School Violence and the Efficacy of the Action Plan Against Violence: A School Counselor Perspective

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Drawing on semi-structured interviews with 15 school counselors working in schools from varying socioeconomic backgrounds, the study reveals that counselors' roles are shaped by contextual dynamics and vary notably across settings. Four key themes emerged from the data: (1) school context and counselor roles, (2) perceptions of violence, (3) implementation of the action plan, and (4) training needs. Counselors working in lower socioeconomic schools primarily addressed physical violence, emphasizing issues such as absenteeism, aggression, and lack of motivation. In contrast, those in middle and upper socioeconomic schools highlighted psychological and verbal violence, often rooted in competition and peer pressure. However, many counselors in higher SES schools did not see addressing these forms of violence as central to their role. The APAV was frequently described as a bureaucratic task with limited adaptability to specific school contexts, often implemented superficially or only on paper. The findings point to a need for context-sensitive, school-based violence prevention strategies, increased awareness and training opportunities for school counselors, and stronger institutional support. A policy shift that clearly defines and empowers counselors’ roles in violence prevention is essential for more effective implementation. Educational Psychology violence violence prevention Violence Prevention Action Plan school counselors educational environments Introduction Current research on school violence, which is one of the important schools that school mental health focuses on preventing, focuses on its prevalence, trends and effective ways to deal with it. It is under scrutiny at both national and international levels (Chen & Chen, 2020 ; Chen & Wei, 2011 ; Cosma et al., 2020 ; Duru & Balkis, 2018 ; Modecki et al., 2014 ). Cross-cultural comparisons are made in China (Chen & Chen, 2020 ), Hong Kong, Japan, Taiwan, Mainland China, Australia, New Zealand (Slee et al., 2016 ), North America (Bauman et al., 2016 ; Cosma et al., 2020 ; Espelage & Swearer, 2011 ), Central America (Bauman et al., 2016 ), and South Africa (Johannsson, et al., 2022). Although school violence is a fundamental issue addressed by many countries, it is stated that the issue differs across various variables. Cross-country studies indicate that school violence may vary depending on culture (Chen & Chen, 2020 ), economic factors such as gross national product, GINI coefficient, or education system (e.g., the presence of centralized exams) (Akiba et al., 2002 ), and even school characteristics (Johansson et al., 2022 ). Even in countries have similarities with high levels of school violence, such as the USA and Germany, differences exist in the type and nature of such violence (Leuschner et al., 2011). These differences necessitate a contextual understanding of these practices and evaluations within each country's unique position. Therefore, each country takes action to prevent school violence in its own specific circumstances. When evaluating preventive intervention studies, consensus for preventive function against school violence exists (Gaffney et al., 2019 ). Different countries implement various interventions, including educational program interventions, multidisciplinary whole-school approaches, social and behavioral skills development programs, and others (mentoring, social worker involvement, etc.) (Vreeman & Carroll, 2007 ). However, the effectiveness of these interventions is inconsistent. More importantly, in-depth contextual information is crucial to better understand the efficacy of specific programs and action plans. The relevant differences may stem from both the nature of the interventions and the varying contexts of the countries involved. School violence in Türkiye and “the Action Plan Against Violence” In Türkiye, according to a 2007 report submitted to the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TBMM) Research Commission, one in five young people experience physical violence, one in two experience verbal violence, one in three experience emotional violence, and one in seven experience sexual violence. And, high school students perceive that violence is most frequent on the streets (39%), and in and around schools (34%) (TBMM, 2007 ). Coşkun Armağan ( 2024 ), citing 2022 PISA data, notes that while there has been improvement in indicators of bullying, victimization, and witnessing violence compared to 2018, the situation remains worse than the OECD average. Similarly, the Ministry of National Education (MoNE, 2023 ) reports an increase in incidents of social isolation, ridicule, and gossip, but a decrease in threats and forced theft compared to 2018. To address the rising violence in Turkish schools, the strategy and action plan "Preventing and Reducing Violence in Educational Environments" was implemented. The legal basis for this plan is the Child Protection Law No. 5395 of 2005. This law aims to protect children in need and secure their rights and well-being. In 2006, the Ministry of National Education's General Directorate of Special Education, Guidance, and Counseling Services issued Circular No. 1342, emphasizing the need to prevent violence in schools due to increasing incidents of violence, aggression, and bullying. The circular advocates for a developmental-preventive approach