Shrinking Rice Bowls: Tracing the Decline of Philippine Rice Lands

Shrinking Rice Bowls: Tracing the Decline of Philippine Rice Lands | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review Shrinking Rice Bowls: Tracing the Decline of Philippine Rice Lands Albino Taer This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3927443/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Rice farming is a pillar of food security, livelihoods, and cultural heritage across the Philippines. However, available rice lands face mounting pressures. This systematic review synthesizes evidence on factors driving the decline of Philippine rice lands over the past 30 years (1993-2023). Literature was retrieved from academic databases and grey sources, screened for relevance, and analyzed following PRISMA guidelines. Results reveal both natural and anthropogenic threats to rice lands: recurrent typhoons, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and flooding periodically damage rice areas. However, human activities dominated the drivers of rice land loss and degradation. Rapid urbanization and sprawl have directly converted 30-50% of rice lands near cities over recent decades. Agricultural policies and shifting profitability spurred farmers to convert paddies to aquaculture, cash crops, and other uses. Inadequate irrigation leaves 30% of lands dry. Deforestation disrupts water supplies essential for traditional wet rice cultivation, prompting abandonment. Groundwater over-extraction causes subsidence, enhancing flood risks and infrastructure damage. Deteriorating iconic Cordillera rice terraces face erosion and landslides after abandonment. Integrated land use planning is urgently needed to safeguard sufficient rice lands and support climate-resilient, sustainable intensification. Stronger protection of agricultural zones, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, and farmers’ adaptation incentives can help secure rice farming livelihoods and long-term food self-sufficiency, given the projected pressures of urbanization and climate change across the Philippines’ rice lands. Agricultural Economics & Policy Food Science & Technology Agroecology Rice land loss Land use change Agricultural land conversion Drivers of rice land decline Philippine rice lands Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. INTRODUCTION Rice forms the basis for the diet and pillar of food security on the Filipino population. The industry employs about 25% of the workforce of the Philippines. Nevertheless, rice production has been dwindling in the country, resulting into high rice prices and consequently, rising inflation as well as endangering food security and livelihoods. This rice shortage is most likely due to some problems such as production problems, policy problems, weather disruptions and use change of land. According to the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), rice inflation hit a 14-year high in September 2022 despite price control measures (Cordero, 2023 ). Smuggling and hoarding can also reduce market supply and cause price instability (Nair & Eapen, 2012 ). Domestic production struggles to meet demand, even with expected increased yields. The impact of the rice tariffication law (RTL) led to a surge in rice imports, making the Philippines the world's largest rice importer in 2019, while domestic rice farmers faced lower prices and income due to increased imports (Ocampo & Pobre, 2021 ). Moreover, high global rice prices are due to factors such as crude oil prices, severe weather, biofuel production, mismanagement, and lack of investment in agriculture (Mendoza, 2008 ). Additionally, the conversion and reclassification of agricultural land driven by urbanization and real estate development may play a significant role in reducing rice lands. Numerous studies have emphasized that both natural phenomena and human-induced factors have significantly contributed to land loss. Though human activities dominate land conversion, periodic natural disasters degrade Philippine rice lands, such as recurring typhoons causing floods and landslides, sporadic volcanic eruptions, intensifying monsoon rains triggering landslides, and prolonged wet seasons (Rodolfo & Umbal, 2008 ; Bacudo et al., 2012; Bailey-Serres et al., 2010 ; Cinco et al., 2016 ). Agricultural land conversion and reclassification are major contributors to rice shortages in the Philippines and beyond (Moya et al., 1994 ; Agus, 2006 ; Quasem, 2011 ; Rosada, 2016 ). The accelerating rate of agricultural land conversion poses a threat to food security and increases reliance on imports. Land use changes have caused rice production declines in provinces such as Bulacan, Laguna, and South Sulawesi. Urbanization and development often convert highly productive rice lands into non-agricultural uses, directly reducing available farmland. Despite the potential impact of natural and human factors, comprehensive research examining how natural disasters, agricultural land conversion, and reclassification affect Philippine rice production is lacking. This study aims to fill that gap by conducting an in-depth analysis of the relationship between natural calamities, anthropological events, and rice production and offering valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders involved in agricultural planning and food security. 2. METHODS 2.1. Objectives The study attempts to track research and reports on natural and human-induced factors contributing to the diminishing lands for rice cultivation in the Philippines during the last 30 years (1993–2023) through a systematic literature review of research articles and publications from international and local databases. 2.2. Search strategy We accessed academic databases such as Science Direct, Web of Science, and Google Scholar where we utilized a combination of keywords and search terms, including “abandonment,” “volcanic eruption,” “migration,” “landslide,” “selling and abandonment,” “soil erosion,” “flooding,” “topography, geography,” “shift of cultivation,” “land conversion,” “urbanization,” “infrastructure development,” “Lack of infrastructure,” “fallow land,” “rice land,” “paddy,” “rice field,” and “Philippines.” We checked official government websites, international organizations, university publications, and research institutions. Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) were applied to refine search queries, and truncation filters were used for publication date ranges 1993–2023 (30 years) to ensure past and present information. Furthermore, we employed snowballing techniques by scrutinizing reference lists and tracking citations to uncover newer articles that cited similar works. The search strategy also encompassed grey literature, including reports, working papers, and conference proceedings, to capture a comprehensive nationwide perspective on the diminishing rice land areas in the Philippines. 2.3. Scope and definitions The research question was formulated using the PICO framework (Richardson et al., 1995 ) and was directed by the systematic PRISMA methodology (Page et al., 2021 ), ensuring a thorough and comprehensive investigation. This review aims to address the factors that have contributed to the decreasing rice lands in the Philippines over the past 30 years, which have resulted in rice insufficiency. Table 1 PICO framework utilization for the development of the research question Problem (P) Decreasing rice lands in the Philippines Intervention (I) State policies on conservation and sustainable development Comparison (C) Diversification, zoning, sustainable development, rehabilitation, and preservation approaches Outcome (O) Identify the appropriate intervention that has the potential to a lasting development 2.4. Exclusion and inclusion criteria The selected studies needed to address the central research question about the causes of diminishing rice lands in the Philippines and provide substantial insights into the topic, including aspects related to land use changes induced by nature and anthropogenic factors and rice cultivation. Studies focused on the Philippines or its regions were taken. Various study types, such as academic research, government reports, and publications from reputable international organizations, were included. Excluded were studies that did not relate to the central research question. Detailed inclusion and exclusion criteria are tabulated in Table 2 and Fig. 1 . 2.5. Data cleansing and analysis Search results based on keywords were exported in CSV format and then analyzed, cleansed, and duplicates were removed using MS Excel. The detailed article selection process for the systematic literature review is presented in a flowchart in Fig. 1 . A table of evidence (ToE) matrix was constructed from the relevant articles for further inference and interpretation and is presented in Tables 3, 4 , and 5 . Table 2 Inclusion and exclusion criteria used in this study. Inclusion Exclusion Studies and reports involve land use change by natural phenomenon and human-induced factors Studies associated with land use change but do not involve rice land loss Articles published within 30-years (1993–2023) Studies involve rice land loss outside Philippine Rice yield loss related to soil fertility and nutrient loss Studies investigate how natural conditions can render land unsuitable for rice cultivation. Conversion of agricultural land only without assessment of rice land loss Rice production loss by disasters without direct impact on rice land 3. RESULTS 3.1. Articles retrieved A total of 188 articles were initially identified for thorough scrutiny. Twelve pieces were removed due to duplications and ineligibility. Of the 176 that remained, 146 articles were excluded for reasons detailed in the study selection process outlined in the methodology. Further, the 30 remaining articles were deducted by two due to no available full text. After this comprehensive screening process, 28 articles remained for the complete review (Fig. 1 ). Figure 2 shows the authors retrieved 28 reports from 8 different sources using various keywords and search methods. Most articles were sourced from Scopus, and none were in Web of Science. Only two pieces were obtained from the local research institution/university. Out of the 28 articles, four were extracted from local and international news sources, three from Google Scholar, four from books, and one from a dissertation/master's thesis. The review of the 28 selected articles revealed that 7 out of 28 (25%) of the articles discussed factors contributing to rice land loss caused by nature (Table 4 ), while the majority of the pieces (21 out of 28, or 75%) focused on human-induced factors leading to rice land decline (Table 5 ). This breakdown indicates that most current literature explores anthropogenic reasons for rice land loss in the Philippines rather than natural causes. The seven articles that examine nature-induced causes delved into geographic location, periodic natural disasters like typhoons and volcanic eruptions, and their subsequent impacts on critical rice-growing regions across the Philippines. However, the predominance of research centered on human activities and policies that have accelerated rice land degradation, including urbanization, agricultural land conversion, abandonment/idling, and shift of cultivation. 4. DISCUSSION 4.1. Nature-Induced Factors 4.1.1. Geographical location Rice lands across different geographical regions of the Philippines, primarily in Luzon, are impacted by several natural factors related to the country's location and terrain (Dawe, 2006 ; Mamiit et al., 2021 ). For instance, the report of Dawe ( 2006 ) argued that geography is the key factor behind why the Philippines imports rice. As an archipelagic nation comprised of islands without major river delta regions suitable for rice cultivation, the Philippines lacks the ideal geography for rice production compared to major rice-exporting countries in Southeast Asia. The major traditional rice exporters like Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Myanmar are located on the Asian mainland with expansive river deltas. In contrast, countries that have consistently imported rice for over a century, like the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Japan, Korea, and Malaysia, are islands or peninsulas without sizable delta areas conducive to rice farming. The Philippines' status as an archipelago places it at a disadvantage for domestic rice production compared to mainland countries with major rice-growing river deltas. Thailand has about four times the quantity of arable land per person as the Philippines. Consistent importers have less arable land per person and more varied landscapes favoring such alternatives as corn, oil palm, or coconut. All consistent rice importers plant less than half of their crop area to rice. In contrast, countries that produce more than half of rice are consistent exporters. According to the World Bank (2021a), the Philippines had approximately 0.05 hectares of arable land per person which translates to approximately 5.59 million hectares of arable land which is much lower than 0.24 ha, 0.25 ha, and 0.20 ha arable per person in Thailand, Cambodia, and Myanmar, respectively. The total land in the Philippines covers 298,170 square kilometers whereas, the agricultural area is 122,600 square kilometers amounting to 41.1%. Only 9.3% of this farmland was irrigated rice lands. Although more recent 2021 data shows total land area at 298,170 square kilometers, entire agricultural land has slightly increased to 126,830 square kilometers which now accounts 42.2% of the total land area (World Bank, 2021b ). However, updated data on the specific extent of irrigated rice lands is unavailable (World Bank, 2021c ). Over the past decade, the minimal expansion of agricultural land as a percentage of total land, from 41.1–42.2%, indicates limited conversion of new areas to cultivation. Though agricultural land has increased somewhat in absolute terms, the lack of appreciable growth proportionally suggests negligible gains in arable land that could be used for rice farming. Without updated metrics on irrigated rice lands, it is difficult to ascertain whether this subset has diminished or kept pace with broader agricultural land expansion. The static total land area coupled with modest agricultural land growth implies restricted potential for new rice lands in the Philippines due to spatial limitations. 4.1.2. Recurring typhoon-induced rainfall The Philippines has a typhoon frequency in the region of 20 annually, with frequent and intense tropical cyclones (Cinco et al., 2016 ). The Philippines are amongst the highest of typhoon activity and risk in the global Western Pacific Basin (Kubota & Chan, 2009 ). Typhoon season peaks from July to October, with August having the highest frequency of events (Cinco et al., 2014 ). During the last fifty years, cyclones have affected the entire country, particularly central and northern Luzon as well as eastern Visayas (Dado and Takahashi, 2017 ). The heavy rain, flooding, storm surges and landslides cause loss of life and widespread damage as a result of the typhoons (Kang et al., 2021 ). Between 2006 and 2015, Philippine tropical cyclones resulted in over 18,000 deaths as per Pimiento (2018). Philippines is highly vulnerable to these climatological hazards, especially the tropical cyclone, Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) caused destruction, killed thousands of people in 2013 (Holden et al., 2017 ). Agriculture, property, and infrastructure suffer billions in economic losses annually (Kubota and Chan, 2009 ). While no significant trend in typhoon frequency exists, recent decades have shown rising intensity, slower movement, and increased storm rainfall (Cinco et al., 2016 ). Climate hazards like typhoons, floods, and droughts also contribute to rice land decline. Peñalba and Elazegui ( 2013 ) highlight that the Philippines experiences around 20 typhoons annually, with increasing storm intensity over time. Resulting flooding and landslides cause damage and burial of low-lying ricelands. Changing environmental conditions like warmer seas may impact future typhoon characteristics and effects. The Philippines' geography exposes it to recurring typhoons with severe humanitarian and economic consequences. Table 4 Nature-induced factors that contributes to diminishing lands for rice production in the Philippines Diminishing factors Driving factors Location Period Effects Mentioned Total area affected Mitigation Measures Reference Limited arable land Geographical characteristics, islands, slopes, limited river deltas Not specified Not specified Varied landscapes and expansive river deltas unsuitable land for rice production. Not specified Enhancing irrigation systems, high-yielding rice varieties, agricultural research and development, and farmer support programs. (Mamiit et al., 2021 ) Land slides Lahar mudslides Zambales, Pampanga, Tarlac Provinces 1991, 1993 and 1996 mudflows. Rice paddies covered with volcanic materials in subsequent mudflows. Not specified Rehabilitation of paddies and cannals (U.S. Geological Survey, 1996) Land slides Monsoon rainfall Ifugao 2011 Reports Angle of the terrace slopes damaged by run-off water discharge and landslides triggered by monsoon rains. Not specified The province needs to raise more than P100 million to restore the terraces and revive the economy for 2,000 farmers (Philippine Daily Inquirer, 2011 , November) Land slides Remobilized lahar Mt. Mayon areas 2009 reports Heavy rains from Supertyphoon remobilized volcanic debris on the southern and eastern slopes of Mount Mayon Not specified Improving of dikes, analysis and mapping of lahars, and using remote sensing techniques as early warning systems (Paguican et al., 2009 ) Prolong submergence Extended flooding Apalit, Pampanga 2012–2013 Data observations Extended flood and longer submergence decreased irrigated lowlands. 