Unlocking the Interplay of Interoceptive Awareness, Anxiety, and Perspective-Taking: Insights into Intimate Partner Violence Dynamics in General Population

Unlocking the Interplay of Interoceptive Awareness, Anxiety, and Perspective-Taking: Insights into Intimate Partner Violence Dynamics in General Population | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Unlocking the Interplay of Interoceptive Awareness, Anxiety, and Perspective-Taking: Insights into Intimate Partner Violence Dynamics in General Population Paola Solano-Durán, Juan Pablo Morales, Daniel Franco-Obyrne, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7577993/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Intimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with anxiety and relational difficulties, yet the mechanisms linking these outcomes remain underexplored. Interoception and perspective taking may jointly explain the impact of IPV on psychological and social functioning. Methods This study examined relationships among IPV exposure, anxiety, interoceptive awareness, and perspective taking. Participants completed validated measures assessing these domains. SEM analysis tested whether anxiety predicted interoceptive and perspective-taking deficits, and whether interoception was associated with perspective-taking. Results IPV exposure was significantly related to heightened anxiety, which in turn predicted lower interoceptive awareness and reduced perspective-taking capacity. Interoception was positively associated with perspective taking, suggesting a link between bodily attunement and social-cognitive processing. Conclusions Findings support a mechanistic model in which IPV-induced anxiety disrupts interoception and perspective taking, creating a cycle of relational and psychological vulnerability. Interventions targeting interoceptive awareness and perspective-taking skills may enhance recovery, particularly when combined with trauma-informed care. Biological sciences/Neuroscience Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology Intimate Partner Violence Interoceptive Awareness Anxiety Perspective Taking. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction Intimate partner violence (IPV) remains one of the most pervasive and complex public health crises across the globe. It cuts across cultural, socioeconomic, and geographic boundaries, but the burden is not evenly shared. Marginalised communities are disproportionately affected. These individuals often face layered systems of disadvantage that compound the effects of abuse and restrict access to support services (Sardinha et al., 2022 ; Mathews et al., 2025 ; Fuchsel, 2021 ; Alangea et al., 2018; Jewkes et al., 2017 ; Winstok, 2007 ). Both physical and psychological consequences are profound. Survivors frequently endure long-lasting emotional and mental health impacts that shape their daily functioning and sense of self. Anxiety, persistent depression, and symptoms consistent with posttraumatic stress are not simply common by-products; they are deeply embedded outcomes of sustained exposure to coercion, fear, and loss of autonomy. These mental health effects often persist long after the immediate threat has passed, reinforcing cycles of isolation and vulnerability (Campbell, 2002 ; Lutgendorf, 2019; Chisholm et al., 2017 ; Caldwell et al., 2012; Barker et al., 2019; White et al., 2023 ; Moulding et al., 2020 ; Sprague & Olff, 2013; Pill et al., 2017). What makes IPV particularly insidious is that it often remains hidden. Victims may hesitate to disclose abuse due to fear of retaliation, stigma, or the erosion of trust in institutions meant to protect them. For marginalised groups, these fears are amplified by experiences of discrimination, language barriers, or previous encounters with systemic neglect (Fuchsel, 2021 ; Cho et al., 2020; Wright et al., 2021 ; Ogunsiji et al., 2025 ; Tarzia, 2020 ). Thus, while IPV is recognised in policy and research, its psychological aftermath is frequently underestimated in both scope and severity, demanding a more nuanced, trauma-informed, and intersectional approach in both healthcare and social policy responses (Hardesty & Ogolsky, 2020; Trabold et al., 2020; White et al., 2023 ; Moulding et al., 2020 ; Ogunsiji et al., 2025 ; Pathak et al., 2019). Experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV), whether physical or psychological in nature, leave deep and often lasting imprints on survivors’ mental well-being (White et al., 2023 ; Chandan et al., 2019 ; Dokkedahl et al., 2022 ). While physical aggression is more immediately visible and frequently documented, the psychological dimensions, such as manipulation, coercion, humiliation, and chronic emotional invalidation, can be equally, if not more, corrosive over time (Dokkedahl et al., 2022 ; Lagdon et al., 2014 ; Mechanic et al., 2008 ). Survivors often navigate a persistent internal landscape shaped by fear, mistrust, and destabilised self-worth (Moulding et al., 2020 ; Matheson et al., 2015 ). Within this terrain, anxiety emerges not as an isolated symptom but as intertwined manifestations of ongoing psychological strain (White et al., 2023 ; Li et al., 2025 ; Golding, 1999 ; Ahmadabadi et al., 2020 ). The unpredictable nature of abuse, particularly when it involves psychological tactics, can erode a person’s basic sense of safety and agency, creating a state of hypervigilance that feeds chronic anxiety (Dokkedahl et al., 2022 ; Mechanic et al., 2008 ; Stewart & Vigod, 2017 ). The mental health burden carried by survivors is rarely the product of a single episode; rather, it reflects the cumulative weight of prolonged exposure to coercive dynamics that disrupt emotional regulation, social connectedness, and a coherent sense of self (White et al., 2023 ; Dissanayake, 2025 ; Matheson et al., 2015 ). In both clinical and lived contexts, the line between physical and psychological abuse often blurs, complicating recovery and demanding nuanced therapeutic approaches that move beyond symptom management to address the relational and existential ruptures at the heart of the trauma (Paphitis et al., 2022 ; Karakurt et al., 2022 ). The association between intimate partner violence (IPV) and anxiety appears to be shaped by both individual vulnerability factors and the specific characteristics of the abuse. Evidence suggests that survivors with pre-existing mental health conditions, such as generalised anxiety disorder, depressive disorders, or unresolved trauma, may exhibit heightened sensitivity to the psychological impact of IPV. These conditions can lower thresholds for stress tolerance, amplify perceived threat, and impair adaptive coping mechanisms, thereby increasing the likelihood of developing or exacerbating anxiety symptoms following exposure to abuse (Ahmadabadi et al., 2020 ; Chandan et al., 2019 ; White et al., 2023 ). Furthermore, the type and pattern of IPV experienced play a critical role in shaping outcomes. Emotional and psychological abuse often operates through mechanisms such as coercive control, gaslighting, and sustained humiliation, which may foster chronic hyperarousal and persistent feelings of unsafety (Dokkedahl et al., 2022 ; Lagdon et al., 2014 ; Bentley & Riutort-Mayol, 2023 ). Physical violence, in contrast, can precipitate acute stress responses and fear conditioning, while sexual violence is strongly linked to post-traumatic symptomatology that overlaps with anxiety disorders (Bentley & Riutort-Mayol, 2023 ; Henry et al., 2018 ; Yastıbaş-Kaçar et al., 2023 ). Additional dimensions, including the duration of exposure, the presence of social isolation, and the severity of coercive control, may interact with individual predispositions to influence the onset, persistence, and severity of anxiety (Aguerrebere et al., 2021 ; Karakuła-Juchnowicz et al., 2016 ). A nuanced understanding of these interactions is necessary for tailoring clinical interventions, as uniform treatment approaches may fail to address the complex interplay between survivor characteristics and the heterogeneous forms of IPV (Dokkedahl et al., 2022 ; White et al., 2023 ). Interoceptive awareness, understood as the ability to detect and interpret internal bodily signals, is often disrupted in survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV) (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Chronic exposure to abuse can alter autonomic regulation and maintain prolonged activation of stress-response systems, processes that distort the perception of bodily states (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Trauma-related changes in brain regions involved in interoceptive processing, such as the insula and anterior cingulate cortex, may further contribute to these difficulties. Survivors may present with heightened awareness of sensations like changes in heart rate or breathing, which can reinforce hypervigilance, or with markedly reduced bodily awareness linked to dissociation (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Both patterns interfere with emotional regulation and can complicate recovery (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Interventions that focus on rebuilding interoceptive skills, including mindfulness-based practices and somatic approaches, have shown potential in helping survivors develop a more balanced and adaptive relationship with their internal bodily signals, making them a valuable component of trauma-informed care (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Paphitis et al., 2022 ). When the ability to monitor and regulate internal bodily states is compromised, as often occurs in survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV), it can have wide-reaching psychological and physical consequences (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Spencer et al., 2022 ). Difficulties in interoceptive self-regulation mean that bodily signals, such as fluctuations in heart rate, breathing rhythm, or muscle tension, may be misinterpreted or ignored. This can leave individuals less able to manage stress effectively, making them more vulnerable to escalating anxiety or persistent low mood (Machorrinho et al., 2025). In parallel, many survivors report episodes of bodily dissociation, in which they feel detached from their physical sensations or experience their body as distant and unreal (Machorrinho et al., 2025). While dissociation can serve as a protective strategy during acute danger, its persistence beyond the abusive context can disrupt the integration of bodily and emotional experiences. Over time, these patterns are associated with increased rates of anxiety disorders, depressive symptoms, and medically unexplained somatic complaints (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Spencer et al., 2022 ; Toccalino et al., 2023 ). The body may register distress in ways the mind does not consciously acknowledge, leading to physical discomfort or pain without a clear medical cause (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Such symptoms can create additional emotional strain, fuel health-related worries, and reduce quality of life (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Spencer et al., 2022 ). Addressing these disruptions through interventions that restore a coherent connection between bodily sensations and emotional states is therefore a critical aspect of recovery in this population (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Interoceptive attention regulation offers a promising avenue for therapeutic intervention in survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV). Many individuals exposed to sustained abuse experience disturbances in the way they perceive and interpret bodily signals, which can manifest as heightened physiological arousal, chronic tension, or a sense of disconnection from the body (Machorrinho et al., 2025). These disruptions often feed into a cycle where somatic discomfort amplifies psychological distress, and emotional distress, in turn, worsens bodily symptoms (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Training survivors to notice internal sensations without judgment, and to shift their attention in ways that promote a sense of safety, may help break this cycle (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Approaches such as paced breathing, body-scan practices, and movement-based therapies can be used to foster a more stable interoceptive focus, reducing hypervigilance to distressing cues while strengthening the capacity for self-soothing (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Paphitis et al., 2022 ). Over time, improvements in interoceptive attention regulation may not only alleviate physical symptoms, such as headaches, gastrointestinal discomfort, or muscle pain, but also support better emotional regulation, reducing anxiety, intrusive memories, and other trauma-related responses (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Paphitis et al., 2022 ). By integrating such techniques into trauma-informed care, practitioners can address both the somatic and psychological dimensions of recovery cohesively (Paphitis et al., 2022 ; Micklitz et al., 2023). Perspective taking, defined as the cognitive capacity to adopt and understand another person’s point of view, has been identified as an important factor in the occurrence of intimate partner violence (IPV). Low perspective-taking ability can hinder accurate interpretation of a partner’s thoughts, emotions, or intentions, increasing the likelihood of miscommunication, perceived hostility, and conflict escalation. When individuals struggle to mentally shift from their own perspective to that of another, they may rely on assumptions or defensive interpretations that reinforce adversarial dynamics. In the context of IPV, limited perspective taking is linked to reduced empathy, diminished emotional attunement, and poorer conflict resolution skills, all of which contribute to the risk of both verbal and physical aggression. Conversely, strong perspective-taking skills facilitate mutual understanding, de-escalation of disagreements, and recognition of the partner’s needs, which can