Assessing the short-term impact of a high-fat, high-salt diet on the gut bacteria and related pathophysiology in mice

Assessing the short-term impact of a high-fat, high-salt diet on the gut bacteria and related pathophysiology in mice | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Short Report Assessing the short-term impact of a high-fat, high-salt diet on the gut bacteria and related pathophysiology in mice Suresh Kumar, Ramendra Pati Pandey, Chung-Ming Chang, V. Samuel Raj This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3341945/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Current research shows that consuming high-fat and salt that are now the main ingredients of modern diets over a period of time can disrupt the gut ecosystem, leading to metabolic imbalances and metabolic diseases. However, which component of modern diets, such as high-fat and high-salt consumption for a short duration, is more harmful to health based on its impact on gut bacteria and associated health outcomes is still poorly explored. This study aimed to determine which of high fat or high salt is more detrimental to health by feeding mice HFD and HSD diets for a short period of 3 weeks. To address these wide knowledge gaps, we conducted a high-throughput sequencing study to see how gut microbiota profile changes in HFD or HSD-fed mice. Further, we also investigated whether high fat or high salt is more detrimental to health. In this study, the mice were fed a standard chow diet (CD), HFD and HSD for 3 weeks. Animals were euthanized and examined of haemato-biochemical and histopathological attributes. We also used 16S rRNA sequencing followed by bioinformatics analysis to evaluate the changes in gut microbiota ecology. Interestingly, this study found that HFD or HSD feeding for a short duration induces the pathophysiological attributes of a typical metabolic syndrome as indicated by serum biochemistry and significantly modifies gut microbiota in mice. We concluded that HSD causes significantly more changes in gut bacteria than HFD due to a diminution of beneficial gut bacteria and an enrichment of harmful gut bacteria. We found that HFD led to a more significant increase in plasma total cholesterol (TC), a known risk factor for heart disease, stroke, and atherosclerosis. While HSD is more detrimental to the kidneys, since an increase in creatinine levels indicates kidney disease. Furthermore, mice fed HFD or HSD for a short duration showed minimal and insignificant pathological changes in their hearts, livers, and kidneys. High-Salt Diet High fat diet Gut microbiota and Metabolic syndrome Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introductions A global problem of high fat and high salt intake as key components of the modern diet has seriously impacted human health by developing or advancing diseases such as metabolic disorders, immune-related disorders, and dysfunction of neurobehavioral traits [ 1 , 2 ]. A healthy diet should not exceed 30% of total energy from total fat and saturated fat and trans-fat should not exceed 10% and 1% of food energy, respectively [ 3 – 8 ]. Further, daily salt consumption should not exceed 5 g (equivalent to less than 2 g of sodium daily) [ 9 ]. As a result, HFD and HSD consumption over a period leads to chronic low-grade systemic inflammation, which disrupts the gut bacteria landscape by producing circulatory metabolites, such as inflammatory mediators, circulating free fatty acids, and endotoxins, which ultimately damage the target organs [ 10 – 13 ]. People around the world consume food based on taste characteristics like fat, salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami [ 14 – 24 ]. High fat and salt are universal flavour enhancers. There is broad agreement that high fat and high salt consumption over a long period induce metabolic syndrome pathology, including abnormal cholesterol levels, elevated fasting blood sugar, and increased triglyceride levels, as well as chronic inflammation linked to alterations in gut ecology [ 25 – 28 ]. As a result, this knowledge is crucial because the modern diet is generally associated with higher fat and salt levels than what is recommended and widely consumed. In spite of this, it is not well understood which component of modern diets, such as high fat and salt consumption for a short duration, is more harmful to health on the basis of the impact on gut bacteria and the associated health. This study aimed to determine which of high fat or high salt is more detrimental to health by feeding mice HFD and HSD diets for a short period of 3 weeks. We first showed that HFD and HSD intake for only 3 weeks disrupted the gut ecological system and led to the development of partial pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome related inflammation. After that, we also critically evaluated the haemato-biochemical profile and pathological changes in vital organs, namely the heart, liver, and kidney, in the mouse model. Methods Animal model All experimental procedures defined were approved and performed according to relevant guidelines outlined by the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC) of All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi, India. In this study, 18 male C57BL/6J mice aged 6–8 weeks were fed ad-libitum and maintained under standard environmental conditions (22±3°C, 12 h light/dark cycles) with free access to water at AIIMS, New Delhi. Study design Male mice from the same cohort were randomly assigned into three groups (N = 6 for each group) and fed experimental diets ad-libitum for 3 weeks. The experimental groups were fed a control chow (CD) diet (10% energy from fat and 0.4% NaCl in chow); high fat (HFD) diet (73% including lard, cholesterol, and veg oil) and high salt (HSD) diet (4% NaCl in chow). The mice were euthanized by CO2 inhalation after a 12-hours overnight fast at the end of the study period. Blood, tissue, and caecal sample collection Terminal bleeding was performed by cardiocentesis using a 1-mL tuberculin syringe. Afterward the heart, liver, and kidney were collected for histopathological analysis. Caecal content samples were collected and stored at -80 °C for future analysis. Serum biochemistry and hematology According to the manufacturer's protocol, blood biochemistry was carried out on the serum auto-analyzer Screen Master 3000, Tulip, Alto Santa Cruz, India, using the Coral GPO-PAP kit (CORAL Clinical Systems, Goa, India). An automated vet hematology counter (Melet Schloesing Laboratories, Guwahati, India) was used to analyse blood samples in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. Histopathology For histological analysis, sections of vital organs namely heart, liver and kidney of mice from CD, HFD and HSD were fixed in 10 % neutral buffered formalin for 24 h and embedded in paraffin. Tissue sections were deparaffinized and stained with haematoxylin-eosin (H&E). The digital images were taken using light microscopy (Olympus CX-29: Olympus Optical Co. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan) and a camera (Magnus DC 10). High throughput 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing According to the manufacturer's recommendation, total microbial genomic DNA from caecal content samples was extracted using Qiagen DNA Stool Mini Kit. The extracted DNA was forward for high throughput 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and genus analysis (DNA Xperts Private Limited, India). By using the universal 16s PCR primer specific for V3–V4 region included: 341F 5′- CCTAYGGGRBGCASCAG-3′ and 806R 5′-GGACTACNNGGGTATCTAAT-3′, the samples were expanded following the Illumina Miseq high-throughput sequencer usage guide [29]. Microbial Bioinformatics Analysis The 16 S rRNA raw data of all samples were processed and analysed using the QIIME pipeline (v1.9.1). Trimmomatic and Fast QC were used to trim and align the paired-end reads with tags with an average read length of 252 bp [30]. The sequences were assigned to operational taxonomic units (OTU) with a 97% similarity threshold [31]. Rarefaction curves assessed the sufficient sequence depth of all samples. Alpha-diversity was calculated using Chao1, observed species, Shannon and Simpson indices [32]. Statistical Analysis Data are expressed as the means ± Standard Deviation (SD). The differences in quantitative data of groups were statistically analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). After confirmation of significant differences among the groups, post-hoc comparisons were made by the Bonferroni test. GraphPad Prism version 9.2.0 (3.2.0) for Windows, Graph Pad Software, San Diego, California USA, www.graphpad.com" was used for the statistical analysis of experimental data. The results were considered significant at p < 0.05. Short period HSD consumption significantly more decrease of white blood cells (WBC) compared to in HFD fed mice This study first critically evaluated the comparative impact of HSD and HFD on hematological parameters in mice (Figure 1 and Table 1). Compared to HFD fed mice, we observed a more significant decrease in WBC and thrombocytes in HSD fed mice ( p= 0.0001). Table 1 Comparative short-term high fat (73% energy from fat) and high salt (4%) diet effect on haematological parameters in mice Parameters Groups Significance ( p value) CD HFD HSD CD vs HFD CD vs HSD HFD vs HSD Hb (g/dl) 15.46±1.1 14.26±0.6 15.33±0.5 NS NS NS RBC (10 6 cells/ml) 9.40±0.3 8.77±0.24 9.26±0.4 NS NS NS HCT (%) 58.23±3.8 52.56±2.1 55.43±2.4 0.0226 NS NS MCV (g) 61.9±1.8 60.0±1.04 60.5±0.1 0.0218 NS NS MCH (pg) 16.36±0.5 16.2±0.3 16.5±0.2 NS NS NS MCHC(g/dl) 26.5±0.2 27.1±0.6 27.3±0.2 NS NS NS RDW (%) 10.2.0.34 10.3±0.57 10.2±0.52 NS NS NS WBC (10 6 cells/ml) 9.41±1.1 6.95±1.3 6.45±0.8 0.0128 0.0016 0.0001 Lymphocytes (10 6 cells/ml) 96.3±0.7 95.0±2.7 95.96±0.5 NS NS NS Monocytes (%) 1.06±0.1 1.33±0.7 2.3±1.9 NS NS NS Granulocytes (%) 0.26±0.08 0.27±0.1 0.18±0.03 NS NS NS Thrombocytes 10 3 /microL) 407.66±76.2 630.66±55.08 664±25.2 <0.0001 <0.0001 NS Values are expressed as the means ± SD. Data were analysed by one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, p ≤ 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks; HFD: High-fat diet for 3 weeks HSD: High-salt diet for 3 weeks Short term HSD consumption significantly higher increases in serum creatinine levels whereas HFD diet higher increases cholesterol levels After hematological examination, we assessed the impact of HSD and HFD on the biochemical parameters in the mice (Figure 2 andTable 2 and ) . Compared to HSD-fed mice, our study found a more significant increase in cholesterol ( p <0.0001) in HFD-fed mice. While we observed significantly higher levels of creatinine in HSD-fed mice compared to HFD-fed mice ( p <0.0001). Both HFD and HSD fed mice showed a significant increase in glucose levels compared to CD fed mice. However, we found no significant difference between HFD-fed mice and HSD-fed mice. Moreover, HFD-fed mice and HSD-fed mice showed a significant decrease in urea level compared to CD-fed mice, but HSD-fed mice showed a more significant decrease than HFD-fed mice. A significant difference was not observed for ALT, AST in HFD-fed mice or HSD-fed mice compared to CD-fed mice. Table 2 Comparative short-term high-fat (73% energy from fat) and high-salt (4%) diets effect on biochemical parameters in mice Parameters Groups Significance ( p-value) CD HFD HSD CD vs HFD CD vs HSD HFD vs HSD Cholesterol (mg/dl) 71.49±3.6 127.39±5.5 108.91±9.8 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Triglycerides (mg/dl) 122.99±7.5 92.79±7.1 127.21±9.4 <0.0001 NS <0.0001 ALT (IU) 56.80±4.5 53.12±2.1 47.86±6.5 NS NS NS AST (IU) 74.47±4.8 83.08±2.49 75.19±7.08 NS NS NS Creatinine (mg/dl) 0.36±0.06 0.33±0.05 0.75±0.06 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Urea (mg/dl) 72.21±4.5 59.57±1.9 54.99+0.8 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0469 Glucose mg/dl) 219.80±13.08 340.05±14.7 329.20±23.6 <0.0001 <0.0001 NS Values are expressed as the means ± SD. Data were analysed by one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, p ≤ 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD: Standard- chow diet for 3weeks; HFD: High-fat diet for 3 weeks HSD: High-salt diet for 3 weeks Short period HSD consumption increases more richness of gut bacteria with more depletion of different gut bacteria compared to HFD intake Considering the significant impact of HFD and HSD on the key metabolic parameters of the pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome, we further investigated that these metabolic changes may be a sign of the changes in gut bacteria associated with the pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome. Therefore, we next examined how HFD and HSD can impact gut microbiota diversity. Next, we examined the comparative impact on gut bacteria diversity by using the Alpha diversity indices. We obtained an average of 280656 reads per sample after filtering, 561312 high-quality sequences. At 97% similarity, we found 14388 OTUs as shown in Table 3. The Shannon-Wiener curve in Figure 3 reached asymptotes that reflect the adequate sequencing depth of these samples. Tables 3 and Figure 3 summarize estimates of alpha diversity. We found a more significant increase in Chao1 ( p =0.0205) in HSD fed mice compared to HFD fed mice which indicates a higher level of richness in the HSD fed mice group. On the other hand, the Shannon index was significantly lower in the HSD group ( p <0.0001) than the HFD, indicating HSD decreased the diversity of specific gut bacteria compared to HSD-fed mice. Table 3 Comparative effect of high-fat (73% energy from fat) and high-salt (4%) diet effect on alpha diversity Alpha diversity indices Groups Significance ( p value) CD HFD HSD CD vs HFD CD vs HSD HFD vs HSD OTUs 6468.76±568.64 6543.45±634.15 7844.45±1004.47 NS 0.0331 0.0205 Chaos 8682.73±42.695 9354.48±651.47 10901.16±150.73 0.0229 <0.0001 <0.0001 Shannon 6.99±0.0132 8.19±0.055 7.86±0.029 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Simpson 0.933±1.110 0.979±0.00 0.968±0.00 NS NS NS Values are expressed as the means ± SD. One-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, CD vs. HFD; CD vs HFD; HFD vs HSD, P ≤ 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD = Standard chow diet, HFD= High-fat diet, HSD=High- salt diet Short term HFD consumption induce pathophysiology of metabolic disorder related inflammation more while HSD cause gut inflammation more by changing of gut ecology After assessing the richness and diversity of gut bacteria involved in HFD and HSD treatment groups, we next investigated the relative abundance of the microbiota at the phylum level (Figure 4 and Table 4). The F/B ratio in HFD-fed mice was significantly higher by accounting for an increase in the abundance of Firmicutes and a depletion of Bacteroidetes compared with that of HSD-fed mice. The relative abundance of Proteobacteria was increased more in mice who received HSD than mice given HFD. The abundance of TM7 and Tenericutes was significantly higher in HSD-fed mice than in HFD-fed mice. Verrucomicrobia was significantly higher in HSD-fed mice than HFD-fed mice. Table 4 Comparative short-term high fat (73% energy from fat) and high-salt (4%) diets effect on the relative abundance of major phyla in mice Phylum Relative abundance (%) Significance ( P-value ) CD HFD HSD CDvsHFD CDvsHSD HFDvsHSD Firmicutes 80.4±0.396 67.70± 0.467 47.40±0.499 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Proteobacteria 7.50±0.263 13.80±.0.344 16.20±0.368 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Bacteroidetes 5.20±0.233 1.40±0.117 2.30±0.149 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Actinobacteria 3.80±0.191 9.60 ±0.294 9.30±0.290 <0.0001 <0.0001 NS Verrucomicrobia 0.20±0.044 0.30±0.054 6.40±0.244 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Acidobacteria 0.40±0.063 0.60 ±0.077 1.00±0.099 0.0020 <0.0001 <0.0001 TM7 0.10±0.031 3.30±0.178 11.60±0.320 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Tenericutes 0.00±0.000 0.00±0.000 0.50±0.070 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 F/B ratio 15.74±0.363 48.35±0.449 20.6±0.404 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Values are expressed as the means ± SD. Data were analysed one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, p ≤ 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD+ A.: High-salt diet for 3 weeks. We identified 45, 63, and 71 families in each of the CD, HFD, and HSD groups, at the family level (Figure 5 and Table 5). HFD-fed mice showed a significantly higher increase in the abundance of Lactobacillaceae, Desulfovibrionaceae and Coriobacteriaceae in comparison to HSD-fed mice. While HSD-fed mice showed a significantly higher