1500 hectares or 25% of the municipality Use flood-tolerant and tall rice varieties, and appropriate rice zoning. (Toda et al., 2017 ) Rainfall and earthquake-triggered Rainfall and earthquake-triggered landslide Guinsaugon, Leyte 2006 Massive landslide in Guinsaugon, Leyte, Philippines Not specified Not specified (Lagmay et al., 2006 ) Soil Erosion 11% slopes Not specified Not specified Soil erosion reducing land for rice production significantly impacted on food security 57% of the Philippines has a slope of 11% has erosion rate of 400 t/ha-year. Research on soil conservation methods, and careful management of soil erosion. (Pimentel, 2006 ) Table 5 Human-induced factors that contributes to diminishing lands for rice production in the Philippines Factors Driving factor/s Location Period Covered Effects Mentioned Total area affected Mitigation Measures Reference Change in agricultural practices Shift to non-crop Nationwide Not specified Diversification to non-crop changes in the use of rice fields. Not specified The focus is on the concept of diversification to response declining profitability. (Pingali, 1993) Change in agricultural practices Deforestation Benguet 2011 reports Transition from rice to high-value vegetable farming in Benguet Not specified Community-based Forest management (CBFM) strategy Follosco, A. G. ( 2011 ) Land conversion residential, commercial, and industrial use Laguna and Bulacan 1971–1992 reports An annual decrease in rice production of about 21% 50% decrease in rice area Not specified (Moya et al., 1994 ) Land conversion residential, commercial, and industrial use Metro Manila 1998 reports Conversion without the knowledge of the Department of Agrarian Reform 50,000 hectares converted since 1988 Review the decentralization of power on land conversion decision (Kelly, 1998 ) Land conversion Industrial estates and residential sub-divisions Philippines 30-years period Converting rice lands to non-agricultural use 10,000 has. of rice land Improve irrigation, high-yielding technologies, reduce population growth, regulate land conversion (Fernandez, 2001 ) Land conversion Encroachment of rice terraces Rice Terraces of Cordilleras 2011 Reports Loss of rice agriculture due to development and infrastructure. Not specified Conservation of cultural and natural values. (Mananghaya, 2011 ) Land conversion industrialization Silang-Santa Rosa River Sub-watershed 1993–2008 land cover changes The conversion of rice fields for industrial and residential Not specified Projection of future land cover based on the patterns of land cover changes. (Engay-Gutierrez, 2015 ) Abandon and idle land unirrigated Nationwide 1974–2012 reports 30% of the country rice fields remain unirrigated 30% reduction Rehabilitation of irrigation and solely focus on total service expansion (Delos Reyes et al., 2015 ) Abandon and idle land inadequate irrigation infrastructure Leyte 2016 reports Substantial portion of rice lands were left idle due to inadequate irrigation infrastructure 61% were rainfed and only 39% irrigated. Expanding irrigation infrastructure could potentially allow more of these idle lands to be cultivated. (Dargantes et al., 2016 ) Table 5 Continued… Factors Driving factor/s Location Period Covered Effects Mentioned Total area affected Mitigation Measures Reference Urban sprawl Population growth/urbanization Nationwide 1988–2016 97,592.5 hectares converted to nonagricultural use 1988–2016, a total of 97,592.5 hectares converted to nonagricultural use Improve household adaptive capacity to a changing climate particularly extreme event (Peñalba and Elazegui, 2013 ) Urban sprawl encroachment on rice lands near cities Marikina City, San Jose del Monte City, San Mateo, and Montalban Not specified Urban expansion and housing developments extinct soil series suitable for rice production. 3,500 hectares or approximately 31% of the total land area Land use planning and management to prevent agricultural land conversion into housing subdivisions. (Carating et al., 2014 ) Abandon and idle land Inadequate irrigation Pampanga 2020 reports The discrepancy between the design service areas and the actual irrigated areas Decreasing area between dry and wet season Not specified (Tabios III & de Leon, 2020) Urban sprawl urban expansion and sprawl Metro Manila 1982–1997 Rapid population growth led to urban sprawl Not specified Control and manage urban growth, promote sustainable development, protect agricultural land (Murakami & Palijon, 2005 ) Urban sprawl Population growth/urbanization Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao 1998–2016 97,592.5 hectares of agricultural land were converted in 1998 and 2016. 80.6 percent land in Luzon, 7.8 percent in Visayas, and 11.6 percent in Mindanao A bill has been filed in 2019 to regulate land conversion (Cabildo et al., 2017 ) Urban sprawl Urbanization National Capital Region Last 20 years Drastic decline in rice cultivation. Not specified Preserve agricultural lands, sustain food production and promote urban agriculture. (Bravo, 2017 ) Abandon and idle land Migration to urban areas Ifugao 2018 Report Migration to urban areas abandoned terraces and irrigation systems. 25 to 30 percent of the terraces Significant rehabilitation, restoration process, and sustainable tourism (National Geographic, 2018 ) Table 5 . Continued… Factors Driving factor/s Location Period Covered Effects Mentioned Total area affected Mitigation Measures Reference Abandon and idle land Selling of land and abandoned Nationwide 2020 Report Decrease palay output due to selling of farmland and abandonment 1.4 million hectares lost since 1995. Boost rice production, government subsidy, increased yield and reduced production cost. (Miraflor, 2020 ) Change in agricultural practices Introduction and proliferation cash crops Sarangani uplands 2019 Alternative cash crops displaced traditional rice landraces and rice areas. Not specified Collect and preserve the remaining traditional rice varieties. (Zapico et al., 2020 ). Abandon and shift of cultivation Abandon and shift to other crops Banaue 2021 Reports Abandon or convert their rice fields for more profitable crops 540 of the total 1,607 hectares Preserve rice terraces and forests, sustainable livelihoods, and stopping the use of invasive tree species. Dunaway & Macabuac, 2022 Change in agricultural practices Deforestation Bohol 1996 abandon irrigated rice paddies to maize and other crops Not specified Urich, P. B. ( 1996 ) Land conversion Lower prices agricultural land and insufficient irrigation Butuan City 2014–2016 Butuan City's rice production is inadequate 89.031 hectares agricultural land converted Review zoning plan, implement Ag-Land Protection Program. (Pia, 2021 ) 4.1.3. Catastrophic mudflows of Mt. Pinatubo The Philippines, situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire, faces significant volcanic hazards, with over 20 active volcanoes scattered across the archipelago (Sasidharan & Dhillon, 2022 ). Historically, volcanic eruptions have caused tremendous damage to agriculture, infrastructure, and communities in the Philippines (Newhall & Punongbayan, 1996 ). Rice farms in Zambales, Pampanga, and Tarlac were damaged sporadically by volcanic eruptions in 1991, 1993, and 1996 showing that the cataclysmic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines deposited more than one cubic mile of ash and debris on the volcano’s slopes, leading to the impact of almost one million people (U.S. Geological Survey, 1996). The eruption produced extensive lahars, giant mudflows of volcanic material and water. Lahars form when water mixes with the loose ash and debris left by an explosion. They can be highly hazardous and destructive as they flow rapidly, transport large objects, erode channels, and bury entire towns. One of the major hazards of lahars is that they can occur suddenly and without warning when the temporary lakes formed by eruptions break through their natural dams. The Mount Pinatubo eruption and subsequent lahars demonstrate the immense danger these volcanic mudflows can pose to nearby populations through catastrophic erosion and flooding. The devastating lahars resulting from the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines had severe widespread impacts on rice lands in the surrounding areas (U.S. Geological Survey, 1996). Extensive lahar deposits buried many lowland rice paddies under meters of sediment and caused widespread flooding that submerged rice fields for extended periods (Punongbayan et al., 1996 ). The nutrient-poor lahar deposits also reduced soil fertility and rice yields in areas where paddies were not profoundly buried (Rodolfo & Umbal, 2008 ). Furthermore, the mudflows damaged irrigation infrastructure, roads, and bridges, reducing farm water supply and isolating agricultural communities (Newhall & Punongbayan, 1996 ). 4.1.4. Remobilizing lahars of Mt. Mayon Another study by Paguican et al. ( 2009 ) focuses on lahars induced by extreme rainfall from Typhoon Durian in November 2006. The typhoon delivered up to 495 mm of torrential rain over 1.5 days, which greatly exceeded lahar initiation thresholds for Mayon. The intense precipitation mobilized loose pyroclastic deposits from previous eruptions into over 1,000 and hyper-concentrated debris flows. However, lahars can also form during volcanic eruptions. Hot pyroclastic flows and ash flows can melt snow and ice or interact with surface water to produce large lahars, known as primary or eruption-fed lahars (Pierson et al., 1987 ; Thouret et al., 2020 ). Additionally, secondary lahars can occur for years after eruptions when heavy rains remobilize freshly deposited tephra (Pierson et al., 1987 ; Thouret et al., 2020 ). The Paguican et al. ( 2009 ) study highlights the devastating impacts of rainfall-induced lahars at Mayon Volcano. The 2006 lahars buried villages under meters of sediment and caused over 1,200 fatalities. Lahars also damaged infrastructure, including breaching drainage dikes and flooding agricultural valleys. Over 6,300 hectares of rice lands were damaged or destroyed, with sediment burial sharply reducing crop yields. Whether eruption-fed or rainfall-triggered, lahars can severely affect downstream communities through flooding, sedimentation, and physical impacts. Managing lahar hazards relies on understanding their initiation and behavior. 4.1.5. Typhoon-induced debris flows Rice farming is a predominant land use and livelihood across the Philippines, but rice lands face major threats from typhoon-triggered debris flows. A prime example was the 2012 disaster in Andap village, located in the municipality of New Bataan in Davao de Oro province, Mindanao. Andap was situated on an alluvial fan formed by previous ancient debris flows at the outlet of the Mayo River watershed. However, the hazard was not recognized when Andap was settled in the 1960s. In December 2012, Typhoon Bopha impacted Mindanao as an intense Category 5 storm. It delivered torrential rainfall, with over 120 mm falling in just 7 hours in the Mayo River basin (Rodolfo et al., 2016 ). This extreme precipitation vastly exceeded the thresholds known to initiate debris flows worldwide. The heavy rains mobilized loose volcaniclastic sediment on the steep, deforested slopes of the watershed. This generated a massive debris flow, with an estimated volume of 25–30 million m3 (Rodolfo et al., 2016 ). The debris flow buried Andap village under up to 9 meters of sediment (Rodolfo et al., 2016 ). Boulders up to 5 meters in diameter were transported by the flow and deposited amidst the finer sediment (Eco et al., 2020 ). LiDAR surveys allowed Eco et al. ( 2020 ) to delineate the aerial extent, thickness, and geomorphology of the new debris flow deposits. While neither study quantified agricultural impacts, Andap and the surrounding areas were dominated by smallholder rice farming before the disaster. Rodolfo et al. ( 2016 ) described the debris flow as burying entire communities, undoubtedly destroying existing rice paddies across the planted land. 4.1.6. Monsoon-triggered landslides The famous Ifugao rice terraces of the Cordillera region in the Philippines have been threatened by increased landslide occurrences, especially during heavy monsoon rains. Studies have documented frequent landslides and terrain failures directly impacting these historic terraced landscapes over the past decade (Bacudo et al., 2012). For instance, the Philippine Daily Inquirer in November 2011 reported that the rice terraces in Ifugao, Philippines, have been destroyed by monsoon-triggered landslides, and the government needs to address this issue without causing further damage to the 2,000-year-old relic. Some scholars hypothesize climate change is increasing monsoon intensity in the region, escalating hydrological triggers for landslides. Hsu et al. ( 2012 ) found that global monsoon precipitation, area, and intensity consistently increase under global warming. Zhang and Zhou ( 2019 ) observed significant increases in extreme rainfall in global land monsoon regions, associating this trend with global warming. Katzenberger et al. ( 2022 ) projected an intensification of highly rainfall-intense monsoon seasons in India under global warming scenarios. In the Philippines, the tropical monsoon climate is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons. Monsoon rains are a dominant facet of the weather and climate across much of the country. The southwest monsoon SWM), or “Habagat,” brings the rainy season between June and September, while the northeast monsoon, or “Amihan,” brings drier conditions from November to April (Cruz et al., 2013 ). These rainfall events are not directly coming from the tropical cyclones (TCs), for they are situated far north to northeast of Luzon Island. The heavy rainfall is hypothesized to be caused by the interaction of solid westerlies with the mountain ranges along the west coast of Luzon, which produces strong vertical motion and consequently generates heavy rainfall (Cayanan et al., 2011 ). On average, monsoon rains deliver an annual precipitation total of around 2,400 mm in the Philippines, though there is significant spatial variation (Cinco et al., 2016 ). Topography plays a key role, with windward sides of mountains and hills receiving heavier rainfall. Monsoons profoundly shape agriculture and rice cultivation patterns, with rice planted to align with rainy season peaks (Roberts et al., 2011 ). 4.1.7. Rainfall and earthquake-triggered landslide On 17 February 2006, a massive landslide devastated the village of Guinsaugon in the Philippines. The landslide occurred along the Philippine Fault Zone, with an estimated 15–20 million m3 covering 3 km2 (Lagmay et al., 2006 ). It reached velocities of 100–140 km/hr, transporting the village of Guinsaugon 500–600 m and causing 1,266 fatalities. Lagmay et al. ( 2006 ) identify intense rainfall and a magnitude 2.6 earthquake as likely triggers. 500 mm of rain fell in the week prior, greatly exceeding infiltration rates on already saturated slopes. While the earthquake was too small and distant to induce mass wasting directly, it may have opened fractures for water infiltration that lubricated the failure plane. The high-velocity landslide destroyed the village of Guinsaugon. Satellite imagery before and after the event shows the landslide scar and deposit covering 3 km2 of previously forested slopes and agricultural valleys. Residents reported ponds and a river draining away before the slide, suggesting substantial subsurface erosion. While Lagmay et al. ( 2006 ) do not directly quantify agriculture or rice land loss, the landslide buried and transported cultivated valleys and villages at the base of the slope. Guinsaugon and surrounding communities were likely dominated by subsistence rice agriculture. According to the report, residents of neighboring barangays, who were thankfully saved from the tragedy, were forced to move away from their farms and rice lands. Hence, the massive landslide potentially caused significant loss of rice paddies and agricultural lands due to burial under debris. An intense rainfall event and earthquake triggered a catastrophic landslide at Guinsaugon, causing extensive land cover change. 4.1.8. Prolong flooding and submergence Submergence due to flooding is a significant constraint for rice cultivation in the Philippines. A study by Israel ( 2012 ) found that between 2007–2010, an annual average of $ 23.76 million worth of damage to rice farming in the Philippines was attributed to flooding and submergence. Prolonged submergence of over five days can result in significant yield declines. Bailey-Serres et al. ( 2010 ) reported that about 25% of rice areas in the Philippines experience some level of submergence during the wet season. Submergence-tolerant varieties such as Sub1 lines have been developed but not widely adopted. According to Manzanilla et al. ( 2011 ), recurring floods affect about 20% of the total rice area during the wet season in Central Luzon and Cagayan Valley. This reduces the land available for rice cultivation in the main crop seasons. A simulation study by Wassmann et al. (2009) estimated that a 20-day submergence of rice fields in the Philippines would yield losses of 0.4-1.0 t/ha, depending on the variety. This highlights the significant impact of submergence on yields. A case study by Toda et al. ( 2017 ) in Apalit, Pampanga, used flood modeling to analyze the effect of submergence on rice-growing areas. They found that for a 100-year rainfall return period, an estimated 10–21% of current cultivated land would be submerged for over seven days and in depths greater than 20cm, reducing the area suitable for traditional irrigated rice varieties. Through focus group discussions, farmers also reported that 50–80% of rice fields in Apalit are affected by prolonged submergence lasting 4–7 months in some areas during the wet season. The study concluded that submergence-tolerant varieties are needed for about 20% of the rice area in Apalit due to changing flood scenarios that have reduced land suitable for customary lowland rice cultivation. 4.2. Human-Induced Factors 4.2.1. Land conversion Urbanization, industrialization, population growth, policies that favour automation over agriculture, legal loopholes, absence of regulation, and vested interest act as key reasons behind land conversion activities in the Philippines. The transformation of agricultural lands into other uses is mainly motivated by urbanization and industrialization. Major towns and cities like the Metropolitan Manila have witnessed rapid growth in areas dedicated to residential and business services. Because of this, there is an ever-growing need for additional plots of agricultural lands in order to compensate for lost paddies around cities that are affected by urbanization and population growth, and as a result – production decline. The demand for land to accommodate the growing urban population and expansion of economic activities has led to the encroachment on agricultural areas. Rapid population growth has also contributed to converting agricultural lands as it increases demand for residential and commercial spaces (Mananghaya, 2011 ). Population pressure induces the conversion of agricultural land around urban areas. Development policies prioritizing industrialization over agricultural development have promoted the conversion of agricultural lands, often disregarding implications on food security and rural livelihoods (Kelly, 1998 ; Engay-Gutierrez, 2015 ). Investment policies favoring industrial estates over agriculture also drive land conversion. Legal loopholes, lack of effective regulation and enforcement of land conversion laws, and political processes enable the circumvention of land reform policies and conversion of agricultural lands to more profitable non-agricultural uses (Kelly, 1998 ; Pia, 2021 ). The vested interests of landowners and real estate developers influence land conversion. Lower market prices make agricultural lands attractive for conversion into residential subdivisions, commercial complexes, and recreational facilities like golf courses (Fernandez, 2001 ). In Laguna, the rice area declined by over 50% between 1971–1992, from around 20,000 to less than 10,000 hectares, indicating major land conversion (Moya et al. 1994 ). In Cavite, irrigated rice land declined from 14,710 hectares in 1989 to 12,800 hectares by 1993, a loss of 1,910 hectares (Kelly 1998 ). Nationally, around 33,707 hectares of agricultural land were converted between 1988–1995, but the proportion that was rice land is unspecified (Kelly 1998 ). Over 30 years, around half a million hectares of prime agricultural lands were converted nationwide, including rice lands (Fernandez, 2001 ). In specific locations like Sta. Rosa and Biñan in Laguna, thousands of hectares of agricultural and rice lands were converted from the 1970s onwards (Engay-Gutierrez 2015 ). The region with the most approved land conversions was Southern Tagalog (Region IV), followed by Central Luzon (Region III) (Kelly 1998 ). These regions encompass the areas surrounding Metro Manila, which saw rapid urbanization. The Cordillera Rice Terraces also experienced encroachment and conversion of rice lands (Mananghaya 2011 ). The decline in rice farming area and production, especially in provinces like Laguna, has resulted in the loss of income and employment for many farmers who rely on rice cultivation (Moya et al. 1994 ). The conversion of agricultural lands has also led to the displacement of tenant farmers and agricultural laborers who lose their lands and livelihoods. Remaining farmers face marginalization and difficulties like water shortage, pest infestations, labor shortages, and low profitability (Kelly 1998 ). Financial pressures have forced some farmers to sell their lands to developers, losing land ownership, control, and cultural ties (Engay-Gutierrez 2015 ). Some farmers have migrated for alternative livelihoods, causing family and social disruption. There are also obstacles to traditional cooperative agricultural practices in areas like the Cordillera Rice Terraces (Mananghaya, 2011 ). Many farmers are dissatisfied with government support and programs, as evidenced in Butuan City (Pia, 2021 ). The implications of these impacts include a decline in agricultural productivity and food self-sufficiency, increased dependency on rice imports affecting food security, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and threats to the cultural heritage of rice farming communities (Moya et al., 1994 ; Fernandez 2001 ; Engay-Gutierrez 2015 ). 