act as protective factors against violence. These findings highlight the value of incorporating cognitive-empathy training and perspective-taking exercises into prevention and intervention programs, as enhancing these skills may reduce the cognitive distortions and reactive behaviours that often precede acts of IPV. Disruptions in interoceptive awareness, heightened anxiety, and difficulties in perspective taking may interact in ways that intensify the psychological impact of intimate partner violence (IPV). Altered interoceptive processing can reduce the ability to accurately interpret bodily signals, undermining emotional regulation and increasing vulnerability to anxiety (Machorrinho et al., 2021 ). This heightened anxiety, in turn, can narrow attentional focus toward perceived threats, limiting cognitive flexibility and the capacity to consider alternative viewpoints in social interactions (Cataudella et al., 2021; Machorrinho et al., 2021 ). Impairments in perspective taking, whether due to hypervigilance, mistrust, or trauma-related cognitive biases, can strain interpersonal relationships, contributing to social isolation and reinforcing maladaptive beliefs about the self and others (Lafontaine et al., 2018 ). These processes may operate in a self-perpetuating cycle: disrupted bodily awareness amplifies anxiety, anxiety constrains social cognition, and weakened perspective taking further erodes relational security, which can exacerbate trauma symptoms (Machorrinho et al., 2021 ; Lafontaine et al., 2018 ). Addressing these interconnected mechanisms requires an integrated intervention framework that combines mental health treatment with relational skills training (Moulding et al., 2020 ). Approaches that incorporate body-focused techniques to restore interoceptive sensitivity, alongside strategies to manage anxiety and enhance perspective taking, may offer particular promise (Machorrinho et al., 2021 ; Lafontaine et al., 2018 ). Such multimodal interventions could not only reduce psychological distress but also strengthen survivors’ ability to build and maintain supportive relationships, a factor known to protect against the long-term consequences of IPV (Moulding et al., 2020 ). The present study tested associations between IPV (physical and/or psychological), IA, and Anxiety in men and women. Likewise, we examined their role in modulating perspective-taking (PT), which plays a significant function in social cognition (McGarry et al., 2021). Some studies have recommended further research on PT and IPV to address the mechanisms that might underlie these associations (Katerndahl et al., 2014; Ulloa et al., 2017). Thus, the current study investigated IPV through a mechanism characterised by exacerbated state anxiety, dysregulated IA, and PT abnormalities. Then, based on previous research (Chandan et al., 2020; Louise et al., 2022; Mapayi et al., 2013; Péloquin et al., 2011)We hypothesised that IPV increases state anxiety, and high anxiety negatively affects the IA (Khalsa et al., 2018; Pollatos et al., 2009). Then, maladaptive IA negatively affects PT, which means that worse IA reduces PT, as some researchers have found (Heydrich et al., 2021 ; Hübner et al., 2021; Terasawa et al., 2014). We explore IPV according to Lafontaine et al. (2016), who said this type of IPV is more common in romantic relationships in Chile. Likewise, Follingstad (2009) mentioned that the way we understand psychological aggression and differentiate it from more extreme forms of abuse relies, in part, on factors such as the surrounding context, its place in a sequence of events, the interpretation of the behaviour, and whether it was perceived as abusive. Our sample consisted of people we did not know if they were informed about the IPV topic. To address our hypothesis, we developed a structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis to test our hypothesised pattern of association previously formulated. To undertake this, we conducted a protocol of self-report instruments for adult men and women from Santiago, Chile, that evaluated violence in IPV, state anxiety, IA, and PT. Then, we performed the SEM using a parcelling items approach to scales. Our research aimed to shed light on previously unexplored aspects contributing to a deeper understanding of the complex interrelationships among IPV, state anxiety, IA, and PT. 2. Methods 2.1. Participants and procedure The sample comprised 255 participants (142 women) between 18 and 46 years (M = 31.2; SD = 8) recruited from Santiago, Chile. Participants are sampled from the general population. For the analysis, only the participants who completed the protocol were considered. Participation was voluntary; a link to the online survey was posted on social media (such as Facebook and Instagram). They signed the informed consent and were instructed to complete four self-report scales about violence experienced, anxiety, interoceptive awareness, and perspective taking. The protocol took approximately 35 minutes to complete. The data collected were anonymised. At the start, participants were screened for psychiatric, neurological, and substance abuse diagnoses; none reported these conditions. The Adolfo Ibañez University ethics committee approved the study and followed the Declaration of Helsinki. 2.2. Instruments 2.2.1 IPV from the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (rCTS2) (Straus et al., 1996). This questionnaire is a 72-item instrument assessing the presence and frequency of psychological aggression and violence, as well as sexual coercion, used by both the self and the partner in the past 12 months and the lifetime. This study used items to assess physical/psychological violence. The Cronbach's α for this sample is 0.881. On an eight-point scale, participants report how often they used each behavior in the past 12 months ("This has never happened," "Once," "Twice", "3–5 times", "6–10 times", "11–20 times,", "21 or more times", and "Not in the past year, but this has happened before"). The scoring method included frequency and prevalence, the results of which are the percentage of respondents who reported being a victim or perpetrator of a violent act one or more times, and frequency, which is measured by the number of times an act occurred during the previous period. 2.2.2 Perspective taking (PT) from the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) developed by Davis (1980) was used to assess empathy . The IRI consists of 28 items that measure both cognitive and emotional dimensions of empathy. Here, we used only the Perspective Taking subscale. The Cronbach's α for our sample was 0.714. 2.2.3 The Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA); Mehling et al., 2012). This 32-item scale measures how frequently individuals pay attention to their body cues and how accurately they can identify them. It consists of eight subscales; for this work, we used the total score from the scale. Our sample demonstrated reliable evidence for the MAIA scale (Cronbach's α = .799). Higher scores indicate good interoceptive capacity. 2.2.4 The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-S), developed by Spielberger (1971), was used to measure state anxiety symptomatology. It has 20 items, and respondents indicate how much each statement reflects how they feel right now. The subject should mark the number from 0 to 3; the state goes between "nothing," "some," "much," and "very much." Our sample showed good reliability for this scale (0.893 Cronbach's α). 3. Data analysis 3.1. Item parcellation Parcels are elaborated here as indicators for constructs using the balancing approach parcelling, as explained by Coffman and Maccallum ( 2005 ). These parcels represented the underlying variable but were not directly interpretable. Each parcel consisted of an average of two or more items from the scale (e.g., MAIA), serving as aggregate-level indicators (Little et al., 2002 ). We employed parcels as measured/observed variables for SEMs, which offered several advantages, as highlighted by Coffman and Maccallum ( 2005 ). One crucial advantage was that the shared variance among the items, representing the variance of the actual score, was preserved, while the unshared variance (uniquenesses) was reduced (Little et al., 2002 ). Combining items within parcels improves the measurement properties of the indicators by minimising unwanted variances, reducing diversity among the indicators, and increasing reliability (Little et al., 2002 ). To build the parcels, we utilised the counterbalancing approach. This analysis involved examining discrimination indices for each item and allocating items with high, medium, and low indices to each parcel. In this approach, the item with the highest item-scale correlation was paired with the item showing the lowest correlation (see supplementary information). For parcels corresponding to subscales, discrimination indices were calculated on a factor-by-factor basis rather than across all items in the instrument. The aim was to have an item with a strong loading provide robust support for the construct when paired with a weaker item while replicating the overall factor structure within each parcel. This process resulted in a set of equivalent tau or parallel parcels. Specific variances were reduced, particularly for the weaker items (Little et al., 2002 ). These resulting parcels were subsequently used in the subsequent analyses outlined below. 3.2. Structural equation model (SEM) SEM analysis was used to test our hypothesised pattern of association previously formulated. We provided a detailed accounting of measurement errors and accurately estimated the structural relations between latent factors. Data preparation, analyses, and parcelling were conducted with the R statistics program and Lavaan package (Savalei, 2018 ). 3.2.1 Specifying model The resulting parcels were used as observed measures of their respective latent variable (LV). Each parcel demonstrated non-zero loadings on the construct for which it was designed. To ensure the model's identification and scaling, each latent variable's variance was set to one. Fit indices and the percentage of variance explained in the model were employed to assess the fit of the hypothesised model. A significant χ2 value indicates that the path model does not adequately fit the data, whereas a non-significant χ2 value (p > .05) suggests that the path model fits the data well. Thus, based on our hypothesised pattern, we estimated the effects of partner violence on state anxiety (indicated by three STAI-S parcels). Then, we suggested the impact of state anxiety on interoceptive awareness (characterised by three MAIA parcels) and interoceptive awareness's impact on empathy (indicated by two PT-IRI) (see Fig. 01 ). Adequacy fit indices were utilised to evaluate the model's goodness of fit. Given that the distribution of the parcels did not follow a normal distribution, we employed the YB χ2 statistic, robust comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square error approximation (RMSEA) as measures to assess the fit of the hypothesised model. For the RMSEA, values greater than 0.08 indicated a poor fit, values ranging from 0.05 to 0.08 were considered a good fit, and values less than or equal to 0.05 were considered a perfect fit (Savalei, 2018 ). The YB χ2 statistic serves as a fit index and is desirable to be as close to zero as possible. Therefore, it is expected to have a non-significant p-value (i.e., p > 0.05). The CFI, ranging from 0 to 1, evaluates the improvement in the fit of the specified model compared to the null model. A CFI value greater than 0.90 indicates a good fit, while values between 0.95 and 0.99 suggest an excellent fit. A CFI value of 1 represents an exact fit (T. Little, 2013 ). In addition to the CFI, other fit indices such as the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI, cutoff value > 0.95), Standardised Root Mean Square Residual index (SRMR, cutoff value < 0.08), and RMSEA (cutoff value < 0.06) were employed to evaluate the fit of the hypothesised model (Little, 2013 ). 