based on early intervention and problem prevention (MoNE, 2006 ). This action plan is aligned with the Provincial Action Plan for Protection, Prevention, and Intervention Services in Risky Living Conditions and Circular No. 2006/26. It includes task sharing, forming crisis intervention teams, informing teachers outside the crisis intervention team, providing necessary resources for their work, and establishing a relationship with district/provincial directorates of national education for potential risk scenarios. The plan involves annual activities like family visits, teacher training, and student seminars to identify risk factors. The role of school counselors with their dual roles as educators and counselors, school counselors bear significant ethical and legal responsibilities in preventing and responding to school violence (Hermann & Finn, 2002 ; Levy & Lemberger-Truelove, 2021 ). As educators, they are uniquely positioned to adapt national policy reforms or changes to the classroom or school environment. However, the successful adaptation of these reforms often depends on various factors (Fullan, 2007 ). School counselors play a pivotal role in the implementation of this action plan. They are responsible for providing training and raising awareness, fostering cooperation and coordination among stakeholders, facilitating student support programs, enhancing communication with families, monitoring risky behaviors, promoting a positive school climate, and responding effectively to crises. Although the provincial executive commission may not be directly involved in operationalizing the plan, the active participation of school administrators, counselors, families, and the broader community is essential for its planning, implementation, and evaluation. In Türkiye, school counselors hold multiple roles, and among these, their level of awareness of school violence and the degree to which they prioritize it are particularly important. Counselors are key actors in assessing violence in schools, conducting risk analyses, and executing prevention, intervention, and crisis management strategies. However, their specific roles in these processes remain somewhat undefined (Ellington et al., 2023 ). Research also indicates that counselors may lack sufficient knowledge to accurately diagnose various forms of school violence, which can hinder the effectiveness of school violence prevention programs (McAdams et al., 2011 ). The ambiguity surrounding the role definitions of school counselors (Bardhoshi, 1997; Cullbert et al., 2005; Freeman & Coll, 1997 ) can lead to varying expectations based on the specific school context (Blake, 2020 ). Indeed, while some schools prioritize academic success, college preparation, and school choice, others focus on preventing discipline problems (Carrell and Hoekstra, 2014 ; Reback, 2010 ; Carrell and Carrell, 2006 ). However, school counselors often dedicate insufficient time to mental health promotion, a key area of their responsibilities (Blake, 2020 ). Violence as a socially constructed concept It is important to remember that the concept of ‘violence’, like all other concepts, is socially constructed. Williams ( 2005 ) highlights that perceptions of violence vary among individuals based on factors such as age, gender, and status. Students, teachers, school counselors, and administrators may conceptualize violence differently. Williams ( 2005 ) found that many male students in the US do not perceive certain behaviors as sexual violence unless they involve physical acts. As another example, adults often associate violence with gang involvement, gun possession, or physical fights. Interestingly, individuals who carry guns may not view this as an act of violence but as a preventive measure (Mukherjee et al., 2020). In recent years, poststructuralist debates have emphasized that dominant discourses on violence can hinder effective action (Rawlings, 2017a , 2019 ). Ringrose ( 2008 ) notes that research on school violence often focuses on male students, neglecting female students' experiences of violence. Rawlings ( 2017a ) further highlights the differing perceptions of violence between students and school personnel. For example, Rawlings ( 2017b ) study argued discrepancies between teachers' and students' perceptions of sexual violence may differ in relation to power and hiyerarcy relations. Rawlings ( 2017b ) emphasizes the significance of power relations, privileges, and context in understanding school violence and prevention efforts. Her ethnographic research demonstrates that even in privileged schools, violence manifests in various forms. Therefore, it is crucial to consider different intersects including the socio-economic context and types of violence observed in different schools when addressing school violence. One aim of this study focuses on how teachers define violence (or which types of violence they are/are not aware of). However, for policy changes to be effectively implemented, teacher involvement and agreement on priorities are essential. Considering that school counselors are key actors in developing, implementing and evaluating The Action Plan Against Violence, their definition, awareness and prioritization of violence is crucial. School counselors are the primary implementers of these plans, their most common services can provide insights into the prioritization of violence-related issues. Additionally, understanding how they address and prioritize violence within their specific school contexts