4.2.2. Urban sprawl Another significant contributor to the loss of agricultural lands, including rice fields in the Philippines, is urban sprawl or unplanned and uneven growth pattern that results from urbanization. Several studies have analyzed the reasons and factors behind urban sprawl and its influence on rice fields. Rapid urbanization and population growth emerge as key reasons behind urban sprawl across the literature. As cities expand to accommodate the growing population, agricultural lands on the fringe are converted for residential, commercial, and industrial use (Peñalba & Elazegui, 2013 ; Cabildo et al., 2017 ). Uncontrolled, unplanned development further exacerbates sprawl and encroachment on rice lands near cities (Bravo, 2017 ; Carating et al., 2014 ). Speculation by investors eyeing profits from non-agricultural development is another driver of agricultural land conversion (Cabildo et al., 2017 ). Demand for housing, infrastructure development, economic factors, and consumer preferences for suburban lifestyles also contribute to urban expansion and sprawl (Murakami & Palijon, 2005 ). Weak enforcement of land use regulations enables unchecked development and growth of informal settlements, which further consumes agricultural land (Bravo, 2017 ; Murakami & Palijon, 2005 ). The resulting shrinkage in agricultural land, especially rice fields, negatively impacts food production and agricultural income. However, estimating precise figures is challenging because large quantities of agricultural land have been changed for urban purposes, including rice paddies. At least one hundred thousand hectares of agricultural land have been certified for conversions in more than seventy towns across the country, dating between 1988 and 2016 (Peñalba and Elaeguzi, 2013). This does not account for illegal conversion or land reclassified by local governments. Studies show measurable declines in agricultural and rice land over time in regions facing urban expansion, like Metro Manila's urban fringe, which saw reduced rice land from 1982 to 1997 as paddies were converted for residential use (Murakami & Palijon, 2005 ). Urbanization in the National Capital Region has also led to shrinking crop areas (Bravo, 2017 ). Metro Manila has experienced rapid urban sprawl, with its urbanized area expanding significantly between 1988 and 2014 (Cabildo et al., 2017 ). The urban fringe of Metro Manila is highlighted as a hotspot for sprawl, with land conversion and abandonment of rice paddies (Murakami & Palijon, 2005 ). The southern part of Metro Manila also saw higher population growth and expansion of informal settlements, indicating greater sprawl. Outside of Metro Manila, the Marikina clay area known for rice cultivation has faced pressure from urban and commercial development (Carating et al., 2014 ). Conversion of farmlands for residential and commercial development has forced farmers to abandon farming, resulting in the loss of stable livelihoods and income. Displacement from agrarian reform lands converted for urban use eliminates the farming livelihood for beneficiaries. Fragmentation of agricultural plots due to haphazard sprawl makes farming difficult (Carating et al., 2014 ; Bravo, 2017 ). Depletion of water resources due to land use changes affects rice cultivation. The implications are enormous – displaced farmers face food insecurity, increased poverty, and marginalization without alternate livelihood options. They become vulnerable to food prices and lack access to technologies or credit for adaptation. 4.2.3. Shift of cultivation The declining profitability of rice farming due to low prices and high costs, which makes rice cultivation labor-intensive and less lucrative compared to high-value cash crops (Lapniten, 2021 ). The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated this by reducing tourism and other income sources, pushing people toward vegetable farming, which yields higher income from the same land area. Between 1980 and 2008, rice lands decreased by 17.5% (Dunaway & Macabuac, 2022 ). Currently, only about 30% of Filipino farmland is utilized for rice cultivation, with most farmlands grown for export crops such as coconuts, bananas, and maize. From 1988 to 1999, about 500,000 hectares of rice lands were converted, even for fishponds during the shrimp export boom of the 1980s. This ongoing conversion of rice lands for export purposes, fishponds, and biofuels poses a continued threat to rice farming. Since 2000, traditional rice terraces and over 40,000 hectares of rice lands have been converted for various export uses (Dunaway & Macabuac, 2022 ). Moreover, less than half of current rice farms are irrigated, and irrigated rice land decreased by over 13% from 1990–2010, further jeopardizing production. In Bohol, Urich ( 1996 ) found farmers were abandoning traditional irrigated rice paddies to cultivate maize and other crops. Similarly, Follosco ( 2011 ) reported a transition from rice to high-value vegetable farming in Benguet. This was driven by market demand and profit incentives. Agricultural policies also promoted crop diversification. The introduction of alternative cash crops, especially hybrid corn (known as Sige-Sige corn), has profoundly impacted rice diversity by displacing traditional landraces from upland fields across the country (Zapico et al., 2019). Easy access to herbicides convinced many farmers to shift to Sige-Sige corn, requiring less labor than rice. Consequently, in the last 5 years, corn has become widespread in uplands as rice remains cultivated only in small pockets. Extensive deforestation for cash crops like abaca, coffee and corn was observed, indicating land conversion from forests directly to cash crops. The government’s Special Area for Agricultural Development (SAAD) program, promoting few introduced varieties, also contributed to loss of diverse traditional rice landraces previously grown (Zapico et al., 2019). In the Ifugao Rice Terraces, around 25–30% of the 2,000-year-old terraces have been abandoned and are deteriorating (National Geographic, 2018 ). Some towns have seen even greater losses, with as much as 50% of rice terraces abandoned in some areas (Lapniten, 2021 ). This threatens the indigenous Ifugao peoples' livelihoods, cultural heritage centered around native tinawon rice cultivation, and the terraces' irreplaceable agroforestry system (National Geographic, 2018 ; Lapniten, 2021 ). Despite rice being a dietary staple, the government has not emphasized its production for domestic consumption, instead favoring export crops to earn foreign exchange for food imports. This loss of rice lands and lack of support for rice farming poses a significant threat to future Philippine food security. 4.2.4. Inadequate irrigation Poor irrigation system performance is attributed to various factors, especially in developing countries, including inadequate maintenance, flawed designs, improper installation, and institutional challenges (Inocencio et al., 2007; Moya, 2018 ). Consequently, significant disparities exist between the intended and actual service areas of irrigation systems. In the Philippines, for instance, an average of 30% of irrigation service areas remain unirrigated (delos Reyes et al., 2015 ), and 25–43% of these areas are not receiving the irrigation they were designed for (Inocencio & Inocencio, 2020 ). The absence of irrigation leads to soil degradation, rendering it unsuitable for puddled transplanted rice (Singh et al., 2004 ). Unirrigated lands are often converted to rainfed rice or other crops, causing a permanent loss of rice land and affecting millions of farmers through reduced yields and livelihood impacts (delos Reyes et al., 2015 ). The study by Tabios III and De Leon (2020) examines two major irrigation systems in the Philippines and how irrigation miscalculations have affected land available for rice cultivation. The Angat-Maasim River Irrigation System (AMRIS) and Pampanga Delta River Irrigation System (PADRIS) were originally designed to irrigate much larger areas than they currently do. For AMRIS, competing demand for water from urban areas is a factor, along with issues like canal sedimentation reducing efficiency. For PADRIS, the diversion dam is too low to reach the full-service area, and flooding reduces usable land. A rapid agroecosystem assessment conducted in Basey, Samar, before Typhoon Yolanda revealed that a substantial portion of rice lands were left idle due to inadequate irrigation infrastructure (Dargantes et al., 2016 ). Out of 39 rice farm parcels inventoried in the municipality, 20 parcels, or 51%, were found to be fallow and uncultivated at the time of the survey. The predominance of rainfed farms lacking irrigation was identified as a critical factor contributing to the idling of agricultural lands. Of the surveyed rice farms in Basey, 61% depended solely on rainfall, while only 39% had irrigation infrastructure. Interviews with farmers corroborated the scarcity of irrigation, with 82% characterizing their farms as rainfed versus just 18% designating their farms as irrigated. The reliance on rainfed rice production rendered cultivation untenable during drought periods. Farmers reported that planting for the second cropping season was often delayed due to insufficient water, especially during El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) years (Dargantes et al., 2016 ). Furthermore, the deterioration of infrastructure and inadequate maintenance further reduce the effectiveness of irrigation over time (Malano et al., 2004 ). These challenges are compounded by financial, institutional, and governance issues, which collectively hamper the performance of irrigation systems (Inocencio et al., 2007). The consequence of inadequate irrigation systems is a drastic decline in rice yields (Tuong et al., 2005 ). After one or more seasons without sufficient irrigation, the land's suitability for puddled transplanted rice diminishes due to a decline in soil puddling quality (Singh et al., 2004 ). 4.2.5. Deforestation During the 1970s the Philippines lost 30% of its natural forests due to agricultural land, mainly rice cultivation has been a major factor, Lasco, et al. ( 2001 ). Ricelands account for around 30% of agricultural land in the Philippines (Mendoza, 2015 ). However, deforestation in upland areas has been a significant driver of the abandonment of wet rice cultivation in certain regions of the Philippines, based on evidence from studies by Urich ( 1996 ) and Follosco ( 2011 ). The clearing of forests in watershed areas alters the hydrological cycle, leading to more rapid runoff of rainfall and depletion of water sources for downstream irrigation systems. This disrupts the water supply to paddies at the necessary volumes and intervals required by indigenous irrigation designs for wet rice farming. Specifically, Urich ( 1996 ) examined the decline of irrigation-based rice farming in two villages in Bohol. He found that upland deforestation since the early 1900s, including the conversion of forests to agricultural lands, pastures, and settlements, was the primary cause. Intensified runoff depleted groundwater retention and changed streamflow patterns. Traditional irrigation systems could no longer adequately distribute water across paddies, prompting many farmers to abandon wet rice cultivation. Likewise, Follosco ( 2011 ) reported the abandonment of rice lands in Bakun, Benguet, due to multiple factors. These included conversion to vegetable farming, outmigration of farmers, and, importantly, deforestation in surrounding areas. Several studies have also examined the impacts of deforestation on local hydrology and rice lands. For example, Pulhin et al. ( 2007 ) found that deforestation of watershed areas led to increased surface runoff and soil erosion, resulting in flooding, sedimentation, and reduced water availability for downstream rice fields. Deforestation on sloped lands also removed vegetation that helped stabilize soils, increasing landslide risks during heavy rains (Mugagga et al., 2012 ). Studies by Urich ( 1996 ) and Follosco ( 2011 ) highlighted upland deforestation as a significant factor leading to the abandonment of wet rice lands in certain Philippine regions that rely on indigenous irrigation systems. 4.2.6. Land subsidence threats Land subsidence is a significant problem affecting rice lands in the Philippines, especially in areas surrounding Metro Manila, such as Bulacan, Pampanga, and Nueva Ecija (Espiritu et al., 2022 ; Rodolfo & Siringan, 2006 ). One major reason for this subsidence is groundwater over-extraction (Nagumo & Sawano, 2016 ). This leads to a quick fall of the water table and compaction of the aquifer systems, with annual subsidence average of about 2.5 cm and maximum 4 cm. This land subsidence affects rice production in several key ways. First, it reduces the drainage capacity of rivers and increases flooding in low-lying agricultural areas (Nagumo & Sawano, 2016 ). Prolonged flooding damages rice crops and makes it difficult to plant and harvest rice. Second, land subsidence enhances saltwater intrusion inland, which degrades soil quality and suitability for rice cultivation (Siringan & Rodolfo 2003 ). Rice is sensitive to soil salinity so saltwater intrusion will reduce yields. Third, land subsidence damages irrigation and drainage infrastructure critical for rice farming (Siringan & Rodolfo 2003 ). Subsidence has emerged healthy pipes and damaged benchmarks, roads, and facilities needed to support rice agriculture. Fourth, increased tidal and storm surges reach further inland, degrading soil quality and suitability for rice (Siringan & Rodolfo 2003 ). Natural sediment compaction also contributes but is slower, around a few mm/year (Johnson et al., 2018 ). Groundwater extraction accelerates compaction, increasing subsidence rates up to 8.3 cm/year (Siringan & Rodolfo 2003 ). Subsidence lowers land elevations, allowing seawater intrusion further inland along rivers and irrigation channels, increasing soil salinity (Siringan & Rodolfo 2003 ). It disrupts drainage patterns and aggravates flooding of rice fields during storms and high tides (Lopez et al., 2023 ). More frequent and prolonged flooding damages rice crops and infrastructure like irrigation channels (Mialhe et al., 2016 ). Coastal areas report spring tide heights increasing 0.3-2 meters over the past decade due to subsidence, enhancing crop damage (Siringan & Rodolfo 2003 Subsidence damages roads, bridges, buildings, and other infrastructure (Mialhe et al., 2016 ). It contributes to more severe and frequent flooding in populated areas surrounding rice lands (Rodolfo & Siringan, 2006 ). Paradoxically, flood control structures prevent natural sediment deposition that could counteract subsidence (Siringan & Rodolfo 2003 ). Regulate and monitor groundwater pumping, especially in coastal rice farming regions, to curb over-extraction (Espiritu et al., 2022 ). Increase surface water supplies to reduce reliance on groundwater (Rodolfo & Siringan, 2006 ). Adapt land use planning and cropping patterns to flooding risks (Lopez et al., 2023 ). Restore river widths and raise infrastructure for lowered land elevations (Siringan & Rodolfo 2003 ). 5. ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION MEASURES Various natural and human-induced factors affect rice lands in the Philippines and propose mitigation measures to combat them. The recommended approaches include the rehabilitation of paddies and canals, improving dikes, analyzing and mapping lahars, utilizing remote sensing techniques, using flood-tolerant rice varieties, appropriate zoning, enhancing irrigation systems, developing high-yielding rice varieties, and supporting agricultural research and farmer assistance programs. The studies also emphasize strengthening land use regulations, promoting sustainable tourism, niche products, e-commerce support, agroforestry, reforestation, payment for ecosystem services, regulating groundwater extraction, increasing surface water supply, adapting land use planning, and enhancing infrastructure to address human-induced factors. 6. CONCLUSION This systematic review examined the factors contributing to the diminishing rice lands in the Philippines over the past 30 years. The literature revealed both nature-induced and human-induced drivers of rice land decline. The Philippines' geographic location and terrain, with its archipelagic nature, render it less ideal for expansive rice cultivation compared to mainland Southeast Asia. Recurrent typhoons, volcanic eruptions, landslides, flooding, and other climate hazards periodically damage or bury rice lands. However, human activities have played a far more significant role in rice land loss. Rapid urbanization and uncontrolled urban sprawl are consuming peri-urban rice paddies. Agricultural lands face widespread conversion for residential, commercial, and industrial uses, especially surrounding major cities. This conversion displaces farmers and threatens food security. Similarly, policies favoring cash crops, aquaculture, and biofuels have driven a shift away from rice farming across both upland and lowland areas. Introducing hybrid corn and other cash crops has displaced traditional rice varieties and paddies. Inadequate irrigation infrastructure leaves much potential rice land unirrigated or underproductive. Deforestation also disrupts water supplies critical for conventional wet rice cultivation. Additionally, the iconic Cordillera Rice Terraces, outmigration, tourism pressures, and lack of maintenance have led to terrace deterioration, erosion, and rice land abandonment. While climate change will likely intensify impacts on rice lands, current evidence indicates anthropogenic drivers have dominated rice land conversion and degradation over recent decades in the Philippines. Sustained declines in rice land availability threaten long-term food self-sufficiency and rural livelihoods dependent on rice cultivation. Lastly, human-induced land subsidence from the over pumping of groundwater exacerbates flooding, seawater intrusion, and infrastructure damage in rice farming regions. Recommendations: Strengthen the protection and regulation of agricultural zones, especially irrigated rice lands, to prevent conversion. Enforce urban growth boundaries and agricultural greenbelts. Invest in irrigation infrastructure rehabilitation and expansion focused on existing rice lands. Improve water use efficiency. Promote climate-resilient technologies like flood-tolerant rice varieties and drought mitigation. Develop rice landslide warning systems. Incentivize continued cultivation of rice landraces in terraces to sustain the heritage and prevent further deterioration. Develop sustainable tourism models. Curtail deforestation through forest protection policies and incentives for watershed conservation. Reforest denuded uplands. Regulate groundwater extraction in subsidence hotspots to reduce impacts on rice lands. Improve drainage and flood control. Balance urban development with safeguarding sufficient rice lands to support food security—favor compact development, not sprawl. Implement integrated land use planning to optimize agricultural production, ecosystem conservation, and climate change adaptation. Declarations DATA AVAILABILITY Due to the large dataset of a literature review, the data supporting the conclusion will be available on request. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank Surigao del Norte State University (SNSU) - Mainit Campus for providing facilities and resources that greatly aided the literature review process. Specifically, the availability of library resources and databases as well as reliable internet connectivity through the campus network were invaluable in accessing the literature needed to conduct this extensive systematic review. The author appreciates SNSU-Mainit Campus for fostering an enabling research environment. Funding This research did not receive any specific grant or financial support from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. As it was a literature review study, it relied solely on openly accessible published works and thus did not require direct research funding. References Agus, F. (2006). Agricultural land conversion as a threat to food security and environmental. Jurnal Penelitian Dan Pengembangan Pertanian, 25(3), 90–98. Bacudo, A. 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Environmental implications of recycling and recycled products, 79-100. Mialhe, F., Gunnell, Y., Mering, C., Gaillard, J. C., Coloma, J. G., & Dabbadie, L. (2016). The development of aquaculture on the northern coast of Manila Bay (Philippines): an analysis of long-term land-use changes and their causes. Journal of Land Use Science , 11(2), 236-256. https://doi.org/10.1080/1747423X.2015.1057245 Miraflor, M. (2020, August 5). Lands devoted to farming shrink to 13.32-M hectares. Manila Bulletin. Retrieved January 14, 2024, from https://mb.com.ph/2020/08/04/lands-devoted-to-farming-shrink-to-13-32-m-hectares/ Moya, P. F., Pingali, P. L., Masicat, P., Pabale, D. L., & Gerpacio, R. V. (1994). Effect of land use conversion on agricultural production: a case study of Laguna and Bulacan, Philippines. Philippine Journal of Crop Science , 19(1). Moya, T. B. (2018). Resilience of Irrigation Systems to Climate Variability and Change: A Review of the Adaptive Capacity of Philippine Irrigation Systems. DLSU Business & Economics Review , 28, 102-120. Mugagga, F., Kakembo, V., & Buyinza, M. (2012). Land use changes on the slopes of Mount Elgon and the implications for the occurrence of landslides. Catena , 90, 39-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2011.11.004 Murakami, A., & Palijon, A. M. (2005). Urban sprawl and land use characteristics in the urban fringe of Metro Manila, Philippines. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering , 4(1), 177-183. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3130/jaabe.4.177 Nagumo, N., & Sawano, H. (2016). Land classification and flood characteristics of the Pampanga River Basin, central Luzon, Philippines. Journal of Geography (Chigaku Zasshi) , 125, 699-716. https://doi.org/10.5026/jgeography.125.699 Nair, S.R., & Eapen, L.M. (2012). Food Price Inflation in India (2008 to 2010): A Commodity-wise Analysis of the Causal Factors. Kerala, India National Geographic (2018, August). This ancient cultural landscape beautifully illustrates human harmony with nature1 . National Geographic. Retrieved January 14, 2024, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/world-heritage/article/philippine-rice-terraces#:~:text=With%20few%20left%20to%20work,and%20later%20removed%20in%202012. Newhall, C. G., & Punongbayan, R. (Eds.). (1996). Fire and mud: eruptions and lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines (p. 1126). Quezon City: Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. Ocampo, K. F., & Pobre, K. K. (2021, July 7). Fighting the Good Fight: The Case of the Philippine Rice Sector. The Asia Foundation . The ASEAN Foundation. Retrieved Jnauary 14, 2024, from https://asiafoundation.org/2021/04/14/fighting-the-good-fight-the-case-of-the-philippine-rice-sector/ Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. International Journal of Surgery , 88, 105906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2021.105906 Paguican, E. M. R., Lagmay, A. M. F., Rodolfo, K. S., Rodolfo, R. S., Tengonciang, A. M. P., Lapus, M. R., & Obille, E. C. (2009). Extreme rainfall-induced lahars and dike breaching, 30 November 2006, Mayon Volcano, Philippines. Bulletin of volcanology , 71, 845-857. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-009-0268-8 Peñalba, L. M., & Elazegui, D. D. (2013). Improving adaptive capacity of small-scale rice farmers: Comparative analysis of Lao PDR and the Philippines. World Applied Sciences Journal , 24(9), 1211-1220. Philippine Daily Inquirer. (2011, November 4). Rice terraces vulnerable to landslides, says geologist. Inquirer.net. Retrieved January 14, 2024, from https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/88363/rice-terraces-vulnerable-to-landslides-says-geologist Pia, G. S. (2021). Land-Use Conversion Rice Production and Food Security. SMCC Higher Education Research Journal , 8(1), 135-147. Pierson, T. C., Costa, J. E., & Vancouver, W. (1987). A rheologic classification of subaerial sediment-water flows (Vol. 7, pp. 1-12). Geological Society of America. Pimentel, D. (2006). Soil erosion: a food and environmental threat. Environment, development and sustainability , 8, 119-137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-005-1262-8 Pingali, P. L., & Rosegrant, M. W. (1994). Confronting the environmental consequences of the Green Revolution in Asia . International Food Policy Research Institute. Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Pulhin, J. M., Inoue, M., & Enters, T. (2007). Three decades of community-based forest management in the Philippines: emerging lessons for sustainable and equitable forest management. International Forestry Review, 9(4), 865-883. https://doi.org/10.1505/ifor.9.4.865 Punongbayan, R.S., Newhall, C.G., Bautista, Ma.LP., Garcia, D., Harlow, D.H., Hoblitt, R.P., Sabit, J.P., Solidum, R.U., (1996) "Eruption hazard assessments and warnings". In: Newhall, C.G., Punongbayan, R.S. (eds.) 1996, Fire and Mud: eruptions and lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines (pp. 67 – 85) . University of Washington Press. Quasem, A. (2011). Conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural uses in Bangladesh: Extent and determinants. The Bangladesh Development Studies , 34(1), 59-85 Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions. ACP journal club , 123(3), 12-A13. Roberts, N., Eastwood, W. J., Kuzucuoğlu, C., Fiorentino, G., & Caracuta, V. (2011). Climatic, vegetation and cultural change in the eastern Mediterranean during the mid-Holocene environmental transition. The Holocene , 21(1), 147-162. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683610386 Rodolfo, K. S., & Siringan, F. P. (2006). Global sea‐level rise is recognised, but flooding from anthropogenic land subsidence is ignored around northern Manila Bay, Philippines. Disasters, 30(1), 118-139. Rodolfo, K. S., & Umbal, J. V. (2008). A prehistoric lahar-dammed lake and eruption of Mount Pinatubo described in a Philippine aborigine legend. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research , 176(3), 432-437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.01.030. Rodolfo, K. S., Lagmay, A. M. F., Eco, R. C., Herrero, T. M. L., Mendoza, J. E., Minimo, L. G., & Santiago, J. T. (2016). The December 2012 Mayo River debris flow triggered by Super Typhoon Bopha in Mindanao, Philippines: lessons learned and questions raised. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 16(12), 2683-2695. Rosada, I. (2016). Rice-field conversion and its impact on food availability. Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia , 9, 40-46. Sasidharan, S., & Dhillon, H.S. (2022). The spectrum of health hazards by a volcanic eruption and the need for an integrated approach to mental health and disaster preparedness. Journal of Medical Evidence , 3, 105 - 110. Singh, K. P., Malik, A., Mohan, D., & Sinha, S. (2004). Multivariate statistical techniques for the evaluation of spatial and temporal variations in water quality of Gomti River (India)—a case study. Water research , 38(18), 3980-3992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2004.06.011 Siringan, F. P., & Rodolfo, K. S. (2003). Relative sea level changes and worsening floods in the Western Pampanga, [Philippines] delta: causes and some possible mitigation measures. Science Diliman (Philippines), 15(2), 1-12. Tabios III, G. Q., & de Leon, T. Z. (2020). Assessing the Philippine irrigation development program . Philippine Institute of Developmental Studies. Retrieved January 14, 2024, from https://www.pids.gov.ph/publication/policy-notes/assessing-the-philippine-irrigation-development-program Thouret, J. C., Antoine, S., Magill, C., & Ollier, C. (2020). Lahars and debris flows: Characteristics and impacts. Earth-Science Reviews , 201, 103003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.103003 Toda, L. L., Yokingco, J. C. E., Paringit, E. C., & Lasco, R. D. (2017). A LiDAR-based flood modelling approach for mapping rice cultivation areas in Apalit, Pampanga. Applied Geography , 80, 34-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2016.12.020 Tuong, T. P., BAM, B., & Mortimer, M. (2005). More rice, less water—integrated approaches for increasing water productivity in irrigated Rice-Based systems in Asia—. Plant Production Science , 8(3), 231-241. ttps://doi.org/10.1626/pps.8.231 U.S. Geological Survey. (n.d.). Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines . U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 114-97. Retrieved January 14, 2024, from https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs114-97/ Urich, P. B. (1996). Deforestation and declining irrigation in Southeast Asia: A Philippine case. International Journal of Water Resources Development , 12(1), 49-64. https://doi.org/10.1080/713672197 Wassmann, R., Jagadish, S., Sumfleth, K., Pathak, H., Howell, G., Ismail, A., Serraj, R., Redona, E., Singh, R., & Heuer, S. (2008). Chapter 3 Regional vulnerability of climate change impacts on Asian rice production and scope for adaptation. Advances in Agronomy , 102, 91-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(09)01003-7World Bank. (2021a). Arable land (hectares per person). World. Retrieved January 14, 2024, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA.PC?view=map World Bank (2021b). Agricultural land (sq. km) - Philippines. Retrieved January 14, 2024, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.K2?locations=PH&view=map World Bank (2021c). Agricultural irrigated land (% of total agricultural land) – Philippines. Retrieved January 14, 2024, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.IRIG.AG.ZS?locations=PH&view=map Zapico, F. L., Dizon, J. T., Borromeo, T. H., McNally, K. L., Fernando, E. S., & Hernandez, J. E. (2020). Genetic erosion in traditional rice agro-ecosystems in Southern Philippines: drivers and consequences. Plant Genetic Resources , 18(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1479262119000406 Zhang, W., & Zhou, T. (2019). Significant increases in extreme precipitation and the associations with global warming over the global land monsoon regions. Journal of Climate , 32(24), 8465-8488. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-18-0662.1 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3927443","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Systematic Review","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":270938909,"identity":"4adcc487-ebb8-4d5e-b3f0-4c7739778685","order_by":0,"name":"Albino Taer","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA70lEQVRIie3PMQrCMBSA4RcC7ZLaVRHsFVI6CYpXaXFV0M2xUIhL1bVOXkEQuqpkcMkNcomKi2gHba2Dg61ugvmH5A35CA9ApfrFdAK7x2QmNLlfml5FcE5oNtJxlBH8AYEnOeVzFTEDY89Hk9Qymztv07nEVg0DSo6D96TOay6PBLWXc5c7w7m0GQbcWMYl33BCucEoWgvEnGEo0Z1o2CghVkF6W4H1azuUvUpCC+KtiQYOnKVXSexsFyKcfiQI2DNf9hlGQekurcOMn8ik1V2EBOg5ld3VNNgnx7L1X0IsP/1P32el3zxWqVSqf+kGcg5NDasKneYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2958-4682","institution":"Surigao del Norte State University - Mainit Campus","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Albino","middleName":"","lastName":"Taer","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-02-04 11:51:38","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3927443/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3927443/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":50717110,"identity":"15eaae2a-f6ac-4f8f-a5b9-f4b57922dda9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-06 09:01:25","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":124354,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlowchart of article selection process for the systematic literature review\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3927443/v1/403530d7a0e350c40008e33b.png"},{"id":50717111,"identity":"b45c2e0d-3e6d-4034-a666-20d426bb5111","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-06 09:01:25","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28021,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRetrieved articles\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3927443/v1/1878407b3654bb89eaa9bdf5.png"},{"id":50717464,"identity":"210a2927-a2b4-460a-8555-21a1dd022316","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-06 09:09:26","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":645742,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3927443/v1/19b3fc99-acbe-48e6-87c6-65d50465b3fd.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eShrinking Rice Bowls: Tracing the Decline of Philippine Rice Lands\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eRice forms the basis for the diet and pillar of food security on the Filipino population. The industry employs about 25% of the workforce of the Philippines. Nevertheless, rice production has been dwindling in the country, resulting into high rice prices and consequently, rising inflation as well as endangering food security and livelihoods. This rice shortage is most likely due to some problems such as production problems, policy problems, weather disruptions and use change of land. According to the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), rice inflation hit a 14-year high in September 2022 despite price control measures (Cordero, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Smuggling and hoarding can also reduce market supply and cause price instability (Nair \u0026amp; Eapen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Domestic production struggles to meet demand, even with expected increased yields. The impact of the rice tariffication law (RTL) led to a surge in rice imports, making the Philippines the world's largest rice importer in 2019, while domestic rice farmers faced lower prices and income due to increased imports (Ocampo \u0026amp; Pobre, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, high global rice prices are due to factors such as crude oil prices, severe weather, biofuel production, mismanagement, and lack of investment in agriculture (Mendoza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the conversion and reclassification of agricultural land driven by urbanization and real estate development may play a significant role in reducing rice lands.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous studies have emphasized that both natural phenomena and human-induced factors have significantly contributed to land loss. Though human activities dominate land conversion, periodic natural disasters degrade Philippine rice lands, such as recurring typhoons causing floods and landslides, sporadic volcanic eruptions, intensifying monsoon rains triggering landslides, and prolonged wet seasons (Rodolfo \u0026amp; Umbal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Bacudo et al., 2012; Bailey-Serres et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Cinco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Agricultural land conversion and reclassification are major contributors to rice shortages in the Philippines and beyond (Moya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Agus, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Quasem, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Rosada, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The accelerating rate of agricultural land conversion poses a threat to food security and increases reliance on imports. Land use changes have caused rice production declines in provinces such as Bulacan, Laguna, and South Sulawesi. Urbanization and development often convert highly productive rice lands into non-agricultural uses, directly reducing available farmland. Despite the potential impact of natural and human factors, comprehensive research examining how natural disasters, agricultural land conversion, and reclassification affect Philippine rice production is lacking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to fill that gap by conducting an in-depth analysis of the relationship between natural calamities, anthropological events, and rice production and offering valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders involved in agricultural planning and food security.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Objectives\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study attempts to track research and reports on natural and human-induced factors contributing to the diminishing lands for rice cultivation in the Philippines during the last 30 years (1993\u0026ndash;2023) through a systematic literature review of research articles and publications from international and local databases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Search strategy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe accessed academic databases such as Science Direct, Web of Science, and Google Scholar where we utilized a combination of keywords and search terms, including \u0026ldquo;abandonment,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;volcanic eruption,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;migration,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;landslide,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;selling and abandonment,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;soil erosion,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;flooding,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;topography, geography,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;shift of cultivation,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;land conversion,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;urbanization,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;infrastructure development,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;Lack of infrastructure,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;fallow land,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;rice land,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;paddy,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;rice field,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Philippines.