increase in the abundance of Erysipelotrichiciae, F 16 and Verrucomicrobiaceae. Further, Lachnospiraceae and S24-7 were depleted more in HFD-fed mice compared to HSD-fed mice. While HSD-fed mice more observed a significant decrease in the abundance of Clostridiaceae , and Ruminococcaceae as compared to HFD-fed mice . There was no significant difference in the relative abundance of Enterobacteriaceae in HFD-fed mice and HSD-fed mice. Interestingly, the relative abundance of Bacteroidaceae did not differ between HFD-fed mice and HSD-fed mice. Table 5 Comparative short-term high fat ( 73% energy from fat ) and high salt (4%) diets effect on the relative abundance microbiota at family level in mice Family Relative abundance (%) Significance ( p-value ) CD HFD HSD CDvsHFD CDvsHSD HFDvsHSD Lactobacillaceae 4.50±0.207 15.20±0.359 8.50±0.278 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Unc Clostridiales 39.0±0.487 32.60±0.468 15.5±0.361 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Clostridiaceae 5.90±0.235 4.90±0.215 2.10±0.143 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Lachnospiraceae 12.40±0.329 5.70±0.231 11.80±0.322 <0.0001 0.0098 <0.0001 Ruminococcaceae 17.40±0.379 6.30±0.242 2.70±0.162 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Erysipelotrichaceae 0.30±0.054 0.80±0.089 5.20±0.222 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Desulfovibrionaceae 3.00±0.170 7.50±0.263 6.80±0.251 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0003 Enterobacteriaceae 0.70±0.083 0.90±0.094 1.00±0.099 0.0057 0.0001 NS Bacteroidaceae 0.20±0.044 0.20±0.044 0.20±0.044 NS NS NS S24-7 4.10±0.198 0.30±0.054 1.00±0.099 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Coriobacteriaceae 1.40±0.117 6.70±0.250 5.10±0.219 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Verrucomicrobiaceae 0.10±0.031 0.10±0.031 6.40±0.244 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 F16 0.10±0.031 3.30±0.178 11.60±0.320 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Values are expressed as the means ± SD. Data were analysed by one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, p ≤ 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD+ A.: High-salt diet for 3 weeks. A total of 21, 38, and 44 genera were found in CD, HFD, and HSD group samples, respectively (Figure 6 and Table 6). The species detected in these groups are presented in Table 7. HFD-fed mice showed a significantly higher increase in the relative abundance of Granulicatella, Lactobacillus , Streptococcus, Turicibacte , Dorea, and Desulfovibrio, as compared to HSD-fed mice . Further, HFD-fed mice showed a significantly higher abundance of Rothia mucilaginosa compared to HFD-fed mice . HSD-fed mice showed a significantly higher increase in the relative abundance of Clostridium , [ Ruminococcus ], Allobaculum , Klebsiella , Haemophilus , Neisseria, Prevotell, and Akkermansia in comparison to HFD-fed mice. Moreover, the relative abundance of [Ruminococcus] gnavus, Akkermansia muciniphila , Prevotella melaninogenica and Neisseria subflava was significantly higher in HSD-fed mice compared to HFD-fed mice. HSD-fed mice showed a significant higher decrease in the relative abundance of Oscillospira and Ruminococcus than HFD-fed mice. Interestingly the relative abundance of Bacteroides remained the same in all groups. Table 6 Comparative short-term effect of high-fat ( 73% energy from fat ) and high-salt (4%) diets effect on the relative abundance microbiota at genus level in mice Genus Relative abundance at the genus level (%) Significance ( p-value ) CD HFD HSD CDvsHFD CDvsHSD CDvsHSD Unc Gemellaceae 0.00±0.000 0.20±0.044 0.10±0.031 <0.0001 0.0002 0.0002 Granulicatella 0.00±0.000 0.20±0.044 0.10±0.031 <0.0001 0.0002 0.0002 Enterococcus 0.00±0.000 0.10±0.031 0.00±0.000 <0.0001 NS <0.0001 Lactobacillus 4.50±0.207 15.2±0.359 8.50±0.278 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Streptococcus 0.00±0.000 0.60±0.077 0.50±0.070 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0341 Turicibacter 0.00±0.000 0.50±0.070 0.10±0.031 <0.0001 0.0041 <0.0001 Unc Clostridiales 39.10±0.489 32.70±0.469 15.50±0.361 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Unc Clostridiaceae 0.00±0.000 0.00±0.000 0.50±0.070 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Candidatus Arthromitus 5.70±0.232 4.80±0.213 0.10±0.031 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Clostridium 0.00±0.000 0.10±0.031 1.40±0.117 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Dehalobacterium 0.60±0.077 0.10±0.031 0.10±0.031 <0.0001 <0.0001 NS Unc Lachnospiraceae 9.50±0.293 2.50±0.156 1.00±0.099 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Blautia 0.10±0.031 0.10±0.031 0.00±0.000 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Coprococcus 0.80±0.089 0.80±0.089 1.00±0.099 NS 0.0058 0.0058 [Ruminococcus] 1.10±0.104 1.90±0.136 9.60±0.294 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Unc Peptostreptococcaceae 0.00±0.000 0.10±0.031 0.10±0.031 0.0002 0.0002 NS Unc Ruminococcaceae 12.10±0.326 2.60±0.159 2.10±0.143 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0042 Dorea 0.00±0.000 0.20±0.044 0.00±0.000 <0.0001 NS <0.0001 Oscillospir a 1.80±0.132 3.10±0.173 0.30±0.054 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Ruminococcus 1.90±0.136 0.60±0.077 0.30±0.054 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0465 Veillonella 0.00±0.000 0.10±0.031 0.10±0.031 <0.0001 <0.0001 NS Unc Erysipelotrichaceae 0.20±0.044 0.30±0.054 1.90±0.136 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Allobaculum 0.00±0.000 0.40±0.063 3.10±0.173 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Neisseria 0.00±0.000 0.00±0.000 0.40±0.063 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Eubacterium 0.10±0.031 0.20±0.044 0.20±0.044 0.0018 0.0018 NS Rhodobacter 0.00±0.000 0.30±0.054 0.10±0.031 <0.0001 0.0013 <0.0001 Bilophila 0.00+0.000 0.10+0.031 0.00+0.000 <0.0001 NS <0.0001 Desulfovibrio 3.00±0.170 7.40±0261 6.80±0.251 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0013 Unc Enterobacteriaceae 0.20±0.044 0.20±0.044 0.30±0.054 NS 0.0072 0.0072 Klebsiella 0.50±0.070 0.60±0.077 0.80±0.089 NS <0.0001 0.0016 Haemophilus 0.00±0.000 0.30±0.054 0.40±0.063 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0082 Bacteroides 0.20±0.044 0.20±0.044 0.20±0.044 NS NS NS Prevotella 0.00±0.000 0.00±0.000 0.10±0.031 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Unc S24-7 4.10±0.115 0.30±0.054 1.00±0.999 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Unc Acidimicrobiales 0.10±0.031 0.10±0.031 0.60±0.077 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Unc C111 0.70±0.083 0.40±0.063 0.70±0.083 <0.0001 NS <0.0001 Unc ACK-M1 0.80±0.089 0.50±0.070 0.60±0.077 <0.0001 0.0016 NS Rothia 0.00+0.000 0.70±0.083 0.40±0063 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Bifidobacterium 0.00+0.000 0.00+0.000 0.20±0.044 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Unc Coriobacteriaceae 0.10±0.031 2.70±0.162 1.60±0.125 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Adlercreutzia 1.30±0.113 3.90±0.193 3.40±0.181 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0003 Akkermansia 0.00+0.000 0.00±0.000 6.40±0.244 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Unc F16 0.10±0.031 3.30±0.178 11.60±0.320 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Unc RF 39 0.00+0.000 0.00+0.000 0.50±0.070 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Values are expressed as the means ± SD. Data were analysed by one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, p ≤ 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD+ A.: High-salt diet for 3 weeks. Table 7 Comparative short-term effect of high-fat ( 73% energy from fat ) and high-salt (4%) diet on the relative abundance microbiota at the species level in mice Species Relative abundance (%) Significance ( p-value ) CD HFD HSD CD vs HFD CD vs HSD HFD vs HSD Blautia producta 0.10±0.039 0.10±0.039 0.00±0.000 NS 0.0002 0.0002 [Ruminococcus] gnavus 1.10±0.104 1.90±0.136 9.60±0.294 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Brevundimonas diminuta 0.00±0.000 0.10±0.039 0.10±0.039 NS <0.0001 NS Neisseria subflava 0.00±0.000 0.00±0.000 0.30±0.054 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Prevotella melaninogenica 0.00±0.000 0.00±0.000 0.40±0.063 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Rothia mucilaginosa 0.00±0.000 0.70±0.083 0.40±0.063 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Akkermansia muciniphila 0.00±0.000 0.00±0.000 6.40±0.244 NS <0.0001 <0.0001 Values are expressed as the means ± SD. Data were analysed by one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, p ≤ 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD+ A.: High-salt diet for 3 weeks. Short term HFD and HSD consumption cause non-significant histopathological changes in vital organs In order to determine whether HFD or HSD diets have a greater negative impact on essential organs, we performed histopathological studies on the heart, liver, and kidney (Figure 7). Heart photomicrographs of HFD-fed mice showed mild congestion in blood vessels while a slight cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and degenerative tissue changes were noticed in HSD-treated mice. The liver histology of mice fed HFD revealed mild congestion of the sinusoidal, central, and portal veins. There was a decrease in cell proliferation as well as oddly shaped cells in the liver of mice observations, however, were insufficient to conclude that HFD or HSD were more determinantal in the context of histopathological changes in vital organs. Discussion The pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome induced by the consumption of a diet rich in fat and salt has become a major health concern due to the increasing risk of many chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases [ 33 , 34 ]. In the long run, a diet rich in fat and salt increases cholesterol levels, blood sugar levels, triglyceride levels, chronic inflammation, and modulation of gut ecology [ 35 – 37 ]. The majority of people today consume modern food consciously or unconsciously, particularly processed foods. However, the short-term damaging effect of high-fat and high-salt diets on gut bacteria is still poorly explored. This understanding is very critical today as modern food contains more fat and salt than recommended by the WHO. Additionally, little is known about the comparative damaging effects of high-fat and high-salt diets on gut bacteria and associated health. Our objective was to investigate whether a high fat or high salt diet intake for a short time period of three weeks is more harmful in terms of health in a mice model. Our research indicates that high taxonomic richness in HSD-fed mice contributed to the exclusive appearance of different specific gut bacteria such as Unc Clostridiaceae, Neisseria, Prevotella, Bifidobacterium, Akkermansia and Unc RF 39 in comparison to HFD-fed mice and CD-fed mice. Nevertheless, HSD-fed mice showed a reduction in diversity, which contributes to inflammatory gut diseases in mice [ 38 ]. Furthermore, many research studies have found that patients with gut inflammation have an overall loss of biodiversity due to the reduction of Firmicutes and the increase of Proteobacteria [ 39 – 56 ]. However, diversity was higher in HFD-fed mice due to specific gut bacteria namely Enterococcus, Dorea and Bilophila compared to HSD-fed mice and CD-fed mice. Additionally, the present study showed differences in gut microbiota composition between the three study groups. Our research indicates high taxonomic richness in HSD-fed mice contributed to the exclusive appearance of different specific gut bacteria such as Unc Clostridiaceae, Neisseria, Prevotella, Bifidobacterium , Akkermansia, Unc RF 39 in comparison to HFD-fed mice and CD-fed mice. In our study, we found that the F/B ratio was significantly higher with higher levels of Firmicutes and a decline in Bacteroidetes that could contribute to obesity-related metabolic inflammation [ 57 , 58 ]. However, HSD-fed mice exhibited more increase in the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and TM7 reported as indicators of intestinal dysbiosis and causing active inflammatory bowel disease [ 59 , 60 ]. Our study indicate that HFD inclined more towards in the inducing the pathophysiology of obesity while HSD caused the pathophysiology of inflammatory gut diseases. Additionally, HSD-treated mice showed an increase in Verrucomicrobia , which is crucial for maintaining host immunity [ 61 ]. In this study, HFD-fed mice showed a significantly higher increase in the relative abundance of Desulfovibrionaceae known to associate with obesity and Coriobacteriaceae considered commensal communities but some members associate with bile acid metabolism which leads to metabolic dysfunctions [ 33 ]. Further a higher reduction of Lachnospiraceae and S24-7 linked to disruption of gut epithelial barrier integrity and metabolic endotoxemia was observed in HFD-fed mice [ 33 ]. In this study HSD fed mice showed a higher abundance of Erysipelotrichaceae that coincided with inflammation-related gastrointestinal disorders [ 62 ]. Moreover, we also found in HSD-fed mice a lower abundance of Clostridiaceae , and Ruminococcaceae , which are positively associated with maintaining gut health. The significant decline of Clostridiaceae is associated with T2D while Ruminococcaceae prevail prominently in fibrolytic communities and maintain gut health [ 63 , 64 ]. HSD-fed mice also showed a higher relative abundance of Verrucomicrobiaceae , which have been linked to improved immunoinflammatory functions [ 65 ]. At the genus level, we have consistently observed a high increase in the abundance of Granulicatella, Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Turicibacte, Dorea , Desulfovibrio and Oscillospira in HFD-fed mice and at the species level [ 66 – 69 ]. There are also several reports suggesting that Lactobacillus abundance plays an active role in obesity and chronic inflammation associated with diabetes [ 33 ]. In addition, the majority of the above-mentioned gut microbes play a significant role in metabolic syndrome pathogenesis. Lactobacillus and Turicibacter abundance positively correlate with blood glucose levels [ 70 ]. Similarly, the increase in Desulfovibrio is associated with insulin resistance [ 71 – 73 ]. Likewise, the enrichment of Streptococcus, Granulicatella , and Allobaculm is linked to metabolic diseases [ 33 ]. Likewise, Desulfovibrio increase is associated with insulin resistance [ 33 ]. A similar association has been found that enrichment of Streptococcus and Granulicatella , and metabolic diseases [ 74 – 76 ]. A positive correlation exists between Oscillospira and fasting serum insulin levels and a reduction in the levels of mRNA expression of Zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) that prevents solute leakage from the gastrointestinal tract [ 33 ]. A striking observation was the reduction of Lactobacillus reuteri in HFD-fed mice, which prevents pathogen growth in the intestine[ 70 ]. Further, HFD-fed mice showed a significant higher abundance of Rothia mucilaginosa , considered an emerging opportunistic pathogen [ 79 ]. Our data suggest that HFD contributes to metabolic syndrome pathophysiology of obesity-related metabolic disorders by decreasing insulin signalling and intestinal barrier integrity. Our genus-level results confirmed that HSD causes more abundance of gut microbiota, including Clostridium, [Ruminococcus], Allobaculum, Klebsiella, Haemophilus, Neisseria, Prevotella , and Akkermansia . HSD-fed mice showed a decrease in abundance of Ruminococcus gnavus, which is known to produce a polysaccharide that stimulates inflammatory cytokines and induces inflammatory bowel disease. [ 34 ]. A well-known correlation exists between Allobaculum and ANGPTL4 expression that contributes to obesity-related metabolic disorders [ 76 ]. There are many Clostridium and Haemophilus strains that cause disease in humans [ 44 ]. There is evidence that Klibsiella can cause gut inflammation [ 80 ]. Furthermore, this study found that Neisseria subflava and Prevotella melanogenic were significantly abundant in mice fed HSD. There is growing recognition that Neisseria subflava reflects a shift in the microbial community towards acid-secreting bacteria [ 43 ]. A study of humanized mice indicated that Prevotella melanogenic causes gut inflammation [ 82 ]. Therefore, our data suggest that HSD increases the majority of bacteria known to play an active role in gut inflammatory diseases. Consistently, our study also found a significant finding that the composition of Bacteroides gut bacteria did not affect HSD diet as reported by previous studies that had a salt-tolerance