4. Results Table 1 presents descriptive data of the analysed variables: PT (Perspective taking as a cognitive empathy from the IRI instrument), STAI-S to assess state anxiety, rCTS2 to measure violence in IPV, and the MAIA scale to evaluate IA. Descriptive Analysis Table 1 Descriptive Statistics M SD Min Max Kurtosis PT-IRI 18.06 5.05 3 28 -0.41 STAI-S 13.95 8.74 1 41 0.08 rCTS2 (IPV) 2.66 5.28 0 36 14.26 MAIA 100.36 26.68 25 149 -0.23 PT-IRI: Perspective Taking of Interpersonal Reactivity Index; STAI-S: State Anxiety Inventory; CTS2 (IPV): Violence from the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales; MAIA scale: Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness. Structural equation model (SEM) The proposed structural equation model showed a satisfactory fit to the data. The goodness-of-fit test indicated a statistically significant difference between the proposed model and the saturated model, χ²(40) = 63.29, p = .011; however, the fit indices suggest that the model adequately represents the observed relationship structure. In particular, the comparative and non-normed fit values exceeded the recommended criteria (Hu & Bentler, 1999), including CFI = .989, TLI = .986, NNFI = .986, IFI = .990, and NFI = .972. The RMSEA was .048, with a 95% confidence interval of [.023, .069] and a p-value for close fit = .543, indicating an adequate fit. The SRMR (.046) was also below the recommended .08 threshold. In the structural model (Fig. 1 ), IPV positively predicted anxiety levels (β = .21, p = .002), indicating that greater exposure to violence is associated with higher anxiety levels. In turn, anxiety negatively predicted interoception (β = –.43, p < .001), suggesting that higher anxiety levels are linked to a reduced ability to perceive and process internal bodily signals. On the other hand, interoception showed a positive relationship with perspective-taking (β = .31, p < .001), indicating that better interoceptive perception is associated with a greater ability to understand others’ viewpoints. In contrast, anxiety was negatively related to perspective-taking (β = –.23, p = .011), suggesting that elevated anxiety levels may hinder this process. Overall, the findings support a model in which experienced violence is associated with increased anxiety, which has detrimental effects on both interoceptive perception and perspective-taking. Moreover, interoception emerges as a positive resource for the development of cognitive empathy, whereas anxiety appears to act as an inhibiting factor. Discussion The analysis revealed a clear and consistent pattern across the data. Experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV), whether physical or psychological, were linked with heightened anxiety symptoms (Ahmadabadi et al., 2020 ; Chandan et al., 2019 ; Scandurra et al., 2023; Spencer et al., 2019 ). In turn, these elevated anxiety levels were associated with reduced capacity of interoception, the ability to accurately perceive and regulate internal bodily signals, as well as diminished perspective-taking skills, a core aspect of social cognition (Lafontaine et al., 2018 ). Importantly, interoceptive awareness showed a positive association with perspective taking, suggesting that when individuals are more attuned to their bodily states, they may also be better equipped to understand and engage with the perspective of others (Lafontaine et al., 2018 ). Together, these findings highlight a chain of associations in which IPV heightens anxiety, which then undermines both bodily self-awareness and relational understanding, while preserved interoception appears to serve a protective, facilitating role. These results largely confirmed the hypotheses formulated at the outset of the study. We proposed that anxiety would act as a pathway through which IPV affects both interoception and perspective taking, and the findings aligned with this expectation (Ahmadabadi et al., 2020 ; Chandan et al., 2019 ; Scandurra et al., 2023; Spencer et al., 2019 ). The negative link between anxiety and interoception replicates and extends earlier work demonstrating that stress and hyperarousal compromise the ability to interpret the bodily cues (Yim & Kofman, 2019 ). Similarly, the association between poor interoception and reduced perspective-taking resonates with previous experimental studies suggesting that self-focused bodily awareness supports empathic accuracy (Lafontaine et al., 2018 ). What this study adds, however, is a coherent model tested within a Latin American context, showing how these mechanisms operate together in the lived experience of the general population (Lafontaine et al., 2018 ). By situating anxiety as a central disruptor in the pathway from violence to social cognition, the findings move beyond prior research that has typically examined these constructs in isolation. Positioning these results within the wider body of IPV research reveals important theoretical and clinical implications. The psychological consequences of IPV have often been described in terms of depression, PTSD, or generalised anxiety, but the present findings suggest that the impact extends deeply into bodily processes and relational capacities (Chandan et al., 2019 ; Spencer et al., 2019 ; Scandurra et al., 2023). Anxiety does not merely represent a symptom cluster; it appears to erode the very mechanisms, interoceptive awareness and perspective taking that enable survivors to regulate emotions and maintain meaningful social connections (Lafontaine et al., 2018 ). This has significant consequences for recovery, as difficulties in perceiving internal states may perpetuate dysregulation, while impaired perspective-taking can hinder the rebuilding of trust and intimacy in a relationship (Lafontaine et al., 2018 ). The results, therefore, support an integrative view of IPV’s aftermath: violence disrupts not only emotional well-being but also the embodied and cognitive systems that underpin the sense of self and their interaction with others. The association found between IPV and anxiety is consistent with a large body of literature showing that both physical and psychological violence are strongly linked to heightened anxiety and trauma-related symptoms (Chandan et al., 2019 ; Ahmadabadi et al., 2020 ; Henry et al., 2018 ; Wu et al., 2022 ; Cerda-De la O et al., 2022 ; Lagdon et al., 2014 ; Spencer et al., 2019 ; Bentley & Riutort-Mayol, 2023 ; Yastıbaş-Kaçar et al., 2023 ; White et al., 2023 ). Previous research has demonstrated that survivors frequently report persistent states of hypervigilance, fear, and worry long after the violent episodes have ended, underscoring the enduring psychological burden of abuse (Chandan et al., 2019 ; Cerda-De la O et al., 2022 ; Lagdon et al., 2014 ; Cirici Amell et al., 2022 ). However, it is important to note the nuances between different forms of violence within this pattern. While physical IPV may generate acute stress responses connected to fear conditioning and immediate physical threat, psychological IPV often produces more chronic and destabilising anxiety. This is largely due to its unpredictability and the ongoing dynamics of coercive control, which erode a survivor’s sense of safety and agency in more subtle but sustained ways (Lagdon et al., 2014 ; Bentley & Riutort-Mayol, 2023 ; Yastıbaş-Kaçar et al., 2023 ). The present findings not only align with this distinction but also extend current theoretical models by showing that anxiety is not merely an outcome of IPV but acts as a pathway that influences other domains of functioning (Ahmadabadi et al., 2020 ; Spencer et al., 2019 ; Audet et al., 2022 ). Specifically, elevated anxiety was shown to impair interoceptive awareness and hinder perspective taking, suggesting that emotional consequences of IPV play a central role in shaping both bodily self-regulation and social cognition (Cerda-De la O et al., 2022 ; Audet et al., 2022 ). This highlights the need to understand anxiety as a pivotal mechanism that links experiences of violence to broader disruptions in survivors' psychological and relational worlds. The finding that anxiety diminishes interoceptive ability resonates with a substantial body of research on trauma, autonomic dysregulation, and somatic dissociation. Survivors of IPV and other trauma often experience chronic hyperarousal of the stress response system, which can distort the perception of bodily signals and disrupt the brain network responsible for integrating those sensations into coherent self-awareness (Payne et al., 2015 ; Schulz & Vögele, 2015 ; Machorrinho et al., 2021 ; Fani et al., 2024 ). This dysregulation can manifest as either hypersensitivity to internal cues, such as palpitations or rapid breathing, that fuel further anxiety, or, conversely, as blunted bodily awareness linked to dissociation (Machorrinho et al., 2021 ; Woelk & Garfinkel, 2024 ). Both patterns reflect an impaired interoceptive system that leaves individuals less able to regulate emotions or detect early signs of stress (Schulz & Vögele, 2015 ; Quadt et al., 2018 ; Palser et al., 2018 ). At the same time, interoception should not be understood solely as a point of vulnerability. When preserved or intentionally strengthened, interoceptive awareness can serve as a protective resource, supporting self-regulation and providing a foundation for resilience and social connection (Price & Hooven, 2018 ; Leech et al., 2024 ; Quadt et al., 2018 ; Shen et al., 2023). This dual role makes interoception particularly a significant mechanism in understanding how IPV and anxiety affect mental health (Machorrinho et al., 2021 ; Nord & Garfinkel, 2022 ; Critchley & Garfinkel, 2017 ). From a clinical perspective, interventions that deliberately target bodily awareness, such as mindfulness-based practices, somatic therapies, and structured interoceptive training, offer promising tools for recovery (Shatrova et al., 2024 ; Molteni et al., 2024 ; Price & Hooven, 2018 ; Sugawara et al., 2020 ; D’Antoni et al., 2021 ). These approaches can help survivors relearn how to attend to internal sensations in a balanced way, reduce hypervigilance, and foster greater emotional regulation (Molteni et al., 2024 ; Fani et al., 2024 ; Price et al., 2018 ). By restoring a more adaptive relationship with the body, such practices may mitigate the lasting impact of anxiety and create pathways for healing that extend beyond symptom management (Payne et al., 2015 ; Price & Hooven, 2018 ; Leech et al., 2024 ). The positive association observed between interoception and perspective taking suggests that bodily attunement provides a foundation for social cognition and empathy. Recognising and regulating one’s internal states may create the stability necessary to accurately perceive and respond to the emotions and viewpoints of others (Heydrich et al., 2021 ; Palmer & Tsakiris, 2018 ; Adolfi et al., 2017 ). This link is supported by social neuroscience research, which demonstrates that interoceptive awareness contributes to empathic accuracy and the ability to engage in attuned social interactions (Heydrich et al., 2021 ; Adolfi et al., 2017 ; Baiano et al., 2021 ). Neuroimaging and lesion studies highlight the role of the insular and frontotemporal regions in integrating interoception, emotion, and social cognition, further underscoring this relationship (Adolfi et al., 2017 ). In contrast, the findings also indicate that anxiety undermines perspective taking, aligning with evidence that heightened anxiety narrows attentional focus and orients individuals toward potential threats (Todd et al., 2015 ; Todd & Simpson, 2016 ; Alvi et al., 2022 ; Pile et al., 2017 ). Experimental studies show that anxiety increases egocentrism and impairs the spontaneous calculation of others’ perspectives, particularly in a social context (Todd et al., 2015 ; Todd & Simpson, 2016 ). Within the context of IPV, such hypervigilance can fuel mistrust, defensiveness, and reduced willingness to engage in the cognitive effort required to adopt another’s perspective (Gerrans & Murray, 2020 ; Alvi et al., 2022 ). Situating these results within existing models of social cognition reinforces the idea that empathy is not merely a cognitive skill but is deeply intertwined with emotional regulation and bodily awareness (Heydrich et al., 2021 ; Palmer & Tsakiris, 2018 ; Adolfi et al., 2017 ). IPV-related anxiety appears to disrupt this integration, weakening survivors’ ability to repair relationships or build new, supportive connections. This has significant implications for recovery, as difficulties in perspective taking may prolong isolation and hinder the development of social networks that buffer against the long-term effects of trauma (Alvi et al., 2022 ; Pile et al., 2017 ). The findings support an integrated mechanistic model in which intimate partner violence (IPV) elevates anxiety, and this heightened anxiety disrupts interoceptive functioning, which in turn weakens perspective-taking. This model is consistent with evidence that IPV exposure is strongly associated with increased psychological stress and anxiety, which can have downstream effects on both biological and psychological functioning (Ahmadabadi et al., 2020 ; Spencer et al., 2019 ; Yim & Kofman, 2019 ). Impaired interoception can, in turn, undermine perspective taking and empathy, as bodily self-awareness is foundational for understanding and responding to others’ emotions (Heydrich et al., 2021 ; Adolfi et al., 2017 ). Rather than a simple linear sequence, these links suggest a self-reinforcing loop: anxiety-driven distortions of bodily awareness erode the survivor’s ability to engage in empathic understanding, which then deepens relational insecurity and amplifies psychological distress. Such a cycle may sustain the long-term impact of IPV by simultaneously undermining self-regulation and social connectedness, two capacities central to recovery (Moulding et al., 2020 ; Yim & Kofman, 2019 ). While integrated models of IPV’s psychological and relational consequences have been proposed, the simultaneous empirical examination of interoception and perspective taking within the context of IPV remains rare (Heydrich et al., 2021 ; Lafontaine et al., 2018 ). By bridging these processes into dialogue, the present approach extends current frameworks and opens space for a more comprehensive account of how the bodily and relational consequences of violence become intertwined (McCloud & Abdullah, 2024 ; Voith, 2019 ). Clinical and policy implications arising from these findings highlight the value of approaches that move beyond symptom management to address the emboded and relational sequelae of IPV. Trauma-infromed, body-focused interventions, such as trauma-informed yoga, dance/movement therapy, and somatic therapies, have demonstrated effectiveness in reducing stress, somatic complains, anxiety, and depression among IPV survivors, while also improving self-efficacy and emotional regulation (Beranbaum & D’Andrea, 2023 ; Liang et al., 2024; Chu et al., 2023 ; Karakurt et al., 2022 ). Strengthening interoceptive awareness through these interventions can help survivors regulate anxiety and rebuild a sense of safety in their own bodies, thereby creating the conditions for healthier relational engagement (Beranbaum & D’Andrea, 2023 ; Price & Hooven, 2018 ). Complementing body-focused approaches, the integration of perspective taking training, such as cognitive empathy exercises and relational skill-building, can provide survivors with tools to restore trust, repair social connections, and navigate interpersonal contexts more effectively (Heydrich et al., 2021 ; Ogbe et al., 2020 ). Evidence suggest that interventions tailored to improve social support and relational skills are associated with better mental health outcomes and reduced isolation (Ogbe et al., 2020 ; Karakurt et al., 2022 ). Finally, at a policy level, it is critical to recognise that marginalized populations often encounter structural barriers, such as limited access to mental health services, cultural stima, and systemic inequities, which not only heighten anxiety but also restrict opportunities to engage in interoception-based care (Wathen & Mantler, 2022 ; Ogbe et al., 2020 ). Addressing these