\u0026rdquo; We checked official government websites, international organizations, university publications, and research institutions. Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) were applied to refine search queries, and truncation filters were used for publication date ranges 1993\u0026ndash;2023 (30 years) to ensure past and present information. Furthermore, we employed snowballing techniques by scrutinizing reference lists and tracking citations to uncover newer articles that cited similar works. The search strategy also encompassed grey literature, including reports, working papers, and conference proceedings, to capture a comprehensive nationwide perspective on the diminishing rice land areas in the Philippines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Scope and definitions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research question was formulated using the PICO framework (Richardson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) and was directed by the systematic PRISMA methodology (Page et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), ensuring a thorough and comprehensive investigation. This review aims to address the factors that have contributed to the decreasing rice lands in the Philippines over the past 30 years, which have resulted in rice insufficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePICO framework utilization for the development of the research question\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblem (P)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecreasing rice lands in the Philippines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntervention (I)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eState policies on conservation and sustainable development\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison (C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiversification, zoning, sustainable development, rehabilitation, and preservation approaches\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOutcome (O)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentify the appropriate intervention that has the potential to a lasting development\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Exclusion and inclusion criteria\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe selected studies needed to address the central research question about the causes of diminishing rice lands in the Philippines and provide substantial insights into the topic, including aspects related to land use changes induced by nature and anthropogenic factors and rice cultivation. Studies focused on the Philippines or its regions were taken. Various study types, such as academic research, government reports, and publications from reputable international organizations, were included. Excluded were studies that did not relate to the central research question. Detailed inclusion and exclusion criteria are tabulated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Data cleansing and analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSearch results based on keywords were exported in CSV format and then analyzed, cleansed, and duplicates were removed using MS Excel. The detailed article selection process for the systematic literature review is presented in a flowchart in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. A table of evidence (ToE) matrix was constructed from the relevant articles for further inference and interpretation and is presented in Tables\u0026nbsp;3, \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInclusion and exclusion criteria used in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInclusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExclusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies and reports involve land use change by natural phenomenon and human-induced factors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies associated with land use change but do not involve rice land loss\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticles published within 30-years (1993\u0026ndash;2023)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies involve rice land loss outside Philippine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRice yield loss related to soil fertility and nutrient loss\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies investigate how natural conditions can render land unsuitable for rice cultivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversion of agricultural land only without assessment of rice land loss\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRice production loss by disasters without direct impact on rice land\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Articles retrieved\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 188 articles were initially identified for thorough scrutiny. Twelve pieces were removed due to duplications and ineligibility. Of the 176 that remained, 146 articles were excluded for reasons detailed in the study selection process outlined in the methodology. Further, the 30 remaining articles were deducted by two due to no available full text. After this comprehensive screening process, 28 articles remained for the complete review (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the authors retrieved 28 reports from 8 different sources using various keywords and search methods. Most articles were sourced from Scopus, and none were in Web of Science. Only two pieces were obtained from the local research institution/university. Out of the 28 articles, four were extracted from local and international news sources, three from Google Scholar, four from books, and one from a dissertation/master's thesis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe review of the 28 selected articles revealed that 7 out of 28 (25%) of the articles discussed factors contributing to rice land loss caused by nature (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), while the majority of the pieces (21 out of 28, or 75%) focused on human-induced factors leading to rice land decline (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This breakdown indicates that most current literature explores anthropogenic reasons for rice land loss in the Philippines rather than natural causes. The seven articles that examine nature-induced causes delved into geographic location, periodic natural disasters like typhoons and volcanic eruptions, and their subsequent impacts on critical rice-growing regions across the Philippines. However, the predominance of research centered on human activities and policies that have accelerated rice land degradation, including urbanization, agricultural land conversion, abandonment/idling, and shift of cultivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1. Nature-Induced Factors\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.1. Geographical location\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRice lands across different geographical regions of the Philippines, primarily in Luzon, are impacted by several natural factors related to the country's location and terrain (Dawe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Mamiit et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, the report of Dawe (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) argued that geography is the key factor behind why the Philippines imports rice. As an archipelagic nation comprised of islands without major river delta regions suitable for rice cultivation, the Philippines lacks the ideal geography for rice production compared to major rice-exporting countries in Southeast Asia. The major traditional rice exporters like Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Myanmar are located on the Asian mainland with expansive river deltas. In contrast, countries that have consistently imported rice for over a century, like the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Japan, Korea, and Malaysia, are islands or peninsulas without sizable delta areas conducive to rice farming. The Philippines' status as an archipelago places it at a disadvantage for domestic rice production compared to mainland countries with major rice-growing river deltas. Thailand has about four times the quantity of arable land per person as the Philippines. Consistent importers have less arable land per person and more varied landscapes favoring such alternatives as corn, oil palm, or coconut. All consistent rice importers plant less than half of their crop area to rice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, countries that produce more than half of rice are consistent exporters. According to the World Bank (2021a), the Philippines had approximately 0.05 hectares of arable land per person which translates to approximately 5.59\u0026nbsp;million hectares of arable land which is much lower than 0.24 ha, 0.25 ha, and 0.20 ha arable per person in Thailand, Cambodia, and Myanmar, respectively. The total land in the Philippines covers 298,170 square kilometers whereas, the agricultural area is 122,600 square kilometers amounting to 41.1%. Only 9.3% of this farmland was irrigated rice lands. Although more recent 2021 data shows total land area at 298,170 square kilometers, entire agricultural land has slightly increased to 126,830 square kilometers which now accounts 42.2% of the total land area (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021b\u003c/span\u003e). However, updated data on the specific extent of irrigated rice lands is unavailable (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021c\u003c/span\u003e). Over the past decade, the minimal expansion of agricultural land as a percentage of total land, from 41.1\u0026ndash;42.2%, indicates limited conversion of new areas to cultivation. Though agricultural land has increased somewhat in absolute terms, the lack of appreciable growth proportionally suggests negligible gains in arable land that could be used for rice farming. Without updated metrics on irrigated rice lands, it is difficult to ascertain whether this subset has diminished or kept pace with broader agricultural land expansion. The static total land area coupled with modest agricultural land growth implies restricted potential for new rice lands in the Philippines due to spatial limitations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.2. Recurring typhoon-induced rainfall\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Philippines has a typhoon frequency in the region of 20 annually, with frequent and intense tropical cyclones (Cinco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The Philippines are amongst the highest of typhoon activity and risk in the global Western Pacific Basin (Kubota \u0026amp; Chan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Typhoon season peaks from July to October, with August having the highest frequency of events (Cinco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). During the last fifty years, cyclones have affected the entire country, particularly central and northern Luzon as well as eastern Visayas (Dado and Takahashi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The heavy rain, flooding, storm surges and landslides cause loss of life and widespread damage as a result of the typhoons (Kang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Between 2006 and 2015, Philippine tropical cyclones resulted in over 18,000 deaths as per Pimiento (2018). Philippines is highly vulnerable to these climatological hazards, especially the tropical cyclone, Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) caused destruction, killed thousands of people in 2013 (Holden et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Agriculture, property, and infrastructure suffer billions in economic losses annually (Kubota and Chan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). While no significant trend in typhoon frequency exists, recent decades have shown rising intensity, slower movement, and increased storm rainfall (Cinco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Climate hazards like typhoons, floods, and droughts also contribute to rice land decline. Pe\u0026ntilde;alba and Elazegui (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) highlight that the Philippines experiences around 20 typhoons annually, with increasing storm intensity over time. Resulting flooding and landslides cause damage and burial of low-lying ricelands. Changing environmental conditions like warmer seas may impact future typhoon characteristics and effects. The Philippines' geography exposes it to recurring typhoons with severe humanitarian and economic consequences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNature-induced factors that contributes to diminishing lands for rice production in the Philippines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiminishing factors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDriving factors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeriod\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects Mentioned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal area affected\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMitigation Measures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimited arable land\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeographical characteristics, islands, slopes, limited river deltas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVaried landscapes and expansive river deltas unsuitable land for rice production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhancing irrigation systems, high-yielding rice varieties, agricultural research and development, and farmer support programs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Mamiit et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand slides\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLahar mudslides\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZambales, Pampanga, Tarlac Provinces\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1991, 1993 and 1996 mudflows.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRice paddies covered with volcanic materials in subsequent mudflows.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRehabilitation of paddies and cannals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(U.S. Geological Survey, 1996)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand slides\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonsoon rainfall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIfugao\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2011 Reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAngle of the terrace slopes damaged by run-off water discharge and landslides triggered by monsoon rains.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe province needs to raise more than P100\u0026nbsp;million to restore the terraces and revive the economy for 2,000 farmers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Philippine Daily Inquirer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e, November)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand slides\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRemobilized lahar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMt. Mayon areas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2009 reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavy rains from Supertyphoon remobilized volcanic debris on the southern and eastern slopes of Mount Mayon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproving of dikes, analysis and mapping of lahars, and using remote sensing techniques as early warning systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Paguican et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProlong submergence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtended flooding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApalit, Pampanga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2012\u0026ndash;2013 Data observations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtended flood and longer submergence decreased irrigated lowlands.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1500 hectares or 25% of the municipality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse flood-tolerant and tall rice varieties, and appropriate rice zoning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Toda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainfall and earthquake-triggered\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRainfall and earthquake-triggered landslide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGuinsaugon, Leyte\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMassive landslide in Guinsaugon, Leyte, Philippines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Lagmay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil Erosion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11% slopes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil erosion reducing land for rice production significantly impacted on food security\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57% of the Philippines has a slope of 11% has erosion rate of 400 t/ha-year.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on soil conservation methods, and careful management of soil erosion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Pimentel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuman-induced factors that contributes to diminishing lands for rice production in the Philippines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDriving factor/s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeriod Covered\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects Mentioned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal area affected\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMitigation Measures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChange in agricultural practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShift to non-crop\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNationwide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiversification to non-crop changes in the use of rice fields.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe focus is on the concept of diversification to response declining profitability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Pingali, 1993)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChange in agricultural practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeforestation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBenguet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2011 reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransition from rice to high-value vegetable farming in Benguet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity-based Forest management (CBFM) strategy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollosco, A. G. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand conversion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eresidential, commercial, and industrial use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaguna and Bulacan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1971\u0026ndash;1992 reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn annual decrease in rice production of about 21%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% decrease in rice area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Moya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand conversion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eresidential, commercial, and industrial use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetro Manila\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1998 reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversion without the knowledge of the Department of Agrarian Reform\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50,000 hectares converted since 1988\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReview the decentralization of power on land conversion decision\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Kelly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand conversion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndustrial estates and residential sub-divisions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhilippines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30-years period\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConverting rice lands to non-agricultural use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10,000 has. of rice land\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImprove irrigation, high-yielding technologies, reduce population growth, regulate land conversion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Fernandez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand conversion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncroachment of rice terraces\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRice Terraces of Cordilleras\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2011 Reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoss of rice agriculture due to development and infrastructure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConservation of cultural and natural values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Mananghaya, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand conversion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eindustrialization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilang-Santa Rosa River Sub-watershed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1993\u0026ndash;2008 land cover changes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe conversion of rice fields for industrial and residential\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProjection of future land cover based on the patterns of land cover changes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Engay-Gutierrez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbandon and idle land\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eunirrigated\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNationwide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1974\u0026ndash;2012 reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30% of the country rice fields remain unirrigated\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30% reduction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRehabilitation of irrigation and solely focus on total service expansion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Delos Reyes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbandon and idle land\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einadequate irrigation infrastructure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeyte\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2016 reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubstantial portion of rice lands were left idle due to inadequate irrigation infrastructure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61% were rainfed and only 39% irrigated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpanding irrigation infrastructure could potentially allow more of these idle lands to be cultivated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Dargantes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContinued\u0026hellip;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDriving factor/s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeriod Covered\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects Mentioned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal area affected\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMitigation Measures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban sprawl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePopulation growth/urbanization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNationwide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1988\u0026ndash;2016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97,592.5 hectares converted to nonagricultural use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1988\u0026ndash;2016, a total of 97,592.5 hectares converted to nonagricultural use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImprove household adaptive capacity to a changing climate particularly extreme event\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Pe\u0026ntilde;alba and Elazegui, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban sprawl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eencroachment on rice lands near cities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarikina City, San Jose del Monte City, San Mateo, and Montalban\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban expansion and housing developments extinct soil series suitable for rice production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,500 hectares or approximately 31% of the total land area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand use planning and management to prevent agricultural land conversion into housing subdivisions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Carating et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbandon and idle land\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInadequate irrigation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePampanga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2020 reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe discrepancy between the design service areas and the actual irrigated areas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecreasing area between dry and wet season\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Tabios III \u0026amp; de Leon, 2020)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban sprawl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eurban expansion and sprawl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetro Manila\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1982\u0026ndash;1997\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRapid population growth led to urban sprawl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl and manage urban growth, promote sustainable development, protect agricultural land\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Murakami \u0026amp; Palijon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban sprawl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePopulation growth/urbanization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLuzon, Visayas, and Mindanao\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1998\u0026ndash;2016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97,592.5 hectares of agricultural land were converted in 1998 and 2016.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.6 percent land in Luzon, 7.8 percent in Visayas, and 11.6 percent in Mindanao\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA bill has been filed in 2019 to regulate land conversion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Cabildo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban sprawl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrbanization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Capital Region\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLast 20 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrastic decline in rice cultivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreserve agricultural lands, sustain food production and promote urban agriculture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Bravo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbandon and idle land\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMigration to urban areas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIfugao\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2018 Report\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMigration to urban areas abandoned terraces and irrigation systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 to 30 percent of the terraces\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificant rehabilitation, restoration process, and sustainable tourism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(National Geographic, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. \u003cem\u003eContinued\u0026hellip;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDriving factor/s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeriod Covered\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects Mentioned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal area affected\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMitigation Measures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbandon and idle land\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelling of land and abandoned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNationwide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2020 Report\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecrease palay output due to selling of farmland and abandonment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u0026nbsp;million hectares lost since 1995.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoost rice production, government subsidy, increased yield and reduced production cost.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Miraflor, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChange in agricultural practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntroduction and proliferation cash crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSarangani uplands\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlternative cash crops displaced traditional rice landraces and rice areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollect and preserve the remaining traditional rice varieties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Zapico et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbandon and shift of cultivation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbandon and shift to other crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBanaue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021 Reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbandon or convert their rice fields for more profitable crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e540 of the total 1,607 hectares\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreserve rice terraces and forests, sustainable livelihoods, and stopping the use of invasive tree species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDunaway \u0026amp; Macabuac, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChange in agricultural practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeforestation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBohol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1996\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eabandon irrigated rice paddies to maize and other crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot specified\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrich, P. B. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand conversion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower prices agricultural land and insufficient irrigation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eButuan City\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2014\u0026ndash;2016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eButuan City's rice production is inadequate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.031 hectares agricultural land converted\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReview zoning plan, implement Ag-Land Protection Program.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Pia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.3. Catastrophic mudflows of Mt. Pinatubo\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Philippines, situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire, faces significant volcanic hazards, with over 20 active volcanoes scattered across the archipelago (Sasidharan \u0026amp; Dhillon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Historically, volcanic eruptions have caused tremendous damage to agriculture, infrastructure, and communities in the Philippines (Newhall \u0026amp; Punongbayan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). Rice farms in Zambales, Pampanga, and Tarlac were damaged sporadically by volcanic eruptions in 1991, 1993, and 1996 showing that the cataclysmic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines deposited more than one cubic mile of ash and debris on the volcano\u0026rsquo;s slopes, leading to the impact of almost one million people (U.S. Geological Survey, 1996). The eruption produced extensive lahars, giant mudflows of volcanic material and water. Lahars form when water mixes with the loose ash and debris left by an explosion. They can be highly hazardous and destructive as they flow rapidly, transport large objects, erode channels, and bury entire towns. One of the major hazards of lahars is that they can occur suddenly and without warning when the temporary lakes formed by eruptions break through their natural dams. The Mount Pinatubo eruption and subsequent lahars demonstrate the immense danger these volcanic mudflows can pose to nearby populations through catastrophic erosion and flooding. The devastating lahars resulting from the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines had severe widespread impacts on rice lands in the surrounding areas (U.S. Geological Survey, 1996). Extensive lahar deposits buried many lowland rice paddies under meters of sediment and caused widespread flooding that submerged rice fields for extended periods (Punongbayan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). The nutrient-poor lahar deposits also reduced soil fertility and rice yields in areas where paddies were not profoundly buried (Rodolfo \u0026amp; Umbal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the mudflows damaged irrigation infrastructure, roads, and bridges, reducing farm water supply and isolating agricultural communities (Newhall \u0026amp; Punongbayan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.4. Remobilizing lahars of Mt. Mayon\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother study by Paguican et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) focuses on lahars induced by extreme rainfall from Typhoon Durian in November 2006. The typhoon delivered up to 495 mm of torrential rain over 1.5 days, which greatly exceeded lahar initiation thresholds for Mayon. The intense precipitation mobilized loose pyroclastic deposits from previous eruptions into over 1,000 and hyper-concentrated debris flows. However, lahars can also form during volcanic eruptions. Hot pyroclastic flows and ash flows can melt snow and ice or interact with surface water to produce large lahars, known as primary or eruption-fed lahars (Pierson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e; Thouret et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, secondary lahars can occur for years after eruptions when heavy rains remobilize freshly deposited tephra (Pierson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e; Thouret et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The Paguican et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) study highlights the devastating impacts of rainfall-induced lahars at Mayon Volcano. The 2006 lahars buried villages under meters of sediment and caused over 1,200 fatalities. Lahars also damaged infrastructure, including breaching drainage dikes and flooding agricultural valleys. Over 6,300 hectares of rice lands were damaged or destroyed, with sediment burial sharply reducing crop yields. Whether eruption-fed or rainfall-triggered, lahars can severely affect downstream communities through flooding, sedimentation, and physical impacts. Managing lahar hazards relies on understanding their initiation and behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.5. Typhoon-induced debris flows\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRice farming is a predominant land use and livelihood across the Philippines, but rice lands face major threats from typhoon-triggered debris flows. A prime example was the 2012 disaster in Andap village, located in the municipality of New Bataan in Davao de Oro province, Mindanao. Andap was situated on an alluvial fan formed by previous ancient debris flows at the outlet of the Mayo River watershed. However, the hazard was not recognized when Andap was settled in the 1960s. In December 2012, Typhoon Bopha impacted Mindanao as an intense Category 5 storm. It delivered torrential rainfall, with over 120 mm falling in just 7 hours in the Mayo River basin (Rodolfo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This extreme precipitation vastly exceeded the thresholds known to initiate debris flows worldwide. The heavy rains mobilized loose volcaniclastic sediment on the steep, deforested slopes of the watershed. This generated a massive debris flow, with an estimated volume of 25\u0026ndash;30\u0026nbsp;million m3 (Rodolfo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The debris flow buried Andap village under up to 9 meters of sediment (Rodolfo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Boulders up to 5 meters in diameter were transported by the flow and deposited amidst the finer sediment (Eco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). LiDAR surveys allowed Eco et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) to delineate the aerial extent, thickness, and geomorphology of the new debris flow deposits. While neither study quantified agricultural impacts, Andap and the surrounding areas were dominated by smallholder rice farming before the disaster. Rodolfo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) described the debris flow as burying entire communities, undoubtedly destroying existing rice paddies across the planted land.