gene [ 83 ]. Nevertheless, it is significant to note that even HFD feeding for 3 consecutive weeks did not increase Bacteroides counts in this study. The gut microbiota regulates energy homeostasis and their composition and diversity are correlated with insulin sensitivity and host glycemic control [ 34 ]. There have been several studies that have found that long-term consumption of HFD or HSD has adverse effects on biochemical health [ 83 – 86 ]. Both HFD-fed mice and HSD-fed mice showed an increase in blood glucose levels. Importantly, we found that. HFD intake even for short periods elevated blood glucose levels contrary to previous studies that required long-term consumption of 30–90 days and 18 months [ 87 – 88 ]. We believe that the increase in the abundance of Granulicatella, Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Turicibacter, Desulfovibrio and depletion of Lachnospiraceae and S24-7 in HFD-fed mice is the reason for the increase in serum glucose level because these gut bacteria have a role in the development of insulin resistance. Similarly, HSD increases the abundance of specific gut microbiota such as Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Ruminococcus gnavus, Allobaculum , and Desulfovibrio known to decrease insulin sensitivity caused an increase in blood glucose level. HSD also increases the abundance of specific gut bacteria, such as Lactobacillus, Streptococcus , Ruminococcus gnavus, Allobaculum , and Desulfovibrio , known to decrease insulin sensitivity and raise blood glucose levels. Several studies have shown that gut microbiota dysbiosis directly affects cholesterol metabolism [ 89 , 90 ]. Our study demonstrated that HFD modulates gut bacteria leading to high circulating serum total cholesterol levels. We found a decrease in the abundance of Lactobacillus reuteri implicated for the cholesterol-lowering effect by conversion of uncoupled bile acids into secondary bile acids to control serum cholesterol levels [ 91 , 92 ]. HFD-fed mice also displayed a depletion of Lachnospiraceae families known to have a positive correlation with total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol [ 93 , 94 ]. Further HFD-fed mice also showed an increase in the abundance of Coriobacteriaceae and Erysipelotrichaceae , known to have positive correlations with host cholesterol metabolites [ 95 , 96 ]. We found that HSD-fed mice showed increased levels of serum triglycerides and glucose metabolites associated with endothelial dysfunction, which contributed to the short-term increase in total cholesterol. In addition, several studies suggest the gut microbiota can alter blood lipid composition, particularly cholesterol, via gut bacteria-related metabolites [ 97 – 99 ]. Also, we observed higher abundances of Lactobacillus , Enterobacteriaceae , and Streptococcus in the gut microbiota reported in cardiovascular diseases (CVD) [ 100 ]. Additionally, we found that higher abundances of Erysipelotrichaceae and Coriobacteriaceae correlated with higher plasma cholesterol levels in both human and animal models [ 96 , 101 – 104 , 117 ]. As a result of our study HFD caused a relatively higher significant increase in blood cholesterol when compared with HSD-fed mice, in which we observed increased abundances of Bifidobacterium and Lachnospiraceae implicated with reductions in total cholesterol levels [95,96.105]. There has been substantial evidence that high salt intake leads to progressive impairment of renal function either through BP-dependent or independent mechanisms [ 106 – 108 ]. Our study consistently demonstrated an increase in creatinine levels in mice receiving HSD [ 109 ]. In our study HSD increased metabolic factors, such as glucose and triglycerides, which cause endothelial dysfunction by increasing oxidative stress and decreasing nitric oxide bioavailability [ 109 ]. Thus, endothelial remodeling can adversely affect renal hemodynamics by reducing glomerular filtration efficiency, which leads to higher blood creatinine levels. Conclusively on the biochemical parameters, we found that HFD was associated with a greater increase in plasma total cholesterol (TC), a known risk factor for coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, and stroke as compared to HSD. While HSD is more harmful to the kidneys because an increase in creatinine level indicates kidney failure. Previous studies have shown a negative impact of long-term consumption of HFD and HSD on hematological parameters [ 83 , 113 – 115 ]. This study investigated whether short-term intake of HFD or HSD has a more detrimental effect on hematological parameters. Our results indicated that both HSD and HFD adversely affect hematological profiles. However, mice fed HFD showed a slight more decline in WBCs compared to mice fed HSD. Lower WBC counts in HFD-fed mice indicate that HFD may suppress the immune system more than HSD. A photomicrograph of the heart section from mice fed either HFD or HSD did not show any significant histopathological changes. Similarly, liver and kidney of HFD and HSD-fed mice showed no significant histopathology difference. Our study indicates that short-term increases in HSD or HFD diet could have transient effects on the biochemical profile. Nonetheless, long-term consumption of HFD or HSD may cause permanent damage to vital organs. In summary, the present study showed that even short perturbation of HFD and HSD intensively disturb the gut bacteria ecology. Further, our results indicate that HSD causes a more substantial alteration of gut bacteria than HFD. HFD change the composition and diversity of gut bacteria and, which are known to induce the pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome related inflammation. Further, HFD was linked to a greater increase in plasma total cholesterol (TC), an established risk factor for coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, and stroke. HSD increased more the relative abundance of specific gut microbes that are known to contribute to metabolic disease-related inflammation while HSD caused an increase in the majority of those bacteria known to play an active role in gut inflammation. Moreover, we observed some beneficial bacteria being increased in the HSD diet. While, HSD is more detrimental to the kidneys, since an increase in creatinine levels indicates kidney disease. Furthermore, mice fed either HFD or HSD showed minimal and insignificant pathological changes in their hearts, livers, and kidneys. These preliminary studies, however, had several limitations. Firstly, this study was conducted on mice and cannot be applied to humans. Second, we also reduced the sample size of caecal contents per group, and tested their relative proportions in the total population of bacteria for cost-effectiveness. Abbreviations CD: Standard chow diet HSD: High-salt diet HFD: High-fat diet Hb: Haemoglobin RBC: Red blood cells MCH: Mean corpuscular haemoglobin HCT: Haematocrit MCV: Mean corpuscular volume WBC: White blood cells ALT: Alanine aminotransferase AST: Aspartate aminotransferase TG: Triglycerides TC: Total cholesterol CVD: cardiovascular diseases LDL: Low-density lipoprotein F/B : Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes T2D: Type 2 diabetes ZO-1: Zonula occludens-1 ANGPTL4: Angiopoietin-related protein NO : Nitric oxide OTUs: Operating taxonomic units IAEC: Institutional Animal Ethics Committee WHO: World Health Organization AIIMS: All India Institute of Medical Science SD: Standard deviation ANOVA: Analysis of variance Declarations Acknowledgements: We greatly appreciate Dr. Vikram Saini (All India Institute of Medical Science, New Delhi, India) for guiding the experiment. Data availability: All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this manuscript. 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Pandey RP, Mukherjee R, Priyadarshini A, Gupta A, Vibhuti A, Leal E, Sengupta U, Katoch VM, Sharma P, Moore CE, Raj VS, Lyu X. Potential of nanoparticles encapsulated drugs for possible inhibition of the antimicrobial resistance development. Biomed Pharmacother. 2021 Sep;141:111943. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3341945","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Short Report","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":232113042,"identity":"26e554b2-7604-47c6-9ac1-38b3431c3e13","order_by":0,"name":"Suresh Kumar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Institute of Biologicals, Uttar Pradesh","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Suresh","middleName":"","lastName":"Kumar","suffix":""},{"id":232113043,"identity":"789bf7c2-cf26-4445-ae90-694b08b0355e","order_by":1,"name":"Ramendra Pati Pandey","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABB0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNACNijNw8AgB6IPPCBFizFYSwIpWhIbQAx8WszbTyc+Lii7J88g3fzswZuKw+nzww4/BNpiJ6fbgF2LzJnczcYzzhUbNsgcMzecc+Zw7sbbaQZALcnGZgewa5FgyN0mzduWwNggkWAGZAC1zE4AaTmQuA2XFv63238Dtdg3SKR/k+b9dzjdcHb6B/xaJHK3MQO1JDZI5ABtaTicIC+dQ8AWibebpXnOJSS3yZwpk5xzLN1wg3ROwYEEAzx+4c/d+JmnLMG2X7p9m8SbGmt5+dnpmz98qLCTw6UFDtgkwFQzgwFYpQEB5RD7wGQdg3wDMapHwSgYBaNgJAEAYTVfLD/nMuAAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Petroleum and Energy Studies","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ramendra","middleName":"Pati","lastName":"Pandey","suffix":""},{"id":232113044,"identity":"2aa27ae9-d7be-4ffe-80db-4f91baf8647b","order_by":2,"name":"Chung-Ming Chang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chang Gung University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chung-Ming","middleName":"","lastName":"Chang","suffix":""},{"id":232113045,"identity":"6b00d255-f4f2-42d3-8c24-0ee816ce58e5","order_by":3,"name":"V. Samuel Raj","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"SRM University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"V.","middleName":"Samuel","lastName":"Raj","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2023-09-10 11:29:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3341945/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3341945/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":43081782,"identity":"20ccce7f-9cec-4c2a-9bd7-fa6252a9203a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-13 15:46:42","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":233757,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative short-term HFD (73% energy from fat) and HSD (4% NaCl) effect on haematological parameters. There was no significant difference for most of haematological parametersbetween HFD and HSD groups. However, a significant decrease of WBCs was more observed more in HSD compared to the HFD group (Values are means ± SD for 6 samples in each group. Statistically, significance of differences was evaluated by one way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni test (\u003cstrong\u003e* \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05,\u003cstrong\u003e **\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01, \u003cstrong\u003e****\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.0001), from CD: Standard chow diet; HFD: High-fat diet; HSD: High-salt diet\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3341945/v1/560bfa210526ed2947c09f83.png"},{"id":43081780,"identity":"73dc514a-65ab-4340-a5fa-9e2bb0ddce9e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-13 15:46:42","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":218489,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative short-term HFD (73% energy from fat) and HSD (4% NaCl) effect on biochemical parameters. In the HFD group, cholesterol levels and urea levels increased significantly more than in the HSD group. In addition, triglycerides and creatinine levels in the HSD group increased significantly more than in the HFD group. No significant changes were detected for ALT, AST and glucose levels in the HFD versus HSD group. Values are means ± SD for 6 samples in each group. Statistically significance of differences was evaluated by one way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni test (* \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05, ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01, *** \u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.001, **** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.0001). CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks; HFD: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD: High-salt diet for 3 weeks\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3341945/v1/9af4190e8f8965ab3ac88e4c.png"},{"id":43080805,"identity":"83c7af9a-a0af-48fb-9946-4f79eb138c78","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-13 15:38:42","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":415892,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eShort-term high-fat (73% energy from fat) and high-salt (4% NaCl) diet effect on gut bacteria diversity in mice. Rarefaction curves (A) and Shannon-Wiener curves (B) achieved a plateau, suggesting that the number of OTUs was sufficient to capture the authentic bacterial communities in each sample. Comparisons for alpha-diversity such as observed species index (A) and Shannon (B) index of alpha-diversity were showed marked differences in the bacterial communities among the groups. The percent variation explained by each group is indicated on the axis. CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks; HFD: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD: High-salt diet for 3 weeks\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3341945/v1/be037ab7e5501d7dcfd2206e.png"},{"id":43080799,"identity":"084fabec-5620-43eb-ba50-8182f1116792","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-13 15:38:42","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":204530,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative short-term HFD (73% energy from fat) and HSD (4% NaCl) diets effect on gut microbiota at phylum level in mice. The \u003cem\u003eF/B\u003c/em\u003e ratio,\u003cem\u003e Firmicutes\u003c/em\u003eand, \u003cem\u003eBacteroidetes\u003c/em\u003e abundance was significantly higher in the HFD group compared to the HSD. The abundance of \u003cem\u003eProteobacteria, Tenericutes \u003c/em\u003eand, \u003cem\u003eVerrucomicrobia\u003c/em\u003ewere significantly higher in the HSD group compared to the HFD group. \u0026nbsp;CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD+ A.: High-salt diet for 3 weeks. The x coordinate represents the name of the groups. The y coordinate represents the relative abundance of gut bacteria.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3341945/v1/67a76eb7eccf690ad194a9a4.png"},{"id":43081781,"identity":"b9ad254e-eecc-49e0-b64b-2c8807b7ad83","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-13 15:46:42","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":256591,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative short-term HFD (73% energy from fat) and HSD (4% NaCl) diets effect on gut microbiota at family level in mice. HFD group samples showed relatively more increase the abundance of\u003cem\u003eLactobacillaceae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDesulfovibrionaceae\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eCoriobacteriaceae \u003c/em\u003eand decreased in the abundance of\u003cem\u003e Lachnospiraceae \u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eS24-7\u003c/em\u003e. While HSD group samples were showed a significantly higher increase in the abundance of \u003cem\u003eErysipelotrichiciae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eVerrucomicrobiaceae, F16 \u003c/em\u003eand decrease in\u003cem\u003e Unc Clostridiales\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eClostridiaceae\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eRuminococcaceae\u003c/em\u003e. CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD+ A.: High-salt diet for 3 weeks. The x coordinate represents the name of the groups. The y coordinate represents the relative abundance of gut bacteria.