disparities requires coordinated strategies that combine clinical innovation with policy reforms designed to expand accessibility and tailor interventions to diverse social and cultural context (Wathen & Mantler, 2022 ; Chu et al., 2023 ). Limitations Several limitations should be acknowledged when interpreting these findings. The reliance on self-report measures introduces potential biases, including the possibility of inaccurate recall or responses shaped by social desirability, which may lead participants to understate or overstate their experiences of violence and anxiety. The study's cross-sectional nature also restricts the ability to draw causal inferences, meaning that while the structural model is consistent with theoretical expectations, the direction of these relationships cannot be confirmed. Furthermore, the sample was drawn exclusively from Santiago, Chile, which raises questions about cultural specificity; how IPV is experienced, perceived and reported may differ across socio-cultural contexts, limiting the generalizability of the results. Finally, participants correspond to the general population and not necessarily victims of violence; it is uncertain to what extent participants were already familiar with IPV as a concept, and this variability in awareness may have influenced how they interpreted survey items. Future directions Future research would benefit from adopting longitudinal designs that allow for testing the temporal ordering and potential causal relationships between IPV, anxiety, interoception and perspective taking, as cross-sectional data cannot fully capture the dynamic processes involved. It will also be important to move beyond self-report by incorporating physiological indices of interoception, such as heartbeat detection tasks or neurophysiological markers of interoception, to provide more objective evidence of how bodily awareness is disrupted. Comparative studies including survivors of violence and across diverse cultural contexts could clarify the extent to which these mechanisms are shaped by personal experiences of violence, gender norms, socioeconomic conditions and cultural understanding of IPV. This will improve the generalizability of the model. Finally, intervention trials represent a critical next step: programs that actively train interoceptive awareness through mindfulness or somatic practices, combined with strategies to strengthen perspective taking, could be tested for their ability to reduce anxiety and enhance survivors’ relational functioning, offering a more integrated and evidence-based approach to recovery. Conclusions In conclusion, the findings of this study provide evidence for an interconnected mechanism in which exposure to intimate partner violence heightens anxiety, and this heightened anxiety disrupts both interoceptive awareness and perspective-taking abilities. The results suggest that these processes do not operate in isolation but rather form part of a chain that links the psychological impact of violence with bodily regulation and social cognition. Recognising this interdependence highlights the importance of interventions that address more than symptom reduction alone: strategies aimed at restoring somatic regulation, alongside approaches that strengthen perspective-taking and relational skills, may offer more comprehensive recovery pathways for survivors. By integrating these dimensions, practitioners can move towards treatment models that reflect the full complexity of IPV’s aftermath. More broadly, this study contributes to bridging psychological, physiological and relational perspectives within IPV research, pointing toward a framework that acknowledges the layered nature of trauma and the multiple routes through which healing and resilience may be fostered. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate. The study received prior approval from the ethics committee of Adolfo Ibáñez University and followed the protocol of the Declaration of Helsinki. Finally, all participants provided a signed consent after reading the information with detailed procedure information. Consent for publication. Not applicable. Availability of data and materials. Data will be available on the GitHub platform once the manuscript has been accepted. Competing interests. The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest concerning this article's research, authorship, and/or publication. Funding. This work is supported by grants from Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (ANID/FONDECYT Regular N ̊ 1231117 to David Huepe). Authors' contributions. JPM: Conceptualisation; Methodology; Formal analysis; Investigation; Data Curation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing; Visualisation; Supervision; Project administration. PSD: Conceptualisation; Methodology; Formal analysis; Investigation; Data Curation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing; Visualisation; Supervision; Project administration. DFO: Methodology; Software; Formal analysis; Data Curation; Writing - Original Draft. OR: Methodology; Software; Formal analysis; Data Curation. SCH: Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing. VI: Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing. DH: Conceptualisation; Methodology; Formal analysis; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing; Visualisation; Supervision; Resources; Funding acquisition. Acknowledgement. Not applicable. References Adolfi, F., Couto, B., Richter, F., Decety, J., López, J., Sigman, M., Manes, F., & Ibanez, A. (2017). Convergence of interoception, emotion, and social cognition: A twofold fMRI meta-analysis and lesion approach. Cortex, 88 , 124–142. Aguerrebere, M., Frías, S. M., Smith Fawzi, M. C., López, R., & Raviola, G. (2021). 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School","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sebastián","middleName":"","lastName":"Contreras-Huerta","suffix":""},{"id":567136896,"identity":"45b56d2f-7431-4937-99f7-7f21d0e1c5d1","order_by":5,"name":"Valeria Isaac","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Sydney Business School","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Valeria","middleName":"","lastName":"Isaac","suffix":""},{"id":567136902,"identity":"de153312-0714-4f77-a4bd-ec3ca208cf63","order_by":6,"name":"David Huepe","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCA0DEAyIZGBgfMDBIMDCwk6CF2QCshZkILQxQLWwSYBFCWviOnzE88IbhTmK/dPOxap4aCwb+ZgJaJM/kGBycw/AsceacY2m3eY5JMEgcJqDF4EBawmEehsOJG27kmN3mAbrNgJDDDM4/g2jZfyP/WzHPP2K03Eg+ALFFIoeNmbeNCC2SNx4fODjH4LDxjDvHjCXn9knwEPQL3/nE5g9vKg7L9s9ufvjhzbc6Of72BgJ6IM5jAEciCPAQox4KJEhQOwpGwSgYBSMLAAACwkWvNiDymgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Sydney Business School","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"David","middleName":"","lastName":"Huepe","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-10 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10:46:44","extension":"html","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":173534,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7577993/v1/cc6fab5bf6dd090c1d091fde.html"},{"id":99292899,"identity":"c869fbe8-c163-48b2-9761-d3b23203c350","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 10:46:44","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41876,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelation Analysis (Pearson Correlations)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ep* \u0026lt; 0.05. p** \u0026lt; 0.01. p*** \u0026lt; .001.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePT-IRI: Perspective Taking of Interpersonal Reactivity Index; STAI-S: State Anxiety Inventory; CTS2 (IPV): Violence from the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales; MAIA scale: Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7577993/v1/425d83cda46e72d720c41e1c.png"},{"id":99321237,"identity":"de8e7387-800e-408b-99c2-74e369942f40","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:39:17","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":76073,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStructural equation model.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStructural equation model. Circles represent the Latent Variable (LV) measured, and squares are the\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eindicators of each construct and their relationship with their standardised coefficients, indicating the effects. IPV = Intimate Partner Violence; IA = Interoceptive Awareness; PT Perspective Taking. Factor loadings link parcel composites to the latent factor. Each arrow from LV to its indicator corresponds to the correlation of the indicator with the LV it is trying to measure. The numerical value represented next to the box of an observed variable is the proportion of variance shared by the indicator and the LV, which is not attributable to measurement error.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7577993/v1/75094375eb84b88aa5fe23d0.png"},{"id":99324267,"identity":"7c76ffa2-7bd0-4a28-b21d-787c3f472e76","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:47:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":976645,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7577993/v1/454d4cd1-d3a5-4290-b1cb-fb2703061aec.pdf"},{"id":99321387,"identity":"f70eef26-f941-443b-8be8-4d46c404c607","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:39:22","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":28359,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SuplementaryMaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7577993/v1/77c0f8e52a596329ec66fdd7.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Unlocking the Interplay of Interoceptive Awareness, Anxiety, and Perspective-Taking: Insights into Intimate Partner Violence Dynamics in General Population","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIntimate partner violence (IPV) remains one of the most pervasive and complex public health crises across the globe. It cuts across cultural, socioeconomic, and geographic boundaries, but the burden is not evenly shared. Marginalised communities are disproportionately affected. These individuals often face layered systems of disadvantage that compound the effects of abuse and restrict access to support services (Sardinha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Mathews et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Fuchsel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Alangea et al., 2018; Jewkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Winstok, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth physical and psychological consequences are profound. Survivors frequently endure long-lasting emotional and mental health impacts that shape their daily functioning and sense of self. Anxiety, persistent depression, and symptoms consistent with posttraumatic stress are not simply common by-products; they are deeply embedded outcomes of sustained exposure to coercion, fear, and loss of autonomy. These mental health effects often persist long after the immediate threat has passed, reinforcing cycles of isolation and vulnerability (Campbell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Lutgendorf, 2019; Chisholm et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Caldwell et al., 2012; Barker et al., 2019; White et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Moulding et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Sprague \u0026amp; Olff, 2013; Pill et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat makes IPV particularly insidious is that it often remains hidden. Victims may hesitate to disclose abuse due to fear of retaliation, stigma, or the erosion of trust in institutions meant to protect them. For marginalised groups, these fears are amplified by experiences of discrimination, language barriers, or previous encounters with systemic neglect (Fuchsel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Cho et al., 2020; Wright et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ogunsiji et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Tarzia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, while IPV is recognised in policy and research, its psychological aftermath is frequently underestimated in both scope and severity, demanding a more nuanced, trauma-informed, and intersectional approach in both healthcare and social policy responses (Hardesty \u0026amp; Ogolsky, 2020; Trabold et al., 2020; White et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Moulding et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ogunsiji et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Pathak et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperiences of intimate partner violence (IPV), whether physical or psychological in nature, leave deep and often lasting imprints on survivors\u0026rsquo; mental well-being (White et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Chandan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Dokkedahl et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). While physical aggression is more immediately visible and frequently documented, the psychological dimensions, such as manipulation, coercion, humiliation, and chronic emotional invalidation, can be equally, if not more, corrosive over time (Dokkedahl et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Lagdon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Mechanic et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Survivors often navigate a persistent internal landscape shaped by fear, mistrust, and destabilised self-worth (Moulding et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Matheson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Within this terrain, anxiety emerges not as an isolated symptom but as intertwined manifestations of ongoing psychological strain (White et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Golding, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Ahmadabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The unpredictable nature of abuse, particularly when it involves psychological