they are less likely to accept and implement any form of education that grants the learner the opportunity to be critical and, most importantly, an active member in instructional decision-making in the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5 Discussions and Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study modelled the relationship between teachers' perceived efficacy and their use of constructivist approaches in indigenous language teaching. Precisely, they attempted to model how teachers\u0026rsquo; sense of efficacy predicts their practice of cognitive, social, and critical constructivism. The findings from the statistical modelling are not counterintuitive because they appear to reflect the realities as far as education in Ghana is concerned. From the model\u0026rsquo;s results, it is safe to assume that a teacher\u0026rsquo;s sense of efficacy predicts what I consider \u0026lsquo;explicit constructivist practices\u0026rsquo;, which include social and cognitive constructivism. I consider these forms \u0026lsquo;explicit constructivist practices\u0026rsquo; because their core principles are explicitly outlined in the school curriculum to be implemented by the teachers. Thus, teachers are conscious of these approaches and are likely to implement them as expected. This probably explains why their sense of confidence significantly predicted their practice. The findings of this study align with Nyamekye et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), who found that teachers believed that their instructional practices aligned well with the social and cognitive constructivist way of improving learning at the basic level of education in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNonetheless, teachers\u0026rsquo; sense of efficacy did not statistically predict the practice of critical constructivism, which we consider a \u0026lsquo;peripheral constructivist practice\u0026rsquo;. This form of constructivism was considered peripheral in the context of this study because it deviates from the mere idea of developing children\u0026rsquo;s cognitive abilities to a form of education that grants learners the democracy to explore knowledge, questioning suppressive social structures, as well as the liberty to question the validity and reliability of knowledge irrespective of its source. The insignificant statistical association between teachers\u0026rsquo; efficacy and critical constructivism as well as the insights from the qualitative inquiry provide further evidence that strengthens our belief in existing scholarly assertions that African teachers are more likely to reject instructional philosophies that conflict with the cultured way of bringing up children (Nthontho, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Nyamekye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdeally, the culture of Ghana and most other African countries expects children to grow submissively. Since children are usually considered developing human beings, their views are likely to be considered immature by adults or more experienced ones (Ndofirepi \u0026amp; Cross, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Nthontho, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Such cultured thoughts are probably ingrained in Ghanaian teachers and are subconsciously manifesting in the instructional approaches as well as how teachers treat the learners. In the Taiwanese educational context, Aldridge et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) discovered similar issues. They concluded in their study that critical voice as an aspect of constructivist practices was less observed in the lessons due to the demand for respect from children. Teachers were unwilling to enact such a constructivist principle because they were very concerned about their authoritative status as teachers. This and other factors, not included in the model, could probably account for the non-significant association between teachers\u0026rsquo; efficacy and their enactment of critical voice as an aspect of constructivism. It follows, therefore, that no matter the degree of confidence basic school teachers develop in ensuring constructivist learning, there is little chance that they will give students an authoritative voice in the classroom setting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is noteworthy, however, that teachers\u0026rsquo; unwillingness to embrace the critical aspect of constructivism seems quite disastrous to the achievement of the core goals of the standards-based curriculum, i.e., producing literate, effective problem solvers and, most importantly, producing individuals who possess the ability to think critically (GES, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). We argue in this respect because the possibility of developing children to become critical thinkers and problem solvers, for instance, would be very challenging in an educational system where children's desire to explore knowledge, question authority, and partake actively in decision-making is interpreted as a deviation from the societal norm and thus frowned upon.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6 Managerial Implication of the Study","content":"\u003cp\u003eGiven the above discourse, we offer some suggestions for policymakers, including the GES, NaCCA, and MoE, to take into consideration. We suggest that for an effective realization of the stated goals of the standards-based curriculum, there is a need for culturally sensitive training for teachers to understand that this is, perhaps, the time for them to surrender their traditional thoughts about how children should be nurtured.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticularly, the NaCCA, in collaboration with the Ghana Tertiary Commission (GTEC), should consider revising all teacher professional development programmes in various universities and colleges of education to align with current innovations in the basic school curriculum. A premium must be placed on the integration of professional courses that recognize the importance of constructivist principles, including critical pedagogy. This will enhance the production of competent teachers who would help in achieving the overarching goals of the SBC\u0026mdash;i.e., the development of learners' autonomous learning, critical thinking and problem-solving skills.