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3341945/v1/e13cbbf9ac6c83db5b718f12.png"},{"id":43080801,"identity":"a3de3858-6a63-4906-b2ba-0fe8d0d303f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-13 15:38:42","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":319126,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe bar chart showed a high-salt diet (4% NaCl) effect on the relative abundance of the most represented bacterial taxa at the genus level for each sample. HFD group showed relatively higher abundance of \u003cem\u003eLactobacillus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eStreptococcus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBlautia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCandidatus arthromitus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTuricibacter\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDorea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOscillospira\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRuminococcus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRhodobacte\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBilophila\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDesulfovibrio\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRothia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eEnterococcus\u003c/em\u003e. While HSD showed a higher abundance of \u003cem\u003eClostridium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCoprococcus\u003c/em\u003e, [\u003cem\u003eRuminococcus\u003c/em\u003e] \u003cem\u003eAllobaculum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHaemophilus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAkkermansia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eNeisseria, Prevotella\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eBifidobacterium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3341945/v1/e125f0351d5ce5f4c390cedf.png"},{"id":43080804,"identity":"36636e09-787e-47dd-b9cd-e2146c0b3256","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-13 15:38:42","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2175053,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe comparative short-term HFD (73% energy from fat) and HSD (4% NaCl) diets effect on heart, liver and kidney. The photomicrograph of the heart section of HFD-fed mice indicated mild congestion in blood vessels (3a). Comparatively, heart tissue of HSD-fed mice showed mild cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and associated degenerative tissue changes (2a). The liver histopathology of mice fed a HFD revealed mild congestion of the sinusoidal, central, and portal veins (3b). Histopathology of the liver of HSD-fed mice revealed oddly shaped cells and a decrease in cell proliferation (2b). Mice fed HFD or HSD showed no significant changes in kidney tissue (3c and 3d). This observation, however, was not sufficient to consider as substantial histopathological changes. CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD+ A.: High-salt diet for 3 weeks (116).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3341945/v1/1cae331c53d5388486e99794.png"},{"id":43344888,"identity":"ee0b7a3e-f8e0-4c9e-83b5-d92dd6eb78c5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-09-19 08:07:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3981638,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3341945/v1/6471478d-374d-4d4a-944c-eb311bdfbb6f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Assessing the short-term impact of a high-fat, high-salt diet on the gut bacteria and related pathophysiology in mice","fulltext":[{"header":"Introductions","content":"\u003cp\u003eA global problem of high fat and high salt intake as key components of the modern diet has seriously impacted human health by developing or advancing diseases such as metabolic disorders, immune-related disorders, and dysfunction of neurobehavioral traits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. A healthy diet should not exceed 30% of total energy from total fat and saturated fat and trans-fat should not exceed 10% and 1% of food energy, respectively [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4 CR5 CR6 CR7\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Further, daily salt consumption should not exceed 5 g (equivalent to less than 2 g of sodium daily) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. As a result, HFD and HSD consumption over a period leads to chronic low-grade systemic inflammation, which disrupts the gut bacteria landscape by producing circulatory metabolites, such as inflammatory mediators, circulating free fatty acids, and endotoxins, which ultimately damage the target organs [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR11 CR12\" citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. People around the world consume food based on taste characteristics like fat, salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15 CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19 CR20 CR21 CR22 CR23\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. High fat and salt are universal flavour enhancers. There is broad agreement that high fat and high salt consumption over a long period induce metabolic syndrome pathology, including abnormal cholesterol levels, elevated fasting blood sugar, and increased triglyceride levels, as well as chronic inflammation linked to alterations in gut ecology [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26 CR27\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. As a result, this knowledge is crucial because the modern diet is generally associated with higher fat and salt levels than what is recommended and widely consumed. In spite of this, it is not well understood which component of modern diets, such as high fat and salt consumption for a short duration, is more harmful to health on the basis of the impact on gut bacteria and the associated health. This study aimed to determine which of high fat or high salt is more detrimental to health by feeding mice HFD and HSD diets for a short period of 3 weeks. We first showed that HFD and HSD intake for only 3 weeks disrupted the gut ecological system and led to the development of partial pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome related inflammation. After that, we also critically evaluated the haemato-biochemical profile and pathological changes in vital organs, namely the heart, liver, and kidney, in the mouse model.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnimal model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll experimental procedures defined were approved and performed according to relevant guidelines outlined by the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC) of All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi, India. In this study, 18 male C57BL/6J mice aged 6\u0026ndash;8 weeks were fed \u003cem\u003ead-libitum\u003c/em\u003e and maintained under standard environmental conditions (22\u0026plusmn;3\u0026deg;C, 12 h light/dark cycles) with free access to water at AIIMS, New Delhi.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy design\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMale mice from the same cohort were randomly assigned into three groups (N = 6 for each group) and fed experimental diets \u003cem\u003ead-libitum\u003c/em\u003e for 3 weeks. The experimental groups were fed a control chow (CD) diet (10% energy from fat and 0.4% NaCl in chow); high fat (HFD) diet (73% including lard, cholesterol, and veg oil) and high salt (HSD) diet (4% NaCl in chow). The mice were euthanized by CO2 inhalation after a 12-hours overnight fast at the end of the study period.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlood, tissue, and caecal sample collection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTerminal bleeding was performed by cardiocentesis using a 1-mL tuberculin syringe. Afterward the heart, liver, and kidney were collected for histopathological analysis.\u0026nbsp;Caecal content samples were\u0026nbsp;collected and stored at -80 \u0026deg;C for future analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSerum biochemistry and hematology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the manufacturer\u0026apos;s protocol, blood biochemistry was carried out on the serum auto-analyzer Screen Master 3000, Tulip, Alto Santa Cruz, India, using the Coral GPO-PAP kit (CORAL Clinical Systems, Goa, India). An automated vet hematology counter (Melet Schloesing Laboratories, Guwahati, India) was used to analyse blood samples in accordance with the manufacturer\u0026apos;s instructions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHistopathology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor histological analysis, sections of vital organs namely heart, liver and kidney of mice from CD, HFD and HSD were fixed in 10 % neutral buffered formalin for 24 h and embedded in paraffin. Tissue sections were deparaffinized and stained with haematoxylin-eosin (H\u0026amp;E). The digital images were taken using light microscopy (Olympus CX-29: Olympus Optical Co. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan) and a camera (Magnus DC 10).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh throughput 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the manufacturer\u0026apos;s recommendation, total microbial genomic DNA from caecal content samples was extracted using Qiagen DNA Stool Mini Kit. The extracted DNA was forward for high throughput 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and genus analysis (DNA Xperts Private Limited, India). By using the universal 16s PCR primer specific for V3\u0026ndash;V4 region included: 341F 5\u0026prime;- CCTAYGGGRBGCASCAG-3\u0026prime; and 806R 5\u0026prime;-GGACTACNNGGGTATCTAAT-3\u0026prime;, the samples were expanded following the Illumina Miseq high-throughput sequencer usage guide [29].\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMicrobial Bioinformatics Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 16 S rRNA raw data of all samples were processed and analysed using the QIIME pipeline (v1.9.1). Trimmomatic and Fast QC were used to trim and align the paired-end reads with tags with an average read length of 252 bp [30]. The sequences were assigned to operational taxonomic units (OTU) with a 97% similarity threshold [31]. Rarefaction curves assessed the sufficient sequence depth of all samples. Alpha-diversity was calculated using Chao1, observed species, Shannon and Simpson indices [32].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData are expressed as the means \u0026plusmn; Standard Deviation (SD). The differences in quantitative data of groups were statistically analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). After confirmation of significant differences among the groups, post-hoc comparisons were made by the Bonferroni test. GraphPad Prism version 9.2.0 (3.2.0) for Windows, Graph Pad Software, San Diego, California USA, www.graphpad.com\u0026quot; was used for the statistical analysis of experimental data. The results were considered significant at \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShort period HSD consumption significantly more decrease of white blood cells (WBC) compared to in HFD fed mice\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study first critically evaluated the comparative impact of HSD and HFD on hematological parameters in mice (Figure 1 and Table 1). Compared to HFD fed mice, we observed a more significant decrease in WBC and thrombocytes in HSD fed mice (\u003cem\u003ep=\u003c/em\u003e0.0001). \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1 Comparative short-term high fat (73% energy from fat) and high salt (4%) diet effect on haematological parameters in mice \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"631\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.93026941362916%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.985736925515056%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGroups\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.08399366085578%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificance (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e value)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.767634854771785%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.70954356846473%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHFD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.767634854771785%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.767634854771785%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCD vs HFD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.767634854771785%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCD vs HSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.219917012448132%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHFD vs HSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHb (g/dl)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.46\u0026plusmn;1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.26\u0026plusmn;0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.33\u0026plusmn;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRBC (10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e cells/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.40\u0026plusmn;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.77\u0026plusmn;0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.26\u0026plusmn;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHCT (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.23\u0026plusmn;3.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.56\u0026plusmn;2.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.43\u0026plusmn;2.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0226\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMCV (g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.9\u0026plusmn;1.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.0\u0026plusmn;1.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.5\u0026plusmn;0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0218\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMCH (pg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.36\u0026plusmn;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.2\u0026plusmn;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.5\u0026plusmn;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMCHC(g/dl)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.5\u0026plusmn;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.1\u0026plusmn;0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.3\u0026plusmn;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRDW (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.2.0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.3\u0026plusmn;0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.2\u0026plusmn;0.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWBC (10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e cells/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.41\u0026plusmn;1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.95\u0026plusmn;1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.45\u0026plusmn;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0128\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLymphocytes (10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e cells/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96.3\u0026plusmn;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.0\u0026plusmn;2.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.96\u0026plusmn;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMonocytes (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.06\u0026plusmn;0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.33\u0026plusmn;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.3\u0026plusmn;1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGranulocytes (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u0026plusmn;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026plusmn;0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThrombocytes 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/microL)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e407.66\u0026plusmn;76.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.007898894154819%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e630.66\u0026plusmn;55.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e664\u0026plusmn;25.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.006319115323855%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.11216429699842%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValues are expressed as the means \u0026plusmn; SD. Data were analysed by one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026le; 0.05, NS= Not significant,\u0026nbsp;CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks; HFD: High-fat diet for 3 weeks HSD: High-salt diet for 3 weeks\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShort term HSD consumption significantly higher increases in serum creatinine levels whereas HFD diet\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;higher increases\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003echolesterol levels\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter hematological examination, we assessed the impact of HSD and HFD on the biochemical parameters in the mice (Figure 2 andTable 2 and \u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e. Compared to HSD-fed mice, our study found a more significant increase in cholesterol (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;0.0001) in HFD-fed mice. While we observed significantly higher levels of creatinine in HSD-fed mice compared to HFD-fed mice (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;0.0001). Both HFD and HSD fed mice showed a significant increase in glucose levels compared to CD fed mice. However, we found no significant difference between HFD-fed mice and HSD-fed mice. Moreover, HFD-fed mice and HSD-fed mice showed a significant decrease in urea level compared to CD-fed mice, but HSD-fed mice showed a more significant decrease than HFD-fed mice. A significant difference was not observed for ALT, AST in HFD-fed mice or HSD-fed mice compared to CD-fed mice.