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.6. Monsoon-triggered landslides\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe famous Ifugao rice terraces of the Cordillera region in the Philippines have been threatened by increased landslide occurrences, especially during heavy monsoon rains. Studies have documented frequent landslides and terrain failures directly impacting these historic terraced landscapes over the past decade (Bacudo et al., 2012). For instance, the Philippine Daily Inquirer in November 2011 reported that the rice terraces in Ifugao, Philippines, have been destroyed by monsoon-triggered landslides, and the government needs to address this issue without causing further damage to the 2,000-year-old relic. Some scholars hypothesize climate change is increasing monsoon intensity in the region, escalating hydrological triggers for landslides. Hsu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) found that global monsoon precipitation, area, and intensity consistently increase under global warming. Zhang and Zhou (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) observed significant increases in extreme rainfall in global land monsoon regions, associating this trend with global warming. Katzenberger et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) projected an intensification of highly rainfall-intense monsoon seasons in India under global warming scenarios. In the Philippines, the tropical monsoon climate is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons. Monsoon rains are a dominant facet of the weather and climate across much of the country. The southwest monsoon SWM), or \u0026ldquo;Habagat,\u0026rdquo; brings the rainy season between June and September, while the northeast monsoon, or \u0026ldquo;Amihan,\u0026rdquo; brings drier conditions from November to April (Cruz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). These rainfall events are not directly coming from the tropical cyclones (TCs), for they are situated far north to northeast of Luzon Island. The heavy rainfall is hypothesized to be caused by the interaction of solid westerlies with the mountain ranges along the west coast of Luzon, which produces strong vertical motion and consequently generates heavy rainfall (Cayanan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). On average, monsoon rains deliver an annual precipitation total of around 2,400 mm in the Philippines, though there is significant spatial variation (Cinco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Topography plays a key role, with windward sides of mountains and hills receiving heavier rainfall. Monsoons profoundly shape agriculture and rice cultivation patterns, with rice planted to align with rainy season peaks (Roberts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.7. Rainfall and earthquake-triggered landslide\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn 17 February 2006, a massive landslide devastated the village of Guinsaugon in the Philippines. The landslide occurred along the Philippine Fault Zone, with an estimated 15\u0026ndash;20\u0026nbsp;million m3 covering 3 km2 (Lagmay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). It reached velocities of 100\u0026ndash;140 km/hr, transporting the village of Guinsaugon 500\u0026ndash;600 m and causing 1,266 fatalities. Lagmay et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) identify intense rainfall and a magnitude 2.6 earthquake as likely triggers. 500 mm of rain fell in the week prior, greatly exceeding infiltration rates on already saturated slopes. While the earthquake was too small and distant to induce mass wasting directly, it may have opened fractures for water infiltration that lubricated the failure plane. The high-velocity landslide destroyed the village of Guinsaugon. Satellite imagery before and after the event shows the landslide scar and deposit covering 3 km2 of previously forested slopes and agricultural valleys. Residents reported ponds and a river draining away before the slide, suggesting substantial subsurface erosion. While Lagmay et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) do not directly quantify agriculture or rice land loss, the landslide buried and transported cultivated valleys and villages at the base of the slope. Guinsaugon and surrounding communities were likely dominated by subsistence rice agriculture. According to the report, residents of neighboring barangays, who were thankfully saved from the tragedy, were forced to move away from their farms and rice lands. Hence, the massive landslide potentially caused significant loss of rice paddies and agricultural lands due to burial under debris. An intense rainfall event and earthquake triggered a catastrophic landslide at Guinsaugon, causing extensive land cover change.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.8. Prolong flooding and submergence\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubmergence due to flooding is a significant constraint for rice cultivation in the Philippines. A study by Israel (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) found that between 2007\u0026ndash;2010, an annual average of \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e23.76\u0026nbsp;million worth of damage to rice farming in the Philippines was attributed to flooding and submergence. Prolonged submergence of over five days can result in significant yield declines. Bailey-Serres et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) reported that about 25% of rice areas in the Philippines experience some level of submergence during the wet season. Submergence-tolerant varieties such as Sub1 lines have been developed but not widely adopted. According to Manzanilla et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), recurring floods affect about 20% of the total rice area during the wet season in Central Luzon and Cagayan Valley. This reduces the land available for rice cultivation in the main crop seasons. A simulation study by Wassmann et al. (2009) estimated that a 20-day submergence of rice fields in the Philippines would yield losses of 0.4-1.0 t/ha, depending on the variety. This highlights the significant impact of submergence on yields. A case study by Toda et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) in Apalit, Pampanga, used flood modeling to analyze the effect of submergence on rice-growing areas. They found that for a 100-year rainfall return period, an estimated 10\u0026ndash;21% of current cultivated land would be submerged for over seven days and in depths greater than 20cm, reducing the area suitable for traditional irrigated rice varieties. Through focus group discussions, farmers also reported that 50\u0026ndash;80% of rice fields in Apalit are affected by prolonged submergence lasting 4\u0026ndash;7 months in some areas during the wet season. The study concluded that submergence-tolerant varieties are needed for about 20% of the rice area in Apalit due to changing flood scenarios that have reduced land suitable for customary lowland rice cultivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2. Human-Induced Factors\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.1. Land conversion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrbanization, industrialization, population growth, policies that favour automation over agriculture, legal loopholes, absence of regulation, and vested interest act as key reasons behind land conversion activities in the Philippines. The transformation of agricultural lands into other uses is mainly motivated by urbanization and industrialization. Major towns and cities like the Metropolitan Manila have witnessed rapid growth in areas dedicated to residential and business services. Because of this, there is an ever-growing need for additional plots of agricultural lands in order to compensate for lost paddies around cities that are affected by urbanization and population growth, and as a result \u0026ndash; production decline. The demand for land to accommodate the growing urban population and expansion of economic activities has led to the encroachment on agricultural areas. Rapid population growth has also contributed to converting agricultural lands as it increases demand for residential and commercial spaces (Mananghaya, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Population pressure induces the conversion of agricultural land around urban areas. Development policies prioritizing industrialization over agricultural development have promoted the conversion of agricultural lands, often disregarding implications on food security and rural livelihoods (Kelly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Engay-Gutierrez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Investment policies favoring industrial estates over agriculture also drive land conversion. Legal loopholes, lack of effective regulation and enforcement of land conversion laws, and political processes enable the circumvention of land reform policies and conversion of agricultural lands to more profitable non-agricultural uses (Kelly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Pia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The vested interests of landowners and real estate developers influence land conversion. Lower market prices make agricultural lands attractive for conversion into residential subdivisions, commercial complexes, and recreational facilities like golf courses (Fernandez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Laguna, the rice area declined by over 50% between 1971\u0026ndash;1992, from around 20,000 to less than 10,000 hectares, indicating major land conversion (Moya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). In Cavite, irrigated rice land declined from 14,710 hectares in 1989 to 12,800 hectares by 1993, a loss of 1,910 hectares (Kelly \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Nationally, around 33,707 hectares of agricultural land were converted between 1988\u0026ndash;1995, but the proportion that was rice land is unspecified (Kelly \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Over 30 years, around half a million hectares of prime agricultural lands were converted nationwide, including rice lands (Fernandez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). In specific locations like Sta. Rosa and Bi\u0026ntilde;an in Laguna, thousands of hectares of agricultural and rice lands were converted from the 1970s onwards (Engay-Gutierrez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The region with the most approved land conversions was Southern Tagalog (Region IV), followed by Central Luzon (Region III) (Kelly \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). These regions encompass the areas surrounding Metro Manila, which saw rapid urbanization. The Cordillera Rice Terraces also experienced encroachment and conversion of rice lands (Mananghaya \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The decline in rice farming area and production, especially in provinces like Laguna, has resulted in the loss of income and employment for many farmers who rely on rice cultivation (Moya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). The conversion of agricultural lands has also led to the displacement of tenant farmers and agricultural laborers who lose their lands and livelihoods. Remaining farmers face marginalization and difficulties like water shortage, pest infestations, labor shortages, and low profitability (Kelly \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Financial pressures have forced some farmers to sell their lands to developers, losing land ownership, control, and cultural ties (Engay-Gutierrez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Some farmers have migrated for alternative livelihoods, causing family and social disruption. There are also obstacles to traditional cooperative agricultural practices in areas like the Cordillera Rice Terraces (Mananghaya, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Many farmers are dissatisfied with government support and programs, as evidenced in Butuan City (Pia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The implications of these impacts include a decline in agricultural productivity and food self-sufficiency, increased dependency on rice imports affecting food security, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and threats to the cultural heritage of rice farming communities (Moya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Fernandez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Engay-Gutierrez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.2. Urban sprawl\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother significant contributor to the loss of agricultural lands, including rice fields in the Philippines, is urban sprawl or unplanned and uneven growth pattern that results from urbanization. Several studies have analyzed the reasons and factors behind urban sprawl and its influence on rice fields. Rapid urbanization and population growth emerge as key reasons behind urban sprawl across the literature. As cities expand to accommodate the growing population, agricultural lands on the fringe are converted for residential, commercial, and industrial use (Pe\u0026ntilde;alba \u0026amp; Elazegui, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Cabildo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Uncontrolled, unplanned development further exacerbates sprawl and encroachment on rice lands near cities (Bravo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Carating et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Speculation by investors eyeing profits from non-agricultural development is another driver of agricultural land conversion (Cabildo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Demand for housing, infrastructure development, economic factors, and consumer preferences for suburban lifestyles also contribute to urban expansion and sprawl (Murakami \u0026amp; Palijon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Weak enforcement of land use regulations enables unchecked development and growth of informal settlements, which further consumes agricultural land (Bravo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Murakami \u0026amp; Palijon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). The resulting shrinkage in agricultural land, especially rice fields, negatively impacts food production and agricultural income. However, estimating precise figures is challenging because large quantities of agricultural land have been changed for urban purposes, including rice paddies. At least one hundred thousand hectares of agricultural land have been certified for conversions in more than seventy towns across the country, dating between 1988 and 2016 (Pe\u0026ntilde;alba and Elaeguzi, 2013). This does not account for illegal conversion or land reclassified by local governments. Studies show measurable declines in agricultural and rice land over time in regions facing urban expansion, like Metro Manila's urban fringe, which saw reduced rice land from 1982 to 1997 as paddies were converted for residential use (Murakami \u0026amp; Palijon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Urbanization in the National Capital Region has also led to shrinking crop areas (Bravo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Metro Manila has experienced rapid urban sprawl, with its urbanized area expanding significantly between 1988 and 2014 (Cabildo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The urban fringe of Metro Manila is highlighted as a hotspot for sprawl, with land conversion and abandonment of rice paddies (Murakami \u0026amp; Palijon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). The southern part of Metro Manila also saw higher population growth and expansion of informal settlements, indicating greater sprawl. Outside of Metro Manila, the Marikina clay area known for rice cultivation has faced pressure from urban and commercial development (Carating et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversion of farmlands for residential and commercial development has forced farmers to abandon farming, resulting in the loss of stable livelihoods and income. Displacement from agrarian reform lands converted for urban use eliminates the farming livelihood for beneficiaries. Fragmentation of agricultural plots due to haphazard sprawl makes farming difficult (Carating et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Bravo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Depletion of water resources due to land use changes affects rice cultivation. The implications are enormous \u0026ndash; displaced farmers face food insecurity, increased poverty, and marginalization without alternate livelihood options. They become vulnerable to food prices and lack access to technologies or credit for adaptation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.3. Shift of cultivation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe declining profitability of rice farming due to low prices and high costs, which makes rice cultivation labor-intensive and less lucrative compared to high-value cash crops (Lapniten, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated this by reducing tourism and other income sources, pushing people toward vegetable farming, which yields higher income from the same land area. Between 1980 and 2008, rice lands decreased by 17.5% (Dunaway \u0026amp; Macabuac, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, only about 30% of Filipino farmland is utilized for rice cultivation, with most farmlands grown for export crops such as coconuts, bananas, and maize. From 1988 to 1999, about 500,000 hectares of rice lands were converted, even for fishponds during the shrimp export boom of the 1980s. This ongoing conversion of rice lands for export purposes, fishponds, and biofuels poses a continued threat to rice farming. Since 2000, traditional rice terraces and over 40,000 hectares of rice lands have been converted for various export uses (Dunaway \u0026amp; Macabuac, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, less than half of current rice farms are irrigated, and irrigated rice land decreased by over 13% from 1990\u0026ndash;2010, further jeopardizing production. In Bohol, Urich (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) found farmers were abandoning traditional irrigated rice paddies to cultivate maize and other crops. Similarly, Follosco (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) reported a transition from rice to high-value vegetable farming in Benguet. This was driven by market demand and profit incentives. Agricultural policies also promoted crop diversification. The introduction of alternative cash crops, especially hybrid corn (known as Sige-Sige corn), has profoundly impacted rice diversity by displacing traditional landraces from upland fields across the country (Zapico et al., 2019). Easy access to herbicides convinced many farmers to shift to Sige-Sige corn, requiring less labor than rice. Consequently, in the last 5 years, corn has become widespread in uplands as rice remains cultivated only in small pockets. Extensive deforestation for cash crops like abaca, coffee and corn was observed, indicating land conversion from forests directly to cash crops. The government\u0026rsquo;s Special Area for Agricultural Development (SAAD) program, promoting few introduced varieties, also contributed to loss of diverse traditional rice landraces previously grown (Zapico et al., 2019). In the Ifugao Rice Terraces, around 25\u0026ndash;30% of the 2,000-year-old terraces have been abandoned and are deteriorating (National Geographic, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Some towns have seen even greater losses, with as much as 50% of rice terraces abandoned in some areas (Lapniten, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This threatens the indigenous Ifugao peoples' livelihoods, cultural heritage centered around native tinawon rice cultivation, and the terraces' irreplaceable agroforestry system (National Geographic, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Lapniten, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Despite rice being a dietary staple, the government has not emphasized its production for domestic consumption, instead favoring export crops to earn foreign exchange for food imports. This loss of rice lands and lack of support for rice farming poses a significant threat to future Philippine food security.