is important. Theoretical framework The concept of violence is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) (Krug et al., 2002 ) as “the application of physical force or power to another person in the form of a deliberate threat or reality, causing or likely to cause injury, death or psychological harm to the person exposed”. According to Ayan ( 2006 ), violence is "the expression and reflection of the tendency of aggression, which is accepted to exist naturally in human beings, in an individual or social dimension, but in a way that harms the other." Another definition suggests, violence is doing or making someone do something by applying force and pressure (Degenaar, 1980 ). It includes acts of coercion, assault, hitting, injuring, and inflicting psychological pain. These behaviors pose a physical and psychological threat to other individuals (Kocacık, 2001 ). School violence includes violent incidents and acts of aggression encountered on school campuses or in educational institutions. According to Miller ( 2008 ), school violence can involve “child and teacher victimization, child and/or teacher maltreatment, physical and psychological abuse, cyber victimization, cyber threats and bullying, fighting, classroom disorder, physical or psychological injury to teachers and students, faith-related behaviors and activities, sexual and personal space violations, and use of weapons around the school.” However, one of the most common types of violence in schools is bullying. Bullying has been conceptualized in different ways by many different researchers and this conceptualization varies from country to country (Hong & Espelage, 2012 ). For example, Smith et al. ( 2004 ) define bullying as "repeated highly aggressive behaviors, especially towards victims who cannot easily defend themselves". However, incidents of violence in schools harm the victim, the bully, and all individuals around them. In addition to physical and psychological harm, exposure to violence can also show its effects in various ways such as absenteeism, school failure, and dropping out of school (Ramirez et al., 2012 ). Especially in lower SES schools, violence and bullying increase students' absenteeism rates and decrease their academic achievement (Bravo-Sanzana et al., 2022 ). A meta-analysis on the rates of children's exposure to violence in 68 low-to-middle income countries worldwide revealed that 36.4% of students aged 12–15 were exposed to physical violence and 34.4% were bullied in the last month (Han, et al., 2019 ). In an African study, more than 93% of primary school students experienced physical violence by school staff (Devries, et al., 2014 ), while in the USA, 56% of students witnessed physical violence and 44% were threatened (Flannery et al., 2004 ). A Balkan study, including Türkiye, reported rates of children's exposure to physical violence in schools ranged from 50.6–76.3% and the rates of exposure to psychological violence ranged from 64.6–83.2% (Nikolaidis et al., 2018 ). Students can be exposed to all forms of violence, but some groups are more likely to be exposed to peer violence. Research emphasizes that students with low SES are more likely to be exposed to peer violence (Bilic, 2015 ; O'Keefe & Sela-Amit, 1997), while students with high SES are less likely to experience school violence (Demosthenous et al., 2002 ). Research indicates different results regarding the relationship between socioeconomic status and school violence perpetration. Some studies show that socioeconomic level is not related to exhibiting violence (Larochette, et al., 2010 ; Magklara, et al., 2012 ; Shetgiri, et al., 2016; Wang, et al., 2009 ; 2012 ), while other studies indicate that violent behaviors are observed more in lower socio-economic levels (Fu, et al., 2013 ; Olweus, 1993 ; Woods & Wolke, 2004 ). A high correlation exists between low average education level of families and victimization (Jansen, et al., 2012 ), and Tippett and Wolke ( 2014 ) state that being an individual from a lower socio-economic level has a high correlation with victimization. Pina et al. ( 2022 ) point out that this correlation is one of the components of apophoric violence against socio-economically disadvantaged students. In schools, students from higher socioeconomic levels also perpetrate emotional and economic violence in terms of making fun of others and feeling superior (López et al., 2021 ; Pina et al., 2021 ). Massarwi and Khoury-Kassabri ( 2017 ) point to the relationship between emotional and economic bullying and higher socioeconomic status. Other studies indicate that people at higher socio-economic status have higher risk-taking behaviors related to bullying (Barboza, et al., 2009 ; Chang, et al., 2013 ). These studies indicate that focusing on violence in lower socio-economic schools according to upper or lower socio-economic status may be a limited approach and that this issue should be handled with care in every school type for school counselors. Purpose of the study The primary aim of this study is to explore the professional context, responsibilities, and perceptions of school counselors with respect to school violence. Specifically, the research investigates how school counselors understand and interpret violence within their institutional settings, their direct experiences with violent incidents, and how they evaluate and reflect upon the implementation of the Action Plan Against Violence (APAV).s In doing so, the study also emphasizes the importance