tactics, can erode a person\u0026rsquo;s basic sense of safety and agency, creating a state of hypervigilance that feeds chronic anxiety (Dokkedahl et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Mechanic et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Stewart \u0026amp; Vigod, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The mental health burden carried by survivors is rarely the product of a single episode; rather, it reflects the cumulative weight of prolonged exposure to coercive dynamics that disrupt emotional regulation, social connectedness, and a coherent sense of self (White et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Dissanayake, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Matheson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In both clinical and lived contexts, the line between physical and psychological abuse often blurs, complicating recovery and demanding nuanced therapeutic approaches that move beyond symptom management to address the relational and existential ruptures at the heart of the trauma (Paphitis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Karakurt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe association between intimate partner violence (IPV) and anxiety appears to be shaped by both individual vulnerability factors and the specific characteristics of the abuse. Evidence suggests that survivors with pre-existing mental health conditions, such as generalised anxiety disorder, depressive disorders, or unresolved trauma, may exhibit heightened sensitivity to the psychological impact of IPV. These conditions can lower thresholds for stress tolerance, amplify perceived threat, and impair adaptive coping mechanisms, thereby increasing the likelihood of developing or exacerbating anxiety symptoms following exposure to abuse (Ahmadabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Chandan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; White et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the type and pattern of IPV experienced play a critical role in shaping outcomes. Emotional and psychological abuse often operates through mechanisms such as coercive control, gaslighting, and sustained humiliation, which may foster chronic hyperarousal and persistent feelings of unsafety (Dokkedahl et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Lagdon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Bentley \u0026amp; Riutort-Mayol, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Physical violence, in contrast, can precipitate acute stress responses and fear conditioning, while sexual violence is strongly linked to post-traumatic symptomatology that overlaps with anxiety disorders (Bentley \u0026amp; Riutort-Mayol, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Henry et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Yastıbaş-Ka\u0026ccedil;ar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additional dimensions, including the duration of exposure, the presence of social isolation, and the severity of coercive control, may interact with individual predispositions to influence the onset, persistence, and severity of anxiety (Aguerrebere et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Karakuła-Juchnowicz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). A nuanced understanding of these interactions is necessary for tailoring clinical interventions, as uniform treatment approaches may fail to address the complex interplay between survivor characteristics and the heterogeneous forms of IPV (Dokkedahl et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; White et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteroceptive awareness, understood as the ability to detect and interpret internal bodily signals, is often disrupted in survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV) (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Chronic exposure to abuse can alter autonomic regulation and maintain prolonged activation of stress-response systems, processes that distort the perception of bodily states (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Trauma-related changes in brain regions involved in interoceptive processing, such as the insula and anterior cingulate cortex, may further contribute to these difficulties. Survivors may present with heightened awareness of sensations like changes in heart rate or breathing, which can reinforce hypervigilance, or with markedly reduced bodily awareness linked to dissociation (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Both patterns interfere with emotional regulation and can complicate recovery (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Interventions that focus on rebuilding interoceptive skills, including mindfulness-based practices and somatic approaches, have shown potential in helping survivors develop a more balanced and adaptive relationship with their internal bodily signals, making them a valuable component of trauma-informed care (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Paphitis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen the ability to monitor and regulate internal bodily states is compromised, as often occurs in survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV), it can have wide-reaching psychological and physical consequences (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Spencer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Difficulties in interoceptive self-regulation mean that bodily signals, such as fluctuations in heart rate, breathing rhythm, or muscle tension, may be misinterpreted or ignored. This can leave individuals less able to manage stress effectively, making them more vulnerable to escalating anxiety or persistent low mood (Machorrinho et al., 2025). In parallel, many survivors report episodes of bodily dissociation, in which they feel detached from their physical sensations or experience their body as distant and unreal (Machorrinho et al., 2025). While dissociation can serve as a protective strategy during acute danger, its persistence beyond the abusive context can disrupt the integration of bodily and emotional experiences. Over time, these patterns are associated with increased rates of anxiety disorders, depressive symptoms, and medically unexplained somatic complaints (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Spencer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Toccalino et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The body may register distress in ways the mind does not consciously acknowledge, leading to physical discomfort or pain without a clear medical cause (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Such symptoms can create additional emotional strain, fuel health-related worries, and reduce quality of life (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Spencer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Addressing these disruptions through interventions that restore a coherent connection between bodily sensations and emotional states is therefore a critical aspect of recovery in this population (Machorrinho et al., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteroceptive attention regulation offers a promising avenue for therapeutic intervention in survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV). Many individuals exposed to sustained abuse experience disturbances in the way they perceive and interpret bodily signals, which can manifest as heightened physiological arousal, chronic tension, or a sense of disconnection from the body (Machorrinho et al., 2025). These disruptions often feed into a cycle where somatic discomfort amplifies psychological distress, and emotional distress, in turn, worsens bodily symptoms (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Training survivors to notice internal sensations without judgment, and to shift their attention in ways that promote a sense of safety, may help break this cycle (Machorrinho et al., 2025). Approaches such as paced breathing, body-scan practices, and movement-based therapies can be used to foster a more stable interoceptive focus, reducing hypervigilance to distressing cues while strengthening the capacity for self-soothing (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Paphitis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Over time, improvements in interoceptive attention regulation may not only alleviate physical symptoms, such as headaches, gastrointestinal discomfort, or muscle pain, but also support better emotional regulation, reducing anxiety, intrusive memories, and other trauma-related responses (Machorrinho et al., 2025; Paphitis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). By integrating such techniques into trauma-informed care, practitioners can address both the somatic and psychological dimensions of recovery cohesively (Paphitis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Micklitz et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerspective taking, defined as the cognitive capacity to adopt and understand another person\u0026rsquo;s point of view, has been identified as an important factor in the occurrence of intimate partner violence (IPV). Low perspective-taking ability can hinder accurate interpretation of a partner\u0026rsquo;s thoughts, emotions, or intentions, increasing the likelihood of miscommunication, perceived hostility, and conflict escalation. When individuals struggle to mentally shift from their own perspective to that of another, they may rely on assumptions or defensive interpretations that reinforce adversarial dynamics. In the context of IPV, limited perspective taking is linked to reduced empathy, diminished emotional attunement, and poorer conflict resolution skills, all of which contribute to the risk of both verbal and physical aggression. Conversely, strong perspective-taking skills facilitate mutual understanding, de-escalation of disagreements, and recognition of the partner\u0026rsquo;s needs, which can act as protective factors against violence. These findings highlight the value of incorporating cognitive-empathy training and perspective-taking exercises into prevention and intervention programs, as enhancing these skills may reduce the cognitive distortions and reactive behaviours that often precede acts of IPV.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisruptions in interoceptive awareness, heightened anxiety, and difficulties in perspective taking may interact in ways that intensify the psychological impact of intimate partner violence (IPV). Altered interoceptive processing can reduce the ability to accurately interpret bodily signals, undermining emotional regulation and increasing vulnerability to anxiety (Machorrinho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This heightened anxiety, in turn, can narrow attentional focus toward perceived threats, limiting cognitive flexibility and the capacity to consider alternative viewpoints in social interactions (Cataudella et al., 2021; Machorrinho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Impairments in perspective taking, whether due to hypervigilance, mistrust, or trauma-related cognitive biases, can strain interpersonal relationships, contributing to social isolation and reinforcing maladaptive beliefs about the self and others (Lafontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). These processes may operate in a self-perpetuating cycle: disrupted bodily awareness amplifies anxiety, anxiety constrains social cognition, and weakened perspective taking further erodes relational security, which can exacerbate trauma symptoms (Machorrinho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Lafontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Addressing these interconnected mechanisms requires an integrated intervention framework that combines mental health treatment with relational skills training (Moulding et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Approaches that incorporate body-focused techniques to restore interoceptive sensitivity, alongside strategies to manage anxiety and enhance perspective taking, may offer particular promise (Machorrinho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Lafontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Such multimodal interventions could not only reduce psychological distress but also strengthen survivors\u0026rsquo; ability to build and maintain supportive relationships, a factor known to protect against the long-term consequences of IPV (Moulding et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study tested associations between IPV (physical and/or psychological), IA, and Anxiety in men and women. Likewise, we examined their role in modulating perspective-taking (PT), which plays a significant function in social cognition (McGarry et al., 2021). Some studies have recommended further research on PT and IPV to address the mechanisms that might underlie these associations (Katerndahl et al., 2014; Ulloa et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, the current study investigated IPV through a mechanism characterised by exacerbated state anxiety, dysregulated IA, and PT abnormalities. Then, based on previous research (Chandan et al., 2020; Louise et al., 2022; Mapayi et al., 2013; P\u0026eacute;loquin et al., 2011)We hypothesised that IPV increases state anxiety, and high anxiety negatively affects the IA (Khalsa et al., 2018; Pollatos et al., 2009). Then, maladaptive IA negatively affects PT, which means that worse IA reduces PT, as some researchers have found (Heydrich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; H\u0026uuml;bner et al., 2021; Terasawa et al., 2014). We explore IPV according to Lafontaine et al. (2016), who said this type of IPV is more common in romantic relationships in Chile. Likewise, Follingstad (2009) mentioned that the way we understand psychological aggression and differentiate it from more extreme forms of abuse relies, in part, on factors such as the surrounding context, its place in a sequence of events, the interpretation of the behaviour, and whether it was perceived as abusive. Our sample consisted of people we did not know if they were informed about the IPV topic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address our hypothesis, we developed a structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis to test our hypothesised pattern of association previously formulated. To undertake this, we conducted a protocol of self-report instruments for adult men and women from Santiago, Chile, that evaluated violence in IPV, state anxiety, IA, and PT. Then, we performed the SEM using a parcelling items approach to scales. Our research aimed to shed light on previously unexplored aspects contributing to a deeper understanding of the complex interrelationships among IPV, state anxiety, IA, and PT.