Circular Economy in EU Construction and Demolition Waste: Persistent Barriers, Digital Innovation, and the Emerging Energy Security Imperative

Construction and demolition waste (CDW) is the largest single waste stream in the European Union by weight (~39% of all EU waste), yet the EU’s circular material use rate stood at only 12.2% in 2024 — less than half its 2030 target. Despite two decades of legislative ambition, the 70% recovery target under Directive 2008/98/EC has not been genuinely achieved: apparent compliance by most Member States conceals widespread downcycling and inconsistent reporting. This review identifies five persistent barrier domains — legal, technical, social, behavioural, and economic — with regulatory fragmentation and secondary material devaluation as the most structurally entrenched. A decisive paradigm shift is observed in recent research, from material characterisation towards systemic circularity, digital demolition frameworks, and governance. Emerging technologies — including AI-powered sorting, Building Information Modelling, Digital Twins, and Digital Product Passports — hold transformative potential, while Design for Deconstruction represents a critical upstream strategy the sector has yet to mainstream. The forthcoming EU Circular Economy Act will introduce legally binding obligations for Member States. The 2026 Strait of Hormuz energy crisis has reframed CDW from an environmental concern into a strategic industrial imperative: as virgin material costs surge, secondary CDW materials offer economic and geopolitical advantage. Future research must prioritise collaborative governance, longitudinal data, and scalable digital solutions.