of understanding how school violence manifests across different school contexts, including its frequency, forms, and perceived severity. Recognizing these contextual differences is essential for tailoring effective prevention strategies and ensuring the relevance of the APAV in diverse educational environments. By shedding light on both the shared and divergent experiences of school counselors, the study aims to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of their role in violence prevention and policy implementation. Method Research model This study employed a multiple case study design, a qualitative methodological approach suitable for exploring contemporary social phenomena within their real-life contexts, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context are not clearly defined (Yin, 2003 ). In this study, the known phenomenon was the implementation and experience of the Violence Prevention Action Plan (APAV) in schools. The context varied based on multiple real-life factors, such as the socio-economic status of students, age groups, and the types and prevalence of school violence. Data were collected from seven schools selected to represent different contextual settings. Study group Participants were selected through purposive sampling to ensure representation from diverse school contexts. A total of seven schools in the city of Aydın, Türkiye, were included, representing lower (n = 8 counselors), middle (n = 4), and upper (n = 3) socio-economic environments. Fifteen school counselors participated in the study. Inclusion criteria required that participants had been actively involved in the implementation of the Action Plan Against Violence (APAV) for at least one year at their current school. All eligible and consenting participants were included in the research. Data collection tools Data were collected using a semi-structured interview form developed specifically for this study to explore school counselors’ roles, perceptions, and experiences regarding school violence and the Action Plan Against Violence (APAV) . The initial draft of the interview form was prepared in light of the relevant literature and national policy documents. To ensure the relevance and depth of the questions, the draft form was reviewed by two experts in the field of Curriculum and Instruction. Based on their feedback, the following adjustments were made: The experts recommended the inclusion of a question specifically focused on the school counselors’ direct experiences with the most challenging or striking case of school violence, which led to the addition of the following item: “Could you share a challenging or significant case you have dealt with, and how you managed it?” One of the original questions regarding student behaviors was found to be too broad during the review. The experts suggested breaking it down into more focused components. As a result, it was divided into two separate questions, targeting both observed student problems and types of violence. Following expert revisions, a pilot interview was conducted with one school counselor. During the pilot, it was observed that the question: What kind of student problems do you usually deal with in your school? was too general and yielded unfocused responses. Based on this insight, the question was reworded as: “Based on your observations, what are the most prominent problem areas among students in your school?” After implementing all suggestions and revisions, the final version of the interview form consisted of 16 open-ended questions, designed to allow for in-depth responses while maintaining a consistent structure across participants. Example questions from the final version include: Can you briefly introduce yourself? How long have you been working as a school counselor, and how many years have you been at this school? How would you describe your current school and its student profile? How do you define school violence? What types are most frequently observed? What kind of services do you offer in response to violence and aggression? What has been the most difficult or notable case involving school violence that you encountered? How was the APAV implemented in your school, and what challenges have you faced? Would you consider participating in an in-service training on this topic? What kind of content or structure would you expect? The semi-structured nature of the form enabled the researcher to follow a flexible yet consistent path throughout the interviews, encouraging participants to share rich narratives while ensuring comparability of data across cases. Data collection and analysis This study was approved by the Aydın Adnan Menderes University Educational Research Ethics Committee (Approval No: 2018/10, Date: 22.11.2018) and the Turkish Ministry of Education. Participants were informed about the study's purpose, confidentiality measures, voluntary participation, and their right to withdraw at any time. Written and verbal informed consent was obtained. Interviews were audio-recorded with permission. When recording was not permitted, the researcher took detailed notes and confirmed them with the participants to ensure trustworthiness. The interview data were analyzed using inductive content analysis supported by descriptive analysis, following a multi-stage qualitative data analysis process. All interviews were first transcribed verbatim by the researcher. The data were then analyzed through first-cycle and second-cycle coding, following the framework proposed by