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.1. Participants and procedure\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sample comprised 255 participants (142 women) between 18 and 46 years (M = 31.2; SD = 8) recruited from Santiago, Chile. Participants are sampled from the general population. For the analysis, only the participants who completed the protocol were considered. Participation was voluntary; a link to the online survey was posted on social media (such as Facebook and Instagram). They signed the informed consent and were instructed to complete four self-report scales about violence experienced, anxiety, interoceptive awareness, and perspective taking. The protocol took approximately 35 minutes to complete. The data collected were anonymised.\u0026nbsp;At the start, participants were screened for psychiatric, neurological, and substance abuse diagnoses; none reported these conditions. The Adolfo Iba\u0026ntilde;ez University ethics committee approved the study and followed the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.2. Instruments\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.2.1 IPV from the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (rCTS2)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e (Straus et al., 1996). This questionnaire is a 72-item instrument assessing the presence and frequency of psychological aggression and violence, as well as sexual coercion, used by both the self and the partner in the past 12 months and the lifetime. This study used items to assess physical/psychological violence. The Cronbach\u0026apos;s \u0026alpha; for this sample is 0.881. On an eight-point scale, participants report how often they used each behavior in the past 12 months (\u0026quot;This has never happened,\u0026quot; \u0026quot;Once,\u0026quot; \u0026quot;Twice\u0026quot;, \u0026quot;3\u0026ndash;5 times\u0026quot;, \u0026quot;6\u0026ndash;10 times\u0026quot;, \u0026quot;11\u0026ndash;20 times,\u0026quot;, \u0026quot;21 or more times\u0026quot;, and \u0026quot;Not in the past year, but this has happened before\u0026quot;). The scoring method included frequency and prevalence, the results of which are the percentage of respondents who reported being a victim or perpetrator of a violent act one or more times, and frequency, which is measured by the number of times an act occurred during the previous period.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.2.2 Perspective taking (PT) from the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003edeveloped by Davis (1980) was used to assess empathy\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e The IRI consists of 28 items that measure both cognitive and emotional dimensions of empathy. Here, we used only the Perspective Taking subscale. The Cronbach\u0026apos;s \u0026alpha; for our sample was 0.714.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.2.3 The Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e(MAIA); Mehling et al., 2012). This 32-item scale measures how frequently individuals pay attention to their body cues and how accurately they can identify them. It consists of eight subscales; for this work, we used the total score from the scale. Our sample demonstrated reliable evidence for the MAIA scale (Cronbach\u0026apos;s \u0026alpha; = .799). Higher scores indicate good interoceptive capacity.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.2.4 The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-S),\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003edeveloped by Spielberger (1971), was used to measure state anxiety symptomatology. It has 20 items, and respondents indicate how much each statement reflects how they feel right now. The subject should mark the number from 0 to 3; the state goes between \u0026quot;nothing,\u0026quot; \u0026quot;some,\u0026quot; \u0026quot;much,\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;very much.\u0026quot; Our sample showed good reliability for this scale (0.893 Cronbach\u0026apos;s \u0026alpha;).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Data analysis","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Item parcellation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParcels are elaborated here as indicators for constructs using the balancing approach parcelling, as explained by Coffman and Maccallum (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). These parcels represented the underlying variable but were not directly interpretable. Each parcel consisted of an average of two or more items from the scale (e.g., MAIA), serving as aggregate-level indicators (Little et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). We employed parcels as measured/observed variables for SEMs, which offered several advantages, as highlighted by Coffman and Maccallum (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). One crucial advantage was that the shared variance among the items, representing the variance of the actual score, was preserved, while the unshared variance (uniquenesses) was reduced (Little et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Combining items within parcels improves the measurement properties of the indicators by minimising unwanted variances, reducing diversity among the indicators, and increasing reliability (Little et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo build the parcels, we utilised the counterbalancing approach. This analysis involved examining discrimination indices for each item and allocating items with high, medium, and low indices to each parcel. In this approach, the item with the highest item-scale correlation was paired with the item showing the lowest correlation (see supplementary information). For parcels corresponding to subscales, discrimination indices were calculated on a factor-by-factor basis rather than across all items in the instrument. The aim was to have an item with a strong loading provide robust support for the construct when paired with a weaker item while replicating the overall factor structure within each parcel. This process resulted in a set of equivalent tau or parallel parcels. Specific variances were reduced, particularly for the weaker items (Little et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). These resulting parcels were subsequently used in the subsequent analyses outlined below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Structural equation model (SEM)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM analysis was used to test our hypothesised pattern of association previously formulated. We provided a detailed accounting of measurement errors and accurately estimated the structural relations between latent factors. Data preparation, analyses, and parcelling were conducted with the R statistics program and Lavaan package (Savalei, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Specifying model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe resulting parcels were used as observed measures of their respective latent variable (LV). Each parcel demonstrated non-zero loadings on the construct for which it was designed. To ensure the model's identification and scaling, each latent variable's variance was set to one. Fit indices and the percentage of variance explained in the model were employed to assess the fit of the hypothesised model. A significant χ2 value indicates that the path model does not adequately fit the data, whereas a non-significant χ2 value (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05) suggests that the path model fits the data well.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, based on our hypothesised pattern, we estimated the effects of partner violence on state anxiety (indicated by three STAI-S parcels). Then, we suggested the impact of state anxiety on interoceptive awareness (characterised by three MAIA parcels) and interoceptive awareness's impact on empathy (indicated by two PT-IRI) (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e01\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdequacy fit indices were utilised to evaluate the model's goodness of fit. Given that the distribution of the parcels did not follow a normal distribution, we employed the YB χ2 statistic, robust comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square error approximation (RMSEA) as measures to assess the fit of the hypothesised model. For the RMSEA, values greater than 0.08 indicated a poor fit, values ranging from 0.05 to 0.08 were considered a good fit, and values less than or equal to 0.05 were considered a perfect fit (Savalei, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe YB χ2 statistic serves as a fit index and is desirable to be as close to zero as possible. Therefore, it is expected to have a non-significant p-value (i.e., p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The CFI, ranging from 0 to 1, evaluates the improvement in the fit of the specified model compared to the null model. A CFI value greater than 0.90 indicates a good fit, while values between 0.95 and 0.99 suggest an excellent fit. A CFI value of 1 represents an exact fit (T. Little, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the CFI, other fit indices such as the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI, cutoff value\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.95), Standardised Root Mean Square Residual index (SRMR, cutoff value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.08), and RMSEA (cutoff value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.06) were employed to evaluate the fit of the hypothesised model (Little, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents descriptive data of the analysed variables: PT (Perspective taking as a cognitive empathy from the IRI instrument), STAI-S to assess state anxiety, rCTS2 to measure violence in IPV, and the MAIA scale to evaluate IA.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive Analysis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescriptive Statistics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKurtosis\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePT-IRI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSTAI-S\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003erCTS2 (IPV)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMAIA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e149\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePT-IRI: Perspective Taking of Interpersonal Reactivity Index; STAI-S: State Anxiety Inventory; CTS2 (IPV): Violence from the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales; MAIA scale: Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStructural equation model (SEM)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe proposed structural equation model showed a satisfactory fit to the data. The goodness-of-fit test indicated a statistically significant difference between the proposed model and the saturated model, \u0026chi;\u0026sup2;(40)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;63.29, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.011; however, the fit indices suggest that the model adequately represents the observed relationship structure. In particular, the comparative and non-normed fit values exceeded the recommended criteria (Hu \u0026amp; Bentler, 1999), including CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.989, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.986, NNFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.986, IFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.990, and NFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.972. The RMSEA was .048, with a 95% confidence interval of [.023, .069] and a p-value for close fit\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.543, indicating an adequate fit. The SRMR (.046) was also below the recommended .08 threshold.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the structural model (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), IPV positively predicted anxiety levels (\u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.21, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002), indicating that greater exposure to violence is associated with higher anxiety levels. In turn, anxiety negatively predicted interoception (\u0026beta; = \u0026ndash;.43, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), suggesting that higher anxiety levels are linked to a reduced ability to perceive and process internal bodily signals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, interoception showed a positive relationship with perspective-taking (\u0026beta;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.31, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), indicating that better interoceptive perception is associated with a greater ability to understand others\u0026rsquo; viewpoints. In contrast, anxiety was negatively related to perspective-taking (\u0026beta; = \u0026ndash;.23, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.011), suggesting that elevated anxiety levels may hinder this process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, the findings support a model in which experienced violence is associated with increased anxiety, which has detrimental effects on both interoceptive perception and perspective-taking. Moreover, interoception emerges as a positive resource for the development of cognitive empathy, whereas anxiety appears to act as an inhibiting factor.