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2 Comparative short-term high-fat (73% energy from fat) and high-salt (4%) diets effect on biochemical parameters in mice \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"623\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.71153846153846%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"39.42307692307692%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGroups\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40.86538461538461%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificance (\u003cem\u003ep-value)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.932270916334662%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.932270916334662%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHFD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.139442231075698%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.139442231075698%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCD vs HFD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.932270916334662%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCD \u003cem\u003evs\u003c/em\u003e HSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.92430278884462%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHFD vs HSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.68%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCholesterol (mg/dl)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.49\u0026plusmn;3.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e127.39\u0026plusmn;5.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e108.91\u0026plusmn;9.8\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.2%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.68%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTriglycerides (mg/dl)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e122.99\u0026plusmn;7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92.79\u0026plusmn;7.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e127.21\u0026plusmn;9.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.2%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.68%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eALT (IU)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.80\u0026plusmn;4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.12\u0026plusmn;2.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.86\u0026plusmn;6.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.2%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.68%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAST (IU)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.47\u0026plusmn;4.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.08\u0026plusmn;2.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.19\u0026plusmn;7.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.2%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.68%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCreatinine (mg/dl)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u0026plusmn;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u0026plusmn;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.75\u0026plusmn;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.2%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.68%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUrea (mg/dl)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.21\u0026plusmn;4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.57\u0026plusmn;1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.99+0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.2%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0469\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.68%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGlucose mg/dl)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e219.80\u0026plusmn;13.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e340.05\u0026plusmn;14.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e329.20\u0026plusmn;23.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.2%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValues are expressed as the means \u0026plusmn; SD. Data were analysed by one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026le; 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD: Standard- chow diet for 3weeks; HFD: High-fat diet for 3 weeks HSD: High-salt diet for 3 weeks\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShort period HSD consumption increases more richness of gut bacteria with more depletion of different gut bacteria compared to HFD intake\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsidering the significant impact of HFD and HSD on the key metabolic parameters of the pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome, we further investigated that these metabolic changes may be a sign of the changes in gut bacteria associated with the pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome. Therefore, we next examined how HFD and HSD can impact gut microbiota diversity.\u0026nbsp;Next, we examined the comparative impact on gut bacteria diversity by using the Alpha diversity indices. We obtained\u0026nbsp;an average of 280656 reads per sample after filtering, 561312 high-quality sequences. At 97% similarity, we found 14388 OTUs as shown in Table 3. The Shannon-Wiener curve in Figure 3 reached asymptotes that reflect the adequate sequencing depth of these samples. Tables 3 and Figure 3 summarize estimates of alpha diversity. We found a more significant increase in Chao1 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e=0.0205) in HSD fed mice compared to HFD fed mice which indicates a higher level of richness in the HSD fed mice group. On the other hand, the Shannon index was significantly lower in the HSD group (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001) than the HFD, indicating HSD decreased the diversity of specific gut bacteria compared to HSD-fed mice. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3 Comparative effect of high-fat (73% energy from fat) and high-salt (4%) diet effect on alpha diversity\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"623\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.088282504012842%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlpha diversity indices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"47.03049759229535%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGroups\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.881219903691814%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificance (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e value)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.92452830188679%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.92452830188679%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHFD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.62264150943396%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.150943396226415%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCD vs HFD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.339622641509434%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCD vs HSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.037735849056602%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHFD vs HSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.064102564102564%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOTUs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6468.76\u0026plusmn;568.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6543.45\u0026plusmn;634.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.666666666666668%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7844.45\u0026plusmn;1004.47\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.01923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0331\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0205\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.064102564102564%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChaos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8682.73\u0026plusmn;42.695\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9354.48\u0026plusmn;651.47\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.666666666666668%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10901.16\u0026plusmn;150.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.01923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0229\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.064102564102564%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShannon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.99\u0026plusmn;0.0132\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.19\u0026plusmn;0.055\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.666666666666668%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.86\u0026plusmn;0.029\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.01923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.064102564102564%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSimpson\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.933\u0026plusmn;1.110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.979\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.666666666666668%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.968\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.01923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValues are expressed as the means \u0026plusmn; SD. One-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, CD vs. HFD; CD vs HFD; HFD vs HSD, P \u0026le; 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD = Standard chow diet, HFD= High-fat diet, HSD=High- salt diet \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShort term HFD consumption induce pathophysiology of metabolic disorder related inflammation more while HSD cause gut inflammation more by changing of gut ecology\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter assessing the richness and diversity of gut bacteria involved in HFD and HSD treatment groups, we next investigated the relative abundance of the microbiota at the phylum level (Figure 4 and Table 4). The \u003cem\u003eF/B\u003c/em\u003e ratio in HFD-fed mice was significantly higher by accounting for an increase in the abundance of \u003cem\u003eFirmicutes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eand a depletion of Bacteroidetes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003ecompared with that\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eof HSD-fed mice. The relative abundance of \u003cem\u003eProteobacteria\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewas increased more in mice who received HSD than mice given HFD. The abundance of \u003cem\u003eTM7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eTenericutes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewas significantly higher in HSD-fed mice than in HFD-fed mice.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Verrucomicrobia\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewas significantly higher in HSD-fed mice than HFD-fed mice.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4 Comparative short-term high fat (73% energy from fat) and high-salt (4%) diets effect on the relative abundance of major phyla in mice\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"624\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.108974358974358%\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhylum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"42.467948717948715%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative abundance (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"39.42307692307692%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSignificance (\u003cem\u003eP-value\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.59099804305284%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.634050880626223%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHFD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.634050880626223%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.87279843444227%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCDvsHFD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.634050880626223%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCDvsHSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.634050880626223%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHFDvsHSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.108974358974358%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFirmicutes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.4\u0026plusmn;0.396\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.70\u0026plusmn; 0.467\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.40\u0026plusmn;0.499\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.108974358974358%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eProteobacteria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.50\u0026plusmn;0.263\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.80\u0026plusmn;.0.344\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.20\u0026plusmn;0.368\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.108974358974358%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBacteroidetes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.20\u0026plusmn;0.233\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.40\u0026plusmn;0.117\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.30\u0026plusmn;0.149\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.108974358974358%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eActinobacteria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.80\u0026plusmn;0.191\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.60 \u0026plusmn;0.294\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.30\u0026plusmn;0.290\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.108974358974358%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVerrucomicrobia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026plusmn;0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.40\u0026plusmn;0.244\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.108974358974358%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcidobacteria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026plusmn;0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60 \u0026plusmn;0.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u0026plusmn;0.099\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.108974358974358%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTM7\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.30\u0026plusmn;0.178\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.60\u0026plusmn;0.320\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.108974358974358%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTenericutes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u0026plusmn;0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.108974358974358%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF/B\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eratio\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.224358974358974%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.74\u0026plusmn;0.363\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.35\u0026plusmn;0.449\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.6\u0026plusmn;0.404\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValues are expressed as the means \u0026plusmn; SD. Data were analysed one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026le; 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD+ A.: High-salt diet for 3 weeks.