Saldaña ( 2013 ). In the first cycle, an open coding process was used to identify initial codes, corresponding to the smallest meaningful units of data, extracted directly from participants’ expressions. These initial codes were then organized into descriptive categories that reflected patterns or commonalities across participants. In the second cycle, these categories were synthesized into broader themes that addressed the core research questions and provided interpretive insight. This approach allowed for both data-driven coding and interpretive abstraction, in line with Saldaña's (2013) emphasis on iterative, layered meaning-making in qualitative research. Although the initial coding was conducted by the researcher, the coding structure and theme development were reviewed in consultation with a faculty advisor. The advisor provided critical feedback throughout the analysis process, and decisions about code merging, category naming, and theme construction were discussed collaboratively to enhance trustworthiness and researcher reflexivity. Table 1 Example of Code–Category–Theme Progression in Inductive Content Analysis Theme Category Sample Codes School Context & School counselor Role School environment by SES “competitive students”, “arrogant attitudes”, “exam anxiety”, “crowded classes” Counseling services offered “career guidance”, “anger management”, “personal development” Perceptions of Violence Definitions and manifestations “emotional harm”, “verbal insults”, “peer pressure”, “economic exclusion” APAV Implementation Implementation challenges “paperwork burden”, “no teamwork”, “admin passivity”, “only on paper” Adaptation to school context “partially implemented”, “alternative strategies used”, “unrealistic goals” Training Needs Professional development needs “practical not theoretical”, “expert-led sessions”, “role-play scenarios” Each participant was assigned a code name (e.g., S3, S12), and each quotation presented in the findings is accompanied by the participant’s school SES level, gender, and years of experience to aid in contextual interpretation. Findings How do they define their current school and their duties in this school? When the responses of the participants are analyzed, it is observed that there is a strong competition among the students in the schools in the Upper SES since there are successful students in these schools, and that the students are sometimes described as “arrogant” and “selfish” by the teachers. In these schools, it is stated that academic success has an important place for students, families and teachers. Participation in social activities is emphasized. It is stated that the small number of students is an advantage for these schools. In addition, exam anxiety, fear of failure and feelings of inadequacy constitute the most important problem areas in Upper SES schools. Educational and vocational guidance services are more common in Upper SES schools. Within the scope of educational guidance services, information about efficient study techniques and strategies that can be applied to increase academic success are provided; for vocational guidance services, activities such as career counseling, university and profession introductions, interviews with graduating students, university visits are carried out. S3: “... Since the academic achievement of the students is very high, our problem is more in the educational guidance and vocational guidance dimensions. ” (Upper SES, M, 24) Schools in the middle SES are defined as high schools with successful and conscious students who are successful in the field of equal weight, who do not have many adaptation and relationship problems. It is stated that students achieve an average level of success and need motivation to be more successful. Parents are described as open to cooperation and interested. While the biggest problem areas in Middle SES schools are career choice and academic achievement, peer conflict and bullying and communication problems are common in Lower and Middle SES schools. When the schools in the Middle SES are analyzed, it is seen that vocational and educational guidance services are provided more intensively, but personal guidance activities are also included. For vocational guidance services; career selection, career promotion, career planning and university introductions are carried out in all schools in the Middle SES. In addition, educational guidance activities such as field and course selection and efficient study techniques are also provided. In addition, within the scope of personal guidance services, services such as increasing motivation, conflict resolution, anger management, personal development activities and psychological counseling are provided. S8: “ We do many things such as vocational activities, introduction of the new exam system, help in choosing a field, psychological counseling. ” (Middle SES, F, 26) S9: “ We mainly provide educational and vocational guidance services. Apart from this, we also work with children when they have problems in decision-making processes due to adolescence or when they have problems that they cannot solve or overcome with their families or close friends. ” (Middle SES, F, 17) The lower SES are generally defined as crowded schools with lower academic success. Teachers stated that parents are not willing to cooperation. In schools with lower SES, in addition to the peer bullying and conflict and communication problems mentioned above, fighting, fighting, lack of sense of belonging, aimlessness, low