Fabrication and Characterization of a Microwave Sensor for Potassium Hydroxide Analysis and prediction Using Gaussian Process Regression

Fabrication and Characterization of a Microwave Sensor for Potassium Hydroxide Analysis and prediction Using Gaussian Process Regression | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Fabrication and Characterization of a Microwave Sensor for Potassium Hydroxide Analysis and prediction Using Gaussian Process Regression Djalal eddine Bensafieddine, Hocine Merah, Fatima Djerfaf This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6199500/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study presents the design and fabrication of a microwave sensor for the precise detection of potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution concentrations, ranging from 0.52mol/kg to 3.22mol/kg. The sensor incorporates a novel mirrored E-shaped metamaterial cell, leveraging its distinctive magnetic properties to enhance sensor performance. To validate the design, we conducted comprehensive performance evaluations using both experimental measurements and simulations, employing the Finite Integration Technique (FIT), Finite Element Method (FEM), and Method of Moments. The electrical properties of the KOH solutions were accurately characterized using the Cole-Cole model. Experimental results revealed a significant shift in the sensor's resonance frequency (Δ f ), reaching a maximum of 0.52 GHz, while maintaining high amplitude sensitivity (\(\:\left|{\Delta\:}{S}_{21}\right|=0.57\:dB,\:\left|{\Delta\:}{S}_{11}\right|=1.63\:dB\)) within the 1–5 GHz frequency band. Furthermore, we observed notable variations in the sensor's quality factor (Q), ranging from 11.25 to 0.42. These variations directly correlated with changes in the KOH solution concentration, demonstrating the sensor's high sensitivity. To further analyze the sensor's behavior, we utilized a Gaussian Process Regression model to predict the reflection coefficient (S 11 ) and transmission coefficient (S 21 ) of the KOH solution. The predicted S-parameter values exhibited a close agreement with the experimental measurements, achieving a low Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) of approximately 4.31% for S 11 and 1.90% for S 21 at a target concentration of 2.64mol/kg. Microwave Sensor Metamaterials potassium hydroxide cole-cole model Gaussian Process Regression GPR Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6199500","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":427104714,"identity":"2b9b60eb-fffd-41e5-9315-a14d1067f0ee","order_by":0,"name":"Djalal eddine Bensafieddine","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Applied Science and didactics laboratory Higher Normal School, Laghouat, Algeria","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Djalal","middleName":"eddine","lastName":"Bensafieddine","suffix":""},{"id":427104715,"identity":"7e0c31d4-1fa7-46ad-9f5f-5e201fb320a1","order_by":1,"name":"Hocine Merah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Applied Science and didactics laboratory Higher Normal School, Laghouat, Algeria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hocine","middleName":"","lastName":"Merah","suffix":""},{"id":427104716,"identity":"1082ea4d-a537-4a9f-890d-91e487a13629","order_by":2,"name":"Fatima Djerfaf","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Laboratory of Materials, Energetic Systems, Renewable Energy and Energy Management, Laghouat, Algeria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fatima","middleName":"","lastName":"Djerfaf","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-11 02:38:08","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6199500/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6199500/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":78754155,"identity":"ffe05890-4fea-431d-aea3-ccb2a2f277b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-18 12:23:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":760263,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscriptDBensafieddine.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6199500/v1_covered_3c73e6d6-4755-412a-97a4-f5bd9ee7691f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Fabrication and Characterization of a Microwave Sensor for Potassium Hydroxide Analysis and prediction Using Gaussian Process Regression","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Microwave Sensor, Metamaterials, potassium hydroxide, cole-cole model, Gaussian Process Regression GPR","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6199500/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6199500/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study presents the design and fabrication of a microwave sensor for the precise detection of potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution concentrations, ranging from 0.52mol/kg to 3.22mol/kg. The sensor incorporates a novel mirrored E-shaped metamaterial cell, leveraging its distinctive magnetic properties to enhance sensor performance. To validate the design, we conducted comprehensive performance evaluations using both experimental measurements and simulations, employing the Finite Integration Technique (FIT), Finite Element Method (FEM), and Method of Moments. The electrical properties of the KOH solutions were accurately characterized using the Cole-Cole model. Experimental results revealed a significant shift in the sensor's resonance frequency (Δ\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e), reaching a maximum of 0.52 GHz, while maintaining high amplitude sensitivity (\\(\\:\\left|{\\Delta\\:}{S}_{21}\\right|=0.57\\:dB,\\:\\left|{\\Delta\\:}{S}_{11}\\right|=1.63\\:dB\\)) within the 1–5 GHz frequency band. Furthermore, we observed notable variations in the sensor's quality factor (Q), ranging from 11.25 to 0.42. 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