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe identified 45, 63, and 71 families in each of the CD, HFD, and HSD groups, at the family level (Figure 5 and Table 5). HFD-fed mice showed a significantly higher increase in the abundance of \u003cem\u003eLactobacillaceae, Desulfovibrionaceae and\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eCoriobacteriaceae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ein comparison to HSD-fed mice. While HSD-fed mice showed a significantly higher increase in the abundance of \u003cem\u003eErysipelotrichiciae, F 16 and\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eVerrucomicrobiaceae.\u003c/em\u003e Further, \u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS24-7\u003c/em\u003e were depleted more in HFD-fed mice compared to HSD-fed mice.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eWhile HSD-fed mice more observed a significant decrease in the abundance of \u003cem\u003eClostridiaceae\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eRuminococcaceae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eas compared to HFD-fed mice\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e There was no significant difference in the relative abundance of \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e in HFD-fed mice and HSD-fed mice. Interestingly, the relative abundance of \u003cem\u003eBacteroidaceae\u003c/em\u003e did not differ between HFD-fed mice and HSD-fed mice.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5 Comparative short-term high fat (\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e73% energy from fat\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e) and high salt (4%) diets effect on the relative abundance microbiota at family level in mice\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"623\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.187800963081862%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFamily\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40.93097913322632%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative abundance (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.881219903691814%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSignificance (\u003cem\u003ep-value\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.276422764227643%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.276422764227643%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHFD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.276422764227643%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.447154471544716%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCDvsHFD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.447154471544716%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCDvsHSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.276422764227643%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHFDvsHSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLactobacillaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.50\u0026plusmn;0.207\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.20\u0026plusmn;0.359\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.50\u0026plusmn;0.278\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc Clostridiales\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.0\u0026plusmn;0.487\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.60\u0026plusmn;0.468\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.5\u0026plusmn;0.361\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClostridiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.90\u0026plusmn;0.235\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.90\u0026plusmn;0.215\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.10\u0026plusmn;0.143\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.40\u0026plusmn;0.329\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.70\u0026plusmn;0.231\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.80\u0026plusmn;0.322\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0098\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRuminococcaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.40\u0026plusmn;0.379\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.30\u0026plusmn;0.242\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.70\u0026plusmn;0.162\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErysipelotrichaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026plusmn;0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.80\u0026plusmn;0.089\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.20\u0026plusmn;0.222\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDesulfovibrionaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00\u0026plusmn;0.170\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.50\u0026plusmn;0.263\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.80\u0026plusmn;0.251\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u0026plusmn;0.083\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.90\u0026plusmn;0.094\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u0026plusmn;0.099\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0057\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBacteroidaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS24-7\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.10\u0026plusmn;0.198\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026plusmn;0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u0026plusmn;0.099\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoriobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.40\u0026plusmn;0.117\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.70\u0026plusmn;0.250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.10\u0026plusmn;0.219\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVerrucomicrobiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.40\u0026plusmn;0.244\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.153846153846153%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF16\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.30\u0026plusmn;0.178\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.60\u0026plusmn;0.320\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValues are expressed as the means \u0026plusmn; SD. Data were analysed by one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026le; 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD+ A.: High-salt diet for 3 weeks.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 21, 38, and 44 genera were found in CD, HFD, and HSD group samples, respectively (Figure 6 and Table 6). The species detected in these groups are presented in Table 7. HFD-fed mice showed a significantly higher increase in the relative abundance of \u003cem\u003eGranulicatella,\u0026nbsp;Lactobacillus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eStreptococcus,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eTuricibacte\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDorea, and Desulfovibrio,\u003c/em\u003e as compared to HSD-fed mice\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e Further, HFD-fed mice showed a significantly higher abundance of \u003cem\u003eRothia mucilaginosa\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ecompared to HFD-fed mice\u003cem\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eHSD-fed mice showed a significantly higher increase in the relative abundance of \u003cem\u003eClostridium\u003c/em\u003e, [\u003cem\u003eRuminococcus\u003c/em\u003e], \u003cem\u003eAllobaculum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHaemophilus\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Neisseria,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ePrevotell,\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAkkermansia in\u003c/em\u003e comparison to HFD-fed mice. Moreover, the relative abundance of \u003cem\u003e[Ruminococcus] gnavus, Akkermansia\u0026nbsp;muciniphila\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePrevotella melaninogenica\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eNeisseria subflava\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewas significantly higher in HSD-fed mice compared to HFD-fed mice. \u0026nbsp;HSD-fed mice showed a significant higher decrease in the relative abundance of \u003cem\u003eOscillospira\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eRuminococcus\u003c/em\u003e than HFD-fed mice. Interestingly the relative abundance of \u003cem\u003eBacteroides\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eremained the same in all groups.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6 Comparative short-term effect of high-fat (\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e73% energy from fat\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e) and high-salt (4%) diets effect on the relative abundance microbiota at genus level in mice\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"623\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.63242375601926%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGenus\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40.93097913322632%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative abundance at the genus level (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.43659711075441%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSignificance (\u003cem\u003ep-value\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.598343685300208%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.598343685300208%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHFD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.598343685300208%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eHSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.734989648033126%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCDvsHFD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.734989648033126%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCDvsHSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.734989648033126%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCDvsHSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc Gemellaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGranulicatella\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterococcus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLactobacillus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.50\u0026plusmn;0.207\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.2\u0026plusmn;0.359\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.50\u0026plusmn;0.278\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStreptococcus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u0026plusmn;0.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u0026plusmn;0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0341\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTuricibacter\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u0026plusmn;0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0041\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc Clostridiales\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.10\u0026plusmn;0.489\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.70\u0026plusmn;0.469\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.50\u0026plusmn;0.361\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc Clostridiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u0026plusmn;0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCandidatus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eArthromitus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.70\u0026plusmn;0.232\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.80\u0026plusmn;0.213\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClostridium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.40\u0026plusmn;0.117\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDehalobacterium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u0026plusmn;0.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc Lachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.50\u0026plusmn;0.293\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.50\u0026plusmn;0.156\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u0026plusmn;0.099\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBlautia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoprococcus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.80\u0026plusmn;0.089\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.80\u0026plusmn;0.089\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u0026plusmn;0.099\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0058\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0058\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[Ruminococcus]\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.10\u0026plusmn;0.104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.90\u0026plusmn;0.136\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.60\u0026plusmn;0.294\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc Peptostreptococcaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc Ruminococcaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.10\u0026plusmn;0.326\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.60\u0026plusmn;0.159\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.10\u0026plusmn;0.143\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDorea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOscillospir\u003c/em\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.80\u0026plusmn;0.132\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.10\u0026plusmn;0.173\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026plusmn;0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRuminococcus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.90\u0026plusmn;0.136\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u0026plusmn;0.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026plusmn;0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0465\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVeillonella\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErysipelotrichaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026plusmn;0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.90\u0026plusmn;0.136\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAllobaculum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026plusmn;0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.10\u0026plusmn;0.173\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNeisseria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026plusmn;0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEubacterium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhodobacter\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026plusmn;0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBilophila\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00+0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10+0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00+0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDesulfovibrio\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00\u0026plusmn;0.170\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.40\u0026plusmn;0261\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.80\u0026plusmn;0.251\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc Enterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026plusmn;0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u0026plusmn;0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u0026plusmn;0.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.80\u0026plusmn;0.089\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHaemophilus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026plusmn;0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026plusmn;0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0082\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBacteroides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePrevotella\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc S24-7\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.10\u0026plusmn;0.115\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026plusmn;0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u0026plusmn;0.999\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc Acidimicrobiales\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u0026plusmn;0.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc C111\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u0026plusmn;0.083\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026plusmn;0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u0026plusmn;0.083\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc \u0026nbsp;ACK-M1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.80\u0026plusmn;0.089\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u0026plusmn;0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u0026plusmn;0.