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.4. Inadequate irrigation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor irrigation system performance is attributed to various factors, especially in developing countries, including inadequate maintenance, flawed designs, improper installation, and institutional challenges (Inocencio et al., 2007; Moya, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, significant disparities exist between the intended and actual service areas of irrigation systems. In the Philippines, for instance, an average of 30% of irrigation service areas remain unirrigated (delos Reyes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), and 25\u0026ndash;43% of these areas are not receiving the irrigation they were designed for (Inocencio \u0026amp; Inocencio, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The absence of irrigation leads to soil degradation, rendering it unsuitable for puddled transplanted rice (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Unirrigated lands are often converted to rainfed rice or other crops, causing a permanent loss of rice land and affecting millions of farmers through reduced yields and livelihood impacts (delos Reyes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The study by Tabios III and De Leon (2020) examines two major irrigation systems in the Philippines and how irrigation miscalculations have affected land available for rice cultivation. The Angat-Maasim River Irrigation System (AMRIS) and Pampanga Delta River Irrigation System (PADRIS) were originally designed to irrigate much larger areas than they currently do. For AMRIS, competing demand for water from urban areas is a factor, along with issues like canal sedimentation reducing efficiency. For PADRIS, the diversion dam is too low to reach the full-service area, and flooding reduces usable land. A rapid agroecosystem assessment conducted in Basey, Samar, before Typhoon Yolanda revealed that a substantial portion of rice lands were left idle due to inadequate irrigation infrastructure (Dargantes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Out of 39 rice farm parcels inventoried in the municipality, 20 parcels, or 51%, were found to be fallow and uncultivated at the time of the survey.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe predominance of rainfed farms lacking irrigation was identified as a critical factor contributing to the idling of agricultural lands. Of the surveyed rice farms in Basey, 61% depended solely on rainfall, while only 39% had irrigation infrastructure. Interviews with farmers corroborated the scarcity of irrigation, with 82% characterizing their farms as rainfed versus just 18% designating their farms as irrigated. The reliance on rainfed rice production rendered cultivation untenable during drought periods. Farmers reported that planting for the second cropping season was often delayed due to insufficient water, especially during El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) years (Dargantes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the deterioration of infrastructure and inadequate maintenance further reduce the effectiveness of irrigation over time (Malano et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). These challenges are compounded by financial, institutional, and governance issues, which collectively hamper the performance of irrigation systems (Inocencio et al., 2007). The consequence of inadequate irrigation systems is a drastic decline in rice yields (Tuong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). After one or more seasons without sufficient irrigation, the land's suitability for puddled transplanted rice diminishes due to a decline in soil puddling quality (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.5. Deforestation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the 1970s the Philippines lost 30% of its natural forests due to agricultural land, mainly rice cultivation has been a major factor, Lasco, et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Ricelands account for around 30% of agricultural land in the Philippines (Mendoza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). However, deforestation in upland areas has been a significant driver of the abandonment of wet rice cultivation in certain regions of the Philippines, based on evidence from studies by Urich (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) and Follosco (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The clearing of forests in watershed areas alters the hydrological cycle, leading to more rapid runoff of rainfall and depletion of water sources for downstream irrigation systems. This disrupts the water supply to paddies at the necessary volumes and intervals required by indigenous irrigation designs for wet rice farming. Specifically, Urich (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) examined the decline of irrigation-based rice farming in two villages in Bohol. He found that upland deforestation since the early 1900s, including the conversion of forests to agricultural lands, pastures, and settlements, was the primary cause. Intensified runoff depleted groundwater retention and changed streamflow patterns. Traditional irrigation systems could no longer adequately distribute water across paddies, prompting many farmers to abandon wet rice cultivation. Likewise, Follosco (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) reported the abandonment of rice lands in Bakun, Benguet, due to multiple factors. These included conversion to vegetable farming, outmigration of farmers, and, importantly, deforestation in surrounding areas. Several studies have also examined the impacts of deforestation on local hydrology and rice lands. For example, Pulhin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) found that deforestation of watershed areas led to increased surface runoff and soil erosion, resulting in flooding, sedimentation, and reduced water availability for downstream rice fields. Deforestation on sloped lands also removed vegetation that helped stabilize soils, increasing landslide risks during heavy rains (Mugagga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Studies by Urich (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) and Follosco (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted upland deforestation as a significant factor leading to the abandonment of wet rice lands in certain Philippine regions that rely on indigenous irrigation systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.6. Land subsidence threats\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand subsidence is a significant problem affecting rice lands in the Philippines, especially in areas surrounding Metro Manila, such as Bulacan, Pampanga, and Nueva Ecija (Espiritu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Rodolfo \u0026amp; Siringan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). One major reason for this subsidence is groundwater over-extraction (Nagumo \u0026amp; Sawano, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This leads to a quick fall of the water table and compaction of the aquifer systems, with annual subsidence average of about 2.5 cm and maximum 4 cm. This land subsidence affects rice production in several key ways. First, it reduces the drainage capacity of rivers and increases flooding in low-lying agricultural areas (Nagumo \u0026amp; Sawano, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Prolonged flooding damages rice crops and makes it difficult to plant and harvest rice. Second, land subsidence enhances saltwater intrusion inland, which degrades soil quality and suitability for rice cultivation (Siringan \u0026amp; Rodolfo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Rice is sensitive to soil salinity so saltwater intrusion will reduce yields. Third, land subsidence damages irrigation and drainage infrastructure critical for rice farming (Siringan \u0026amp; Rodolfo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Subsidence has emerged healthy pipes and damaged benchmarks, roads, and facilities needed to support rice agriculture. Fourth, increased tidal and storm surges reach further inland, degrading soil quality and suitability for rice (Siringan \u0026amp; Rodolfo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Natural sediment compaction also contributes but is slower, around a few mm/year (Johnson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Groundwater extraction accelerates compaction, increasing subsidence rates up to 8.3 cm/year (Siringan \u0026amp; Rodolfo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Subsidence lowers land elevations, allowing seawater intrusion further inland along rivers and irrigation channels, increasing soil salinity (Siringan \u0026amp; Rodolfo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). It disrupts drainage patterns and aggravates flooding of rice fields during storms and high tides (Lopez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). More frequent and prolonged flooding damages rice crops and infrastructure like irrigation channels (Mialhe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Coastal areas report spring tide heights increasing 0.3-2 meters over the past decade due to subsidence, enhancing crop damage (Siringan \u0026amp; Rodolfo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003eSubsidence damages roads, bridges, buildings, and other infrastructure (Mialhe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). It contributes to more severe and frequent flooding in populated areas surrounding rice lands (Rodolfo \u0026amp; Siringan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Paradoxically, flood control structures prevent natural sediment deposition that could counteract subsidence (Siringan \u0026amp; Rodolfo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Regulate and monitor groundwater pumping, especially in coastal rice farming regions, to curb over-extraction (Espiritu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Increase surface water supplies to reduce reliance on groundwater (Rodolfo \u0026amp; Siringan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Adapt land use planning and cropping patterns to flooding risks (Lopez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Restore river widths and raise infrastructure for lowered land elevations (Siringan \u0026amp; Rodolfo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION MEASURES","content":"\u003cp\u003eVarious natural and human-induced factors affect rice lands in the Philippines and propose mitigation measures to combat them. The recommended approaches include the rehabilitation of paddies and canals, improving dikes, analyzing and mapping lahars, utilizing remote sensing techniques, using flood-tolerant rice varieties, appropriate zoning, enhancing irrigation systems, developing high-yielding rice varieties, and supporting agricultural research and farmer assistance programs. The studies also emphasize strengthening land use regulations, promoting sustainable tourism, niche products, e-commerce support, agroforestry, reforestation, payment for ecosystem services, regulating groundwater extraction, increasing surface water supply, adapting land use planning, and enhancing infrastructure to address human-induced factors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis systematic review examined the factors contributing to the diminishing rice lands in the Philippines over the past 30 years. The literature revealed both nature-induced and human-induced drivers of rice land decline. The Philippines' geographic location and terrain, with its archipelagic nature, render it less ideal for expansive rice cultivation compared to mainland Southeast Asia. Recurrent typhoons, volcanic eruptions, landslides, flooding, and other climate hazards periodically damage or bury rice lands. However, human activities have played a far more significant role in rice land loss. Rapid urbanization and uncontrolled urban sprawl are consuming peri-urban rice paddies. Agricultural lands face widespread conversion for residential, commercial, and industrial uses, especially surrounding major cities. This conversion displaces farmers and threatens food security. Similarly, policies favoring cash crops, aquaculture, and biofuels have driven a shift away from rice farming across both upland and lowland areas. Introducing hybrid corn and other cash crops has displaced traditional rice varieties and paddies. Inadequate irrigation infrastructure leaves much potential rice land unirrigated or underproductive. Deforestation also disrupts water supplies critical for conventional wet rice cultivation. Additionally, the iconic Cordillera Rice Terraces, outmigration, tourism pressures, and lack of maintenance have led to terrace deterioration, erosion, and rice land abandonment. While climate change will likely intensify impacts on rice lands, current evidence indicates anthropogenic drivers have dominated rice land conversion and degradation over recent decades in the Philippines. Sustained declines in rice land availability threaten long-term food self-sufficiency and rural livelihoods dependent on rice cultivation. Lastly, human-induced land subsidence from the over pumping of groundwater exacerbates flooding, seawater intrusion, and infrastructure damage in rice farming regions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecommendations:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStrengthen the protection and regulation of agricultural zones, especially irrigated rice lands, to prevent conversion. Enforce urban growth boundaries and agricultural greenbelts.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eInvest in irrigation infrastructure rehabilitation and expansion focused on existing rice lands. Improve water use efficiency.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePromote climate-resilient technologies like flood-tolerant rice varieties and drought mitigation. Develop rice landslide warning systems.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIncentivize continued cultivation of rice landraces in terraces to sustain the heritage and prevent further deterioration. Develop sustainable tourism models.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCurtail deforestation through forest protection policies and incentives for watershed conservation. Reforest denuded uplands.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRegulate groundwater extraction in subsidence hotspots to reduce impacts on rice lands. Improve drainage and flood control.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBalance urban development with safeguarding sufficient rice lands to support food security—favor compact development, not sprawl.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eImplement integrated land use planning to optimize agricultural production, ecosystem conservation, and climate change adaptation.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDATA AVAILABILITY\u003c/strong\u003e Due to the large dataset of a literature review, the data supporting the conclusion will be available on request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eACKNOWLEDGEMENTS\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe author would like to thank Surigao del Norte State University (SNSU) - Mainit Campus for providing facilities and resources that greatly aided the literature review process. Specifically, the availability of library resources and databases as well as reliable internet connectivity through the campus network were invaluable in accessing the literature needed to conduct this extensive systematic review. The author appreciates SNSU-Mainit Campus for fostering an enabling research environment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e This research did not receive any specific grant or financial support from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. As it was a literature review study, it relied solely on openly accessible published works and thus did not require direct research funding.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAgus, F. (2006). Agricultural land conversion as a threat to food security and environmental. \u003cem\u003eJurnal Penelitian Dan Pengembangan Pertanian,\u003c/em\u003e 25(3), 90\u0026ndash;98.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBacudo, A. 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Significant increases in extreme precipitation and the associations with global warming over the global land monsoon regions. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Climate\u003c/em\u003e, 32(24), 8465-8488. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-18-0662.1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Surigao del Norte State University - Mainit Campus","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Rice land loss, Land use change, Agricultural land conversion, Drivers of rice land decline, Philippine rice lands","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3927443/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3927443/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eRice farming is a pillar of food security, livelihoods, and cultural heritage across the Philippines. However, available rice lands face mounting pressures. This systematic review synthesizes evidence on factors driving the decline of Philippine rice lands over the past 30 years (1993-2023). Literature was retrieved from academic databases and grey sources, screened for relevance, and analyzed following PRISMA guidelines. Results reveal both natural and anthropogenic threats to rice lands: recurrent typhoons, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and flooding periodically damage rice areas. However, human activities dominated the drivers of rice land loss and degradation. Rapid urbanization and sprawl have directly converted 30-50% of rice lands near cities over recent decades. Agricultural policies and shifting profitability spurred farmers to convert paddies to aquaculture, cash crops, and other uses. Inadequate irrigation leaves 30% of lands dry. Deforestation disrupts water supplies essential for traditional wet rice cultivation, prompting abandonment. Groundwater over-extraction causes subsidence, enhancing flood risks and infrastructure damage. Deteriorating iconic Cordillera rice terraces face erosion and landslides after abandonment. Integrated land use planning is urgently needed to safeguard sufficient rice lands and support climate-resilient, sustainable intensification. Stronger protection of agricultural zones, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, and farmers’ adaptation incentives can help secure rice farming livelihoods and long-term food self-sufficiency, given the projected pressures of urbanization and climate change across the Philippines’ rice lands.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Shrinking Rice Bowls: Tracing the Decline of Philippine Rice Lands","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-02-06 09:01:20","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3927443/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a372af9e-eca2-4d5f-ae29-c8a3010b9250","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 6th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":28556477,"name":"Agricultural Economics \u0026 Policy"},{"id":28556478,"name":"Food Science \u0026 Technology"},{"id":28556479,"name":"Agroecology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-02-06T09:01:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-02-06 09:01:20","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3927443","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3927443","identity":"rs-3927443","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}