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analysis revealed a clear and consistent pattern across the data. Experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV), whether physical or psychological, were linked with heightened anxiety symptoms (Ahmadabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Chandan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Scandurra et al., 2023; Spencer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In turn, these elevated anxiety levels were associated with reduced capacity of interoception, the ability to accurately perceive and regulate internal bodily signals, as well as diminished perspective-taking skills, a core aspect of social cognition (Lafontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Importantly, interoceptive awareness showed a positive association with perspective taking, suggesting that when individuals are more attuned to their bodily states, they may also be better equipped to understand and engage with the perspective of others (Lafontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Together, these findings highlight a chain of associations in which IPV heightens anxiety, which then undermines both bodily self-awareness and relational understanding, while preserved interoception appears to serve a protective, facilitating role.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results largely confirmed the hypotheses formulated at the outset of the study. We proposed that anxiety would act as a pathway through which IPV affects both interoception and perspective taking, and the findings aligned with this expectation (Ahmadabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Chandan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Scandurra et al., 2023; Spencer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The negative link between anxiety and interoception replicates and extends earlier work demonstrating that stress and hyperarousal compromise the ability to interpret the bodily cues (Yim \u0026amp; Kofman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the association between poor interoception and reduced perspective-taking resonates with previous experimental studies suggesting that self-focused bodily awareness supports empathic accuracy (Lafontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). What this study adds, however, is a coherent model tested within a Latin American context, showing how these mechanisms operate together in the lived experience of the general population (Lafontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). By situating anxiety as a central disruptor in the pathway from violence to social cognition, the findings move beyond prior research that has typically examined these constructs in isolation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositioning these results within the wider body of IPV research reveals important theoretical and clinical implications. The psychological consequences of IPV have often been described in terms of depression, PTSD, or generalised anxiety, but the present findings suggest that the impact extends deeply into bodily processes and relational capacities (Chandan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Spencer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Scandurra et al., 2023). Anxiety does not merely represent a symptom cluster; it appears to erode the very mechanisms, interoceptive awareness and perspective taking that enable survivors to regulate emotions and maintain meaningful social connections (Lafontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This has significant consequences for recovery, as difficulties in perceiving internal states may perpetuate dysregulation, while impaired perspective-taking can hinder the rebuilding of trust and intimacy in a relationship (Lafontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The results, therefore, support an integrative view of IPV\u0026rsquo;s aftermath: violence disrupts not only emotional well-being but also the embodied and cognitive systems that underpin the sense of self and their interaction with others.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe association found between IPV and anxiety is consistent with a large body of literature showing that both physical and psychological violence are strongly linked to heightened anxiety and trauma-related symptoms (Chandan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Ahmadabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Henry et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Cerda-De la O et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Lagdon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Spencer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Bentley \u0026amp; Riutort-Mayol, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Yastıbaş-Ka\u0026ccedil;ar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; White et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Previous research has demonstrated that survivors frequently report persistent states of hypervigilance, fear, and worry long after the violent episodes have ended, underscoring the enduring psychological burden of abuse (Chandan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Cerda-De la O et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Lagdon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Cirici Amell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, it is important to note the nuances between different forms of violence within this pattern. While physical IPV may generate acute stress responses connected to fear conditioning and immediate physical threat, psychological IPV often produces more chronic and destabilising anxiety. This is largely due to its unpredictability and the ongoing dynamics of coercive control, which erode a survivor\u0026rsquo;s sense of safety and agency in more subtle but sustained ways (Lagdon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Bentley \u0026amp; Riutort-Mayol, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Yastıbaş-Ka\u0026ccedil;ar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The present findings not only align with this distinction but also extend current theoretical models by showing that anxiety is not merely an outcome of IPV but acts as a pathway that influences other domains of functioning (Ahmadabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Spencer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Audet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, elevated anxiety was shown to impair interoceptive awareness and hinder perspective taking, suggesting that emotional consequences of IPV play a central role in shaping both bodily self-regulation and social cognition (Cerda-De la O et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Audet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This highlights the need to understand anxiety as a pivotal mechanism that links experiences of violence to broader disruptions in survivors' psychological and relational worlds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe finding that anxiety diminishes interoceptive ability resonates with a substantial body of research on trauma, autonomic dysregulation, and somatic dissociation. Survivors of IPV and other trauma often experience chronic hyperarousal of the stress response system, which can distort the perception of bodily signals and disrupt the brain network responsible for integrating those sensations into coherent self-awareness (Payne et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Schulz \u0026amp; V\u0026ouml;gele, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Machorrinho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Fani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This dysregulation can manifest as either hypersensitivity to internal cues, such as palpitations or rapid breathing, that fuel further anxiety, or, conversely, as blunted bodily awareness linked to dissociation (Machorrinho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Woelk \u0026amp; Garfinkel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Both patterns reflect an impaired interoceptive system that leaves individuals less able to regulate emotions or detect early signs of stress (Schulz \u0026amp; V\u0026ouml;gele, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Quadt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Palser et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). At the same time, interoception should not be understood solely as a point of vulnerability. When preserved or intentionally strengthened, interoceptive awareness can serve as a protective resource, supporting self-regulation and providing a foundation for resilience and social connection (Price \u0026amp; Hooven, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Leech et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Quadt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Shen et al., 2023). This dual role makes interoception particularly a significant mechanism in understanding how IPV and anxiety affect mental health (Machorrinho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Nord \u0026amp; Garfinkel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Critchley \u0026amp; Garfinkel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). From a clinical perspective, interventions that deliberately target bodily awareness, such as mindfulness-based practices, somatic therapies, and structured interoceptive training, offer promising tools for recovery (Shatrova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Molteni et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Price \u0026amp; Hooven, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Sugawara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; D\u0026rsquo;Antoni et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These approaches can help survivors relearn how to attend to internal sensations in a balanced way, reduce hypervigilance, and foster greater emotional regulation (Molteni et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Fani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Price et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). By restoring a more adaptive relationship with the body, such practices may mitigate the lasting impact of anxiety and create pathways for healing that extend beyond symptom management (Payne et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Price \u0026amp; Hooven, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Leech et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe positive association observed between interoception and perspective taking suggests that bodily attunement provides a foundation for social cognition and empathy. Recognising and regulating one\u0026rsquo;s internal states may create the stability necessary to accurately perceive and respond to the emotions and viewpoints of others (Heydrich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Palmer \u0026amp; Tsakiris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Adolfi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This link is supported by social neuroscience research, which demonstrates that interoceptive awareness contributes to empathic accuracy and the ability to engage in attuned social interactions (Heydrich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Adolfi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Baiano et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Neuroimaging and lesion studies highlight the role of the insular and frontotemporal regions in integrating interoception, emotion, and social cognition, further underscoring this relationship (Adolfi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, the findings also indicate that anxiety undermines perspective taking, aligning with evidence that heightened anxiety narrows attentional focus and orients individuals toward potential threats (Todd et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Todd \u0026amp; Simpson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Alvi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Pile et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Experimental studies show that anxiety increases egocentrism and impairs the spontaneous calculation of others\u0026rsquo; perspectives, particularly in a social context (Todd et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Todd \u0026amp; Simpson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Within the context of IPV, such hypervigilance can fuel mistrust, defensiveness, and reduced willingness to engage in the cognitive effort required to adopt another\u0026rsquo;s perspective (Gerrans \u0026amp; Murray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Alvi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Situating these results within existing models of social cognition reinforces the idea that empathy is not merely a cognitive skill but is deeply intertwined with emotional regulation and bodily awareness (Heydrich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Palmer \u0026amp; Tsakiris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Adolfi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). IPV-related anxiety appears to disrupt this integration, weakening survivors\u0026rsquo; ability to repair relationships or build new, supportive connections. This has significant implications for recovery, as difficulties in perspective taking may prolong isolation and hinder the development of social networks that buffer against the long-term effects of trauma (Alvi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Pile et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings support an integrated mechanistic model in which intimate partner violence (IPV) elevates anxiety, and this heightened anxiety disrupts interoceptive functioning, which in turn weakens perspective-taking. This model is