academic success, absenteeism and anger management constitute the biggest problem areas. Included in personal guidance services in schools located in the lower SES; activities such as individual and group psychological counseling, adaptation studies, peer conflict, and harmful habit prevention studies are emphasized. In addition, it is stated that studies are carried out on university and profession promotions and field and branch selection. The fact that personal guidance services are more included in schools with low socio-economic levels may be due to the fact that students need to develop their social skills more. How do they approach the concept of violence and what are their experiences of school violence? Violence is defined as harmful behavior, behaviors that hurt or make someone feel bad, trying to make them do something by pressuring them, threatening them, all actions that cause pain and harm, and the person being exposed to an undesired behavior. However, the types of violence that teachers mention at this point are physical (11), verbal (8), psychological (10), economic (2) and sexual (4). In addition, school counselors state that students are not aware of the fact that they can harm each other in some cases and that students need to be aware of this issue. In different socio-economic level schools, the types and causes of violence experienced by teachers differ. For example, in upper socio-economic level schools, psychological violence is generally focused on competition, while in middle socio-economic level schools, psychological violence, which may include written and verbal forms such as name-calling, is observed. S9: “ … They use verbal violence specific to adolescence a lot towards each other… When they don’t like it, they say “you’ve become so ugly” or “idiot, idiot, naive, is that what you call it? ” (Medium SES, F, 17) In upper SES schools, behaviors such as ignoring can be exhibited. It is stated that physical violence is almost non-existent and verbal violence rarely occurs. The strong competition between students prepares the environment for psychological violence. It is stated that psychological violence incidents, mostly verbal or written, are encountered in schools in the middle SES. In lower socioeconomic level schools, it is reported that there are different types of violence such as physical, psychological and economic violence. Although various forms of violence are observed in all types of schools, the type or expression of violence may differ. S12: “ There is a competition between them, it has turned into you are better, I am better. … They used everything as an excuse and caused such an argument, it escalated to the point of upsetting and beating each other .” (Lower SES, M, 12) When the most striking cases related with violence is asked; 9 physicals, 1 economic, 4 psychological violence incidents were encountered. While the main problem expressed in middle and upper SES schools was related to psychological violence, it is thought-provoking that teachers addressed physical violence as a striking problem. What are their experiences with the Violence Prevention Action Plan? All school counselors stated that the violence prevention action plan was prepared in their schools, since it is an obligation for all schools. The strengths of the program are stated as working in groups and including students, teachers and parents in the established team. It is also stated that it is goal-oriented, restructuring and applicable. Its weaknesses are stated as not being suitable for every type of school. Although the characteristics of the school types are different, the implementation of the same program is defined as a disadvantage. However, the Violence Prevention Action Plan is seen as paperwork that school counselors have to do. School counselors are stated that other teachers and administrators avoid taking responsibility during the implementation phase and this burden falls entirely on their shoulders. The implementation of the plan becomes difficult due to the lack of support from other stakeholders. It is seen that physical conditions make implementation difficult in lower SES schools with a large number of students. S2: “ Well, unfortunately, it is one of the tasks that has been left to us for a long time. Although it seems like the school administration's executive work, there is no such thing. Guidance teachers do all these tasks in schools ” (Lower SES, F, 33). All school counselors state that the Violence Prevention Action Plan has been prepared, but for the implementation phase, 3 of the school counselors say it is not implemented, 4 say it is implemented, and 7 say it is partially implemented. The reasons for not implementing it are stated as other teachers and administrators not being open to cooperation or not feeling the need for this plan. S3: “… Even though violence is not a problem, if we go and talk about violence every week. It is left hanging in the air ….” (Upper SES, M, 24). S10: “… Frankly, it is not a very applicable violence action. Since some things work on paper, some aspects work on paper. We try to solve it with our own methods .” (Medium SES, M, 23) It is noteworthy that teachers working in schools with more psychological violence and verbal violence in their schools stated that the implementation of the violence prevention action plan in their schools was dysfunctional or that there were differences between the recommended program and the program they implemented. S11