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Limitations and Recommendations for Further Studies","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current study offered insight into how teachers\u0026rsquo; perceived sense of constructivist efficacy influenced their enactment of three constructivist practices: cognitive, social, and critical constructivism. Despite the valuable insight from the findings of this study, there is a need for further exploration because the current study relied largely on quantitative methods, characterised by self-reported data from teachers. It is therefore recommended that in-depth qualitative methods such as classroom observations be used to cross-validate teachers\u0026rsquo; actual constructivist practices. Moreover, the study relied solely on language teachers at the basic level of education in Ghana. Given the relevance of this instructional philosophy in all fields of study at the basic level of education, there is a need for further research in other subject areas to deepen our understanding of how this instructional philosophy is enacted across all disciplines.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eCompeting Interest Statement\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declares no conflict of interest\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe declare that the data for this study is available and could be access through this link: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/BUKKEB\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the preparation of this work the author used ChatGPT and Quillbot in order to check the grammatical accuracy of the manuscript. After using these tools, the author reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the publication.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdom, D., Yeboah, A., \u0026amp; Ankrah, A. K. (2016). Constructivism philosophical paradigm: Implication for research, teaching and learning. \u003cem\u003eGlobal journal of arts humanities and social sciences, 4\u003c/em\u003e(10), 1-9. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkyeampong, K., Pryor, J., \u0026amp; Ampiah, J. G. (2006). A vision of successful schooling: Ghanaian teachers\u0026rsquo; understandings of learning, teaching and assessment. \u003cem\u003eComparative Education, 42\u003c/em\u003e(2), 155-176. doi:10.1080/03050060600627936\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAldridge, J. M., Fraser, B. J., Taylor, P. C., \u0026amp; Chen, C.-C. (2000). 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DOI: 10.1007/s40299-023-00782-6.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCreswell JW (2014) \u003cem\u003eResearch design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods approaches \u003c/em\u003eThousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"constructivism, language teaching, Ghanaian language and culture curriculum, standards-based curriculum, self-efficacy","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4342564/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4342564/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe education system in Ghana is undergoing a transition from a behaviorist instructional philosophy to a constructivist one, aiming to produce learners who can actively contribute to nation-building. Nonetheless, given the weighing demands on teachers regarding this abrupt shift into constructivist teaching, there is a need to examine teachers sense of efficacy related to the enactment of core principles of this novel instructional philosophy\u0026mdash;i.e., social, cognitive, and critical constructivism\u0026mdash; laid down in the newly introduced standards-based curriculum. An explanatory sequential mixed method was used to obtain data from basic school teachers in the Sunyani-west district of Bono Region, Ghana. Using adapted teacher self-efficacy and constructivist learning environment scales, quantitative data were gathered from 104 teachers. Qualitative data were also gathered from 61 conveniently sampled language teachers to augment the quantitative findings. Using partial least squares structural equation modelling, a significant positive association was discovered between teachers\u0026rsquo; efficacy and the practice of social and cognitive constructivism. Nonetheless, teachers\u0026rsquo; efficacy did not statistically predict their practice of critical constructivism. The qualitative results showed that sociocultural concerns probably accounted for the insignificant association between efficacy and critical constructivism. It was therefore concluded that sociocultural norms designed for bringing up a child in Ghana tend to inhibit the enactment of critical constructivism. The study recommends that the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, in partnership with the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission, should update teacher professional development programs in universities and colleges of education to incorporate constructivist principles, particularly critical pedagogy, aiming to produce competent teachers capable of fostering learners' autonomy, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills as outlined in the Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC)..\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Understanding the Interplay Between Language Teachers’ Efficacy and Constructivist Pedagogy in Ghana’s Evolving Education Landscape: A Structural Equation Modelling Analysis","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-05-21 18:59:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4342564/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b2ad8c3c-02e7-42ee-a40e-8b21645a4e6a","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 21st, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-07-11T08:15:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-05-21 18:59:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4342564","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4342564","identity":"rs-4342564","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}