consistent with evidence that IPV exposure is strongly associated with increased psychological stress and anxiety, which can have downstream effects on both biological and psychological functioning (Ahmadabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Spencer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Yim \u0026amp; Kofman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Impaired interoception can, in turn, undermine perspective taking and empathy, as bodily self-awareness is foundational for understanding and responding to others\u0026rsquo; emotions (Heydrich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Adolfi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Rather than a simple linear sequence, these links suggest a self-reinforcing loop: anxiety-driven distortions of bodily awareness erode the survivor\u0026rsquo;s ability to engage in empathic understanding, which then deepens relational insecurity and amplifies psychological distress. Such a cycle may sustain the long-term impact of IPV by simultaneously undermining self-regulation and social connectedness, two capacities central to recovery (Moulding et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Yim \u0026amp; Kofman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). While integrated models of IPV\u0026rsquo;s psychological and relational consequences have been proposed, the simultaneous empirical examination of interoception and perspective taking within the context of IPV remains rare (Heydrich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Lafontaine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). By bridging these processes into dialogue, the present approach extends current frameworks and opens space for a more comprehensive account of how the bodily and relational consequences of violence become intertwined (McCloud \u0026amp; Abdullah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Voith, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClinical and policy implications arising from these findings highlight the value of approaches that move beyond symptom management to address the emboded and relational sequelae of IPV. Trauma-infromed, body-focused interventions, such as trauma-informed yoga, dance/movement therapy, and somatic therapies, have demonstrated effectiveness in reducing stress, somatic complains, anxiety, and depression among IPV survivors, while also improving self-efficacy and emotional regulation (Beranbaum \u0026amp; D\u0026rsquo;Andrea, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Liang et al., 2024; Chu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Karakurt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Strengthening interoceptive awareness through these interventions can help survivors regulate anxiety and rebuild a sense of safety in their own bodies, thereby creating the conditions for healthier relational engagement (Beranbaum \u0026amp; D\u0026rsquo;Andrea, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Price \u0026amp; Hooven, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Complementing body-focused approaches, the integration of perspective taking training, such as cognitive empathy exercises and relational skill-building, can provide survivors with tools to restore trust, repair social connections, and navigate interpersonal contexts more effectively (Heydrich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ogbe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Evidence suggest that interventions tailored to improve social support and relational skills are associated with better mental health outcomes and reduced isolation (Ogbe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Karakurt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, at a policy level, it is critical to recognise that marginalized populations often encounter structural barriers, such as limited access to mental health services, cultural stima, and systemic inequities, which not only heighten anxiety but also restrict opportunities to engage in interoception-based care (Wathen \u0026amp; Mantler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ogbe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Addressing these disparities requires coordinated strategies that combine clinical innovation with policy reforms designed to expand accessibility and tailor interventions to diverse social and cultural context (Wathen \u0026amp; Mantler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Chu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLimitations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations should be acknowledged when interpreting these findings. The reliance on self-report measures introduces potential biases, including the possibility of inaccurate recall or responses shaped by social desirability, which may lead participants to understate or overstate their experiences of violence and anxiety. The study's cross-sectional nature also restricts the ability to draw causal inferences, meaning that while the structural model is consistent with theoretical expectations, the direction of these relationships cannot be confirmed. Furthermore, the sample was drawn exclusively from Santiago, Chile, which raises questions about cultural specificity; how IPV is experienced, perceived and reported may differ across socio-cultural contexts, limiting the generalizability of the results. Finally, participants correspond to the general population and not necessarily victims of violence; it is uncertain to what extent participants were already familiar with IPV as a concept, and this variability in awareness may have influenced how they interpreted survey items.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFuture directions\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuture research would benefit from adopting longitudinal designs that allow for testing the temporal ordering and potential causal relationships between IPV, anxiety, interoception and perspective taking, as cross-sectional data cannot fully capture the dynamic processes involved. It will also be important to move beyond self-report by incorporating physiological indices of interoception, such as heartbeat detection tasks or neurophysiological markers of interoception, to provide more objective evidence of how bodily awareness is disrupted. Comparative studies including survivors of violence and across diverse cultural contexts could clarify the extent to which these mechanisms are shaped by personal experiences of violence, gender norms, socioeconomic conditions and cultural understanding of IPV. This will improve the generalizability of the model. Finally, intervention trials represent a critical next step: programs that actively train interoceptive awareness through mindfulness or somatic practices, combined with strategies to strengthen perspective taking, could be tested for their ability to reduce anxiety and enhance survivors\u0026rsquo; relational functioning, offering a more integrated and evidence-based approach to recovery.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the findings of this study provide evidence for an interconnected mechanism in which exposure to intimate partner violence heightens anxiety, and this heightened anxiety disrupts both interoceptive awareness and perspective-taking abilities. The results suggest that these processes do not operate in isolation but rather form part of a chain that links the psychological impact of violence with bodily regulation and social cognition. Recognising this interdependence highlights the importance of interventions that address more than symptom reduction alone: strategies aimed at restoring somatic regulation, alongside approaches that strengthen perspective-taking and relational skills, may offer more comprehensive recovery pathways for survivors. By integrating these dimensions, practitioners can move towards treatment models that reflect the full complexity of IPV\u0026rsquo;s aftermath. More broadly, this study contributes to bridging psychological, physiological and relational perspectives within IPV research, pointing toward a framework that acknowledges the layered nature of trauma and the multiple routes through which healing and resilience may be fostered.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study received prior approval from the ethics committee of Adolfo Ibáñez University and followed the protocol of the Declaration of Helsinki. Finally, all participants provided a signed consent after reading the information with detailed procedure information.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData will be available on the GitHub platform once the manuscript has been accepted.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest concerning this article's research, authorship, and/or publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work is supported by grants from Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (ANID/FONDECYT Regular N ̊ 1231117 to David Huepe).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJPM: Conceptualisation; Methodology; Formal analysis; Investigation; Data Curation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualisation; Supervision; Project administration. PSD: Conceptualisation; Methodology; Formal analysis; Investigation; Data Curation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualisation; Supervision; Project administration. DFO: Methodology; Software; Formal analysis; Data Curation; Writing - Original Draft. OR: Methodology; Software; Formal analysis; Data Curation. SCH: Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing. VI: Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing. DH: Conceptualisation; Methodology; Formal analysis; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualisation; Supervision; Resources; Funding acquisition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement.\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdolfi, F., Couto, B., Richter, F., Decety, J., L\u0026oacute;pez, J., Sigman, M., Manes, F., \u0026amp; Ibanez, A. (2017). Convergence of interoception, emotion, and social cognition: A twofold fMRI meta-analysis and lesion approach. \u003cem\u003eCortex, 88\u003c/em\u003e, 124\u0026ndash;142.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAguerrebere, M., Fr\u0026iacute;as, S. M., Smith Fawzi, M. C., L\u0026oacute;pez, R., \u0026amp; Raviola, G. (2021). 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S., \u0026amp; Kofman, Y. (2019). The psychobiology of stress and intimate partner violence. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 104, 233-241.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Intimate Partner Violence, Interoceptive Awareness, Anxiety, Perspective Taking.","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7577993/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7577993/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with anxiety and relational difficulties, yet the mechanisms linking these outcomes remain underexplored. Interoception and perspective taking may jointly explain the impact of IPV on psychological and social functioning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examined relationships among IPV exposure, anxiety, interoceptive awareness, and perspective taking. Participants completed validated measures assessing these domains. SEM analysis tested whether anxiety predicted interoceptive and perspective-taking deficits, and whether interoception was associated with perspective-taking.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIPV exposure was significantly related to heightened anxiety, which in turn predicted lower interoceptive awareness and reduced perspective-taking capacity. Interoception was positively associated with perspective taking, suggesting a link between bodily attunement and social-cognitive processing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings support a mechanistic model in which IPV-induced anxiety disrupts interoception and perspective taking, creating a cycle of relational and psychological vulnerability. Interventions targeting interoceptive awareness and perspective-taking skills may enhance recovery, particularly when combined with trauma-informed care.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Unlocking the Interplay of Interoceptive Awareness, Anxiety, and Perspective-Taking: Insights into Intimate Partner Violence Dynamics in General Population","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-31 10:46:39","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7577993/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-23T15:09:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-22T06:55:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"321168423551795391580002229252530247039","date":"2026-03-20T07:48:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"62166604514496850632791823823536247134","date":"2026-01-29T15:15:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-16T16:48:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"253491089553478737500662719572035168901","date":"2025-12-29T15:35:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-29T14:05:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-15T16:34:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-11T12:46:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-10T11:52:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-09-10T02:29:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ff1edb27-5937-4552-9434-76d5c9fce580","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 31st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":60360861,"name":"Biological sciences/Neuroscience"},{"id":60360862,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":60360863,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-30T05:38:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-31 10:46:39","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7577993","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7577993","identity":"rs-7577993","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}