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRothia\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00+0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u0026plusmn;0.083\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026plusmn;0063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBifidobacterium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00+0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00+0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026plusmn;0.044\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc Coriobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.70\u0026plusmn;0.162\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.60\u0026plusmn;0.125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAdlercreutzia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.30\u0026plusmn;0.113\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.90\u0026plusmn;0.193\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.40\u0026plusmn;0.181\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAkkermansia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00+0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.40\u0026plusmn;0.244\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc F16\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.30\u0026plusmn;0.178\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.60\u0026plusmn;0.320\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.596153846153847%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnc RF 39\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00+0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00+0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.621794871794872%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u0026plusmn;0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.179487179487179%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValues are expressed as the means \u0026plusmn; SD. Data were analysed by one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026le; 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD+ A.: High-salt diet for 3 weeks.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 7 Comparative short-term effect of high-fat (\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e73% energy from fat\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e) and high-salt (4%) diet on the relative abundance microbiota at the species level in mice\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"623\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.682182985553773%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.43659711075441%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative abundance (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.881219903691814%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSignificance (\u003cem\u003ep-value\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.344086021505376%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.344086021505376%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHFD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.344086021505376%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.344086021505376%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD vs HFD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.344086021505376%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCD vs HSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.27956989247312%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHFD vs HSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBlautia producta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.039\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.039\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[Ruminococcus] gnavus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.10\u0026plusmn;0.104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.90\u0026plusmn;0.136\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.60\u0026plusmn;0.294\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBrevundimonas diminuta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.039\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026plusmn;0.039\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNeisseria subflava\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026plusmn;0.054\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePrevotella melaninogenica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026plusmn;0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRothia mucilaginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u0026plusmn;0.083\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026plusmn;0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAkkermansia muciniphila\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026plusmn;0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.40\u0026plusmn;0.244\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.16%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.6%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValues are expressed as the means \u0026plusmn; SD. Data were analysed by one-way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni test, n = 6, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026le; 0.05, NS= Not significant, CD: Standard- chow diet for 3 weeks: High-fat diet for 3 weeks; HSD+ A.: High-salt diet for 3 weeks.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShort term HFD and HSD consumption cause non-significant histopathological changes in vital organs\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn order to determine whether HFD or HSD diets have a greater negative impact on essential organs, we performed histopathological studies on the heart, liver, and kidney (Figure 7). Heart photomicrographs of HFD-fed mice showed mild congestion in blood vessels while a slight cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and degenerative tissue changes were noticed in HSD-treated mice. The liver histology of mice fed HFD revealed mild congestion of the sinusoidal, central, and portal veins. There was a decrease in cell proliferation as well as oddly shaped cells in the liver of mice observations, however, were insufficient to conclude that HFD or HSD were more determinantal in the context of histopathological changes in vital organs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome induced by the consumption of a diet rich in fat and salt has become a major health concern due to the increasing risk of many chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. In the long run, a diet rich in fat and salt increases cholesterol levels, blood sugar levels, triglyceride levels, chronic inflammation, and modulation of gut ecology [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR36\" citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. The majority of people today consume modern food consciously or unconsciously, particularly processed foods. However, the short-term damaging effect of high-fat and high-salt diets on gut bacteria is still poorly explored. This understanding is very critical today as modern food contains more fat and salt than recommended by the WHO. Additionally, little is known about the comparative damaging effects of high-fat and high-salt diets on gut bacteria and associated health. Our objective was to investigate whether a high fat or high salt diet intake for a short time period of three weeks is more harmful in terms of health in a mice model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur research indicates that high taxonomic richness in HSD-fed mice contributed to the exclusive appearance of different specific gut bacteria such as \u003cem\u003eUnc Clostridiaceae, Neisseria, Prevotella, Bifidobacterium, Akkermansia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eUnc RF 39\u003c/em\u003e in comparison to HFD-fed mice and CD-fed mice. Nevertheless, HSD-fed mice showed a reduction in diversity, which contributes to inflammatory gut diseases in mice [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, many research studies have found that patients with gut inflammation have an overall loss of biodiversity due to the reduction of \u003cem\u003eFirmicutes\u003c/em\u003e and the increase of \u003cem\u003eProteobacteria\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR40 CR41 CR42 CR43 CR44 CR45 CR46 CR47 CR48 CR49 CR50 CR51 CR52 CR53 CR54 CR55\" citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. However, diversity was higher in HFD-fed mice due to specific gut bacteria namely \u003cem\u003eEnterococcus, Dorea\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eBilophila compared\u003c/em\u003e to HSD-fed mice and CD-fed mice. Additionally, the present study showed differences in gut microbiota composition between the three study groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur research indicates high taxonomic richness in HSD-fed mice contributed to the exclusive appearance of different specific gut bacteria such as \u003cem\u003eUnc Clostridiaceae, Neisseria, Prevotella, Bifidobacterium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAkkermansia, Unc RF 39\u003c/em\u003e in comparison to HFD-fed mice and CD-fed mice. In our study, we found that the \u003cem\u003eF/B\u003c/em\u003e ratio was significantly higher with higher levels of \u003cem\u003eFirmicutes\u003c/em\u003e and a decline in \u003cem\u003eBacteroidetes\u003c/em\u003e that could contribute to obesity-related metabolic inflammation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. However, HSD-fed mice exhibited more increase in the relative abundance of \u003cem\u003eProteobacteria\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTM7\u003c/em\u003e reported as indicators of intestinal dysbiosis and causing active inflammatory bowel disease [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. Our study indicate that HFD inclined more towards in the inducing the pathophysiology of obesity while HSD caused the pathophysiology of inflammatory gut diseases. Additionally, HSD-treated mice showed an increase in \u003cem\u003eVerrucomicrobia\u003c/em\u003e, which is crucial for maintaining host immunity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, HFD-fed mice showed a significantly higher increase in the relative abundance of \u003cem\u003eDesulfovibrionaceae\u003c/em\u003e known to associate with obesity and \u003cem\u003eCoriobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e considered commensal communities but some members associate with bile acid metabolism which leads to metabolic dysfunctions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Further a higher reduction of \u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS24-7\u003c/em\u003e linked to disruption of gut epithelial barrier integrity and metabolic endotoxemia was observed in HFD-fed mice [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study HSD fed mice showed a higher abundance of \u003cem\u003eErysipelotrichaceae\u003c/em\u003e that coincided with inflammation-related gastrointestinal disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, we also found in HSD-fed mice a lower abundance of \u003cem\u003eClostridiaceae\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eRuminococcaceae\u003c/em\u003e, which are positively associated with maintaining gut health. The significant decline of \u003cem\u003eClostridiaceae\u003c/em\u003e is associated with T2D while \u003cem\u003eRuminococcaceae\u003c/em\u003e prevail prominently in fibrolytic communities and maintain gut health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e]. HSD-fed mice also showed a higher relative abundance of \u003cem\u003eVerrucomicrobiaceae\u003c/em\u003e, which have been linked to improved immunoinflammatory functions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the genus level, we have consistently observed a high increase in the abundance of \u003cem\u003eGranulicatella, Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Turicibacte, Dorea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDesulfovibrio\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eOscillospira\u003c/em\u003e in HFD-fed mice and at the species level [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR67 CR68\" citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e]. There are also several reports suggesting that \u003cem\u003eLactobacillus\u003c/em\u003e abundance plays an active role in obesity and chronic inflammation associated with diabetes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, the majority of the above-mentioned gut microbes play a significant role in metabolic syndrome pathogenesis. \u003cem\u003eLactobacillus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTuricibacter\u003c/em\u003e abundance positively correlate with blood glucose levels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, the increase in \u003cem\u003eDesulfovibrio\u003c/em\u003e is associated with insulin resistance [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR72\" citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e]. Likewise, the enrichment of \u003cem\u003eStreptococcus, Granulicatella\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAllobaculm\u003c/em\u003e is linked to metabolic diseases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Likewise, \u003cem\u003eDesulfovibrio\u003c/em\u003e increase is associated with insulin resistance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. A similar association has been found that enrichment of \u003cem\u003eStreptococcus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eGranulicatella\u003c/em\u003e, and metabolic diseases [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR75\" citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e]. A positive correlation exists between \u003cem\u003eOscillospira\u003c/em\u003e and fasting serum insulin levels and a reduction in the levels of mRNA expression of \u003cem\u003eZonula occludens-1\u003c/em\u003e (ZO-1) that prevents solute leakage from the gastrointestinal tract [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. A striking observation was the reduction of \u003cem\u003eLactobacillus reuteri\u003c/em\u003e in HFD-fed mice, which prevents pathogen growth in the intestine[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e]. Further, HFD-fed mice showed a significant higher abundance of \u003cem\u003eRothia mucilaginosa\u003c/em\u003e, considered an emerging opportunistic pathogen [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e]. Our data suggest that HFD contributes to metabolic syndrome pathophysiology of obesity-related metabolic disorders by decreasing insulin signalling and intestinal barrier integrity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur genus-level results confirmed that HSD causes more abundance of gut microbiota, including \u003cem\u003eClostridium, [Ruminococcus], Allobaculum, Klebsiella, Haemophilus, Neisseria, Prevotella\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAkkermansia\u003c/em\u003e. HSD-fed mice showed a decrease in abundance of \u003cem\u003eRuminococcus gnavus, which is\u003c/em\u003e known to produce a polysaccharide that stimulates inflammatory cytokines and induces inflammatory bowel disease. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. A well-known correlation exists between \u003cem\u003eAllobaculum\u003c/em\u003e and ANGPTL4 expression that contributes to obesity-related metabolic disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e]. There are many \u003cem\u003eClostridium\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHaemophilus\u003c/em\u003e strains that cause disease in humans [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. There is evidence that \u003cem\u003eKlibsiella\u003c/em\u003e can cause gut inflammation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, this study found that \u003cem\u003eNeisseria subflava\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePrevotella\u003c/em\u003e melanogenic were significantly abundant in mice fed HSD. There is growing recognition that \u003cem\u003eNeisseria subflava\u003c/em\u003e reflects a shift in the microbial community towards acid-secreting bacteria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. A study of humanized mice indicated that \u003cem\u003ePrevotella\u003c/em\u003e melanogenic causes gut inflammation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e82\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, our data suggest that HSD increases the majority of bacteria known to play an active role in gut inflammatory diseases. Consistently, our study also found a significant finding that the composition of \u003cem\u003eBacteroides\u003c/em\u003e gut bacteria did not affect HSD diet as reported by previous studies that had a salt-tolerance gene [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, it is significant to note that even HFD feeding for 3 consecutive weeks did not increase \u003cem\u003eBacteroides\u003c/em\u003e counts in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe gut microbiota regulates energy homeostasis and their composition and diversity are correlated with insulin sensitivity and host glycemic control [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. There have been several studies that have found that long-term consumption of HFD or HSD has adverse effects on biochemical health [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR84 CR85\" citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e86\u003c/span\u003e]. Both HFD-fed mice and HSD-fed mice showed an increase in blood glucose levels. Importantly, we found that. HFD intake even for short periods elevated blood glucose levels contrary to previous studies that required long-term consumption of 30\u0026ndash;90 days and 18 months [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e87\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e88\u003c/span\u003e]. We believe that the increase in the abundance of \u003cem\u003eGranulicatella, Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Turicibacter, Desulfovibrio\u003c/em\u003e and depletion of \u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS24-7 in\u003c/em\u003e HFD-fed mice is the reason for the increase in serum glucose level because these gut bacteria have a role in the development of insulin resistance. Similarly, HSD increases the abundance of specific gut microbiota such as \u003cem\u003eLactobacillus, Streptococcus, Ruminococcus gnavus, Allobaculum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eDesulfovibrio\u003c/em\u003e known to decrease insulin sensitivity caused an increase in blood glucose level. HSD also increases the abundance of specific gut bacteria, such as \u003cem\u003eLactobacillus, Streptococcus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRuminococcus gnavus, Allobaculum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eDesulfovibrio\u003c/em\u003e, known to decrease insulin sensitivity and raise blood glucose levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have shown that gut microbiota dysbiosis directly affects cholesterol metabolism [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e89\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e90\u003c/span\u003e]. Our study demonstrated that HFD modulates gut bacteria leading to high circulating serum total cholesterol levels. We found a decrease in the abundance of \u003cem\u003eLactobacillus reuteri\u003c/em\u003e implicated for the cholesterol-lowering effect by conversion of uncoupled bile acids into secondary bile acids to control serum cholesterol levels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e91\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e92\u003c/span\u003e]. HFD-fed mice also displayed a depletion of \u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e families known to have a positive correlation with total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e93\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e94\u003c/span\u003e]. Further HFD-fed mice also showed an increase in the abundance of \u003cem\u003eCoriobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eErysipelotrichaceae\u003c/em\u003e, known to have positive correlations with host cholesterol metabolites [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e95\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e96\u003c/span\u003e]. We found that HSD-fed mice showed increased levels of serum triglycerides and glucose metabolites associated with endothelial dysfunction, which contributed to the short-term increase in total cholesterol. In addition, several studies suggest the gut microbiota can alter blood lipid composition, particularly cholesterol, via gut bacteria-related metabolites [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR98\" citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e97\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e99\u003c/span\u003e]. Also, we observed higher abundances of \u003cem\u003eLactobacillus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eStreptococcus\u003c/em\u003e in the gut microbiota reported in cardiovascular diseases (CVD) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e100\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, we found that higher abundances of \u003cem\u003eErysipelotrichaceae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCoriobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e correlated with higher plasma cholesterol levels in both human and animal models [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e96\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR102 CR103\" citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e101\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e104\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR117\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e117\u003c/span\u003e]. As a result of our study HFD caused a relatively higher significant increase in blood cholesterol when compared with HSD-fed mice, in which we observed increased abundances of \u003cem\u003eBifidobacterium\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e implicated with reductions in total cholesterol levels [95,96.105].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere has been substantial evidence that high salt intake leads to progressive impairment of renal function either through BP-dependent or independent mechanisms [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR107\" citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e106\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR108\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e108\u003c/span\u003e]. Our study consistently demonstrated an increase in creatinine levels in mice receiving HSD [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e109\u003c/span\u003e]. In our study HSD increased metabolic factors, such as glucose and triglycerides, which cause endothelial dysfunction by increasing oxidative stress and decreasing nitric oxide bioavailability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR109\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e109\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, endothelial remodeling can adversely affect renal hemodynamics by reducing glomerular filtration efficiency, which leads to higher blood creatinine levels. Conclusively on the biochemical parameters, we found that HFD was associated with a greater increase in plasma total cholesterol (TC), a known risk factor for coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, and stroke as compared to HSD. While HSD is more harmful to the kidneys because an increase in creatinine level indicates kidney failure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have shown a negative impact of long-term consumption of HFD and HSD on hematological parameters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR114\" citationid=\"CR113\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e113\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR115\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e115\u003c/span\u003e]. This study investigated whether short-term intake of HFD or HSD has a more detrimental effect on hematological parameters. Our results indicated that both HSD and HFD adversely affect hematological profiles. However, mice fed HFD showed a slight more decline in WBCs compared to mice fed HSD. Lower WBC counts in HFD-fed mice indicate that HFD may suppress the immune system more than HSD. A photomicrograph of the heart section from mice fed either HFD or HSD did not show any significant histopathological changes. Similarly, liver and kidney of HFD and HSD-fed mice showed no significant histopathology difference. Our study indicates that short-term increases in HSD or HFD diet could have transient effects on the biochemical profile. Nonetheless, long-term consumption of HFD or HSD may cause permanent damage to vital organs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, the present study showed that even short perturbation of HFD and HSD intensively disturb the gut bacteria ecology. Further, our results indicate that HSD causes a more substantial alteration of gut bacteria than HFD. HFD change the composition and diversity of gut bacteria and, which are known to induce the pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome related inflammation. Further, HFD was linked to a greater increase in plasma total cholesterol (TC), an established risk factor for coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, and stroke. HSD increased more the relative abundance of specific gut microbes that are known to contribute to metabolic disease-related inflammation while HSD caused an increase in the majority of those bacteria known to play an active role in gut inflammation. Moreover, we observed some beneficial bacteria being increased in the HSD diet. While, HSD is more detrimental to the kidneys, since an increase in creatinine levels indicates kidney disease. Furthermore, mice fed either HFD or HSD showed minimal and insignificant pathological changes in their hearts, livers, and kidneys. These preliminary studies, however, had several limitations. Firstly, this study was conducted on mice and cannot be applied to humans. Second, we also reduced the sample size of caecal contents per group, and tested their relative proportions in the total population of bacteria for cost-effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eCD: Standard chow diet\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHSD: High-salt diet\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHFD: High-fat diet\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHb: Haemoglobin\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRBC: Red blood cells\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMCH: Mean corpuscular haemoglobin\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHCT: Haematocrit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMCV: Mean corpuscular volume\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWBC: White blood cells\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eALT: Alanine aminotransferase\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAST: Aspartate aminotransferase\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTG: Triglycerides\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTC: Total cholesterol\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCVD: cardiovascular diseases\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLDL: Low-density lipoprotein\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF/B\u003c/em\u003e: \u003cem\u003eFirmicutes/Bacteroidetes\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eT2D: Type 2 diabetes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZO-1: Zonula occludens-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eANGPTL4: Angiopoietin-related protein\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNO\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e:\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNitric oxide\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOTUs: Operating taxonomic units\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIAEC: Institutional Animal Ethics Committee\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWHO:\u0026nbsp;World Health Organization\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAIIMS:\u0026nbsp;All India Institute of Medical Science\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSD:\u0026nbsp;Standard deviation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eANOVA: Analysis of variance\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe greatly appreciate Dr. Vikram Saini (All India Institute of Medical Science, New Delhi, India) for guiding the experiment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability: \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this manuscript. Metadata is available at: https://dataview.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/object/PRJNA821450?reviewer= spn10eelulrond 90jtemfqqpkg in read-only format.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eS.K. conducted the research and analyzed the data. R.P.P., C.M.C. and V.S. contributed to the conceptualization and design of the research and critically revising the manuscript. All authors read and approved the fnal manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis research was funded by VtR Inc-CGU (SCRPD1L0221), DOXABIO-CGU (SCRPD1K0131), and a CGU grant (UZRPD1L0011, UZRPD1M0081).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest: \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eM. Fitzpatrick, \u0026ldquo;Junk food,\u0026rdquo; Lancet (London, England), vol. 363, no. 9413, p. 1000, 2004, doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15815-7.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eR. Ahirwar and P. R. Mondal, \u0026ldquo;Prevalence of obesity in India: A systematic review,\u0026rdquo; Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Clin. Res. 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Biomed Pharmacother. 2021 Sep;141:111943.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"High-Salt Diet, High fat diet, Gut microbiota and Metabolic syndrome","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3341945/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3341945/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eCurrent research shows that consuming high-fat and salt that are now the main ingredients of modern diets over a period of time can disrupt the gut ecosystem, leading to metabolic imbalances and metabolic diseases. However, which component of modern diets, such as high-fat and high-salt consumption for a short duration, is more harmful to health based on its impact on gut bacteria and associated health outcomes is still poorly explored. This study aimed to determine which of high fat or high salt is more detrimental to health by feeding mice HFD and HSD diets for a short period of 3 weeks. To address these wide knowledge gaps, we conducted a high-throughput sequencing study to see how gut microbiota profile changes in HFD or HSD-fed mice. Further, we also investigated whether high fat or high salt is more detrimental to health. \u0026nbsp;In this study, the mice were fed a standard chow diet (CD), HFD and HSD for 3 weeks. Animals were euthanized and examined of haemato-biochemical and histopathological attributes. We also used 16S rRNA sequencing followed by bioinformatics analysis to evaluate the changes in gut microbiota ecology. Interestingly, this study found that HFD or HSD feeding for a short duration induces the pathophysiological attributes of a typical metabolic syndrome as indicated by serum biochemistry and significantly modifies gut microbiota in mice. We concluded that HSD causes significantly more changes in gut bacteria than HFD due to a diminution of beneficial gut bacteria and an enrichment of harmful gut bacteria. We found that HFD led to a more significant increase in plasma total cholesterol (TC), a known risk factor for heart disease, stroke, and atherosclerosis. While HSD is more detrimental to the kidneys, since an increase in creatinine levels indicates kidney disease. Furthermore, mice fed HFD or HSD for a short duration showed minimal and insignificant pathological changes in their hearts, livers, and kidneys.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessing the short-term impact of a high-fat, high-salt diet on the gut bacteria and related pathophysiology in mice","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2023-09-13 15:38:37","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3341945/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"dc1c0871-97c3-4474-b25c-c64ade21f486","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 13th, 2023","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-03-27T05:12:19+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2023-09-13 15:38:37","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3341945","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3341945","identity":"rs-3341945","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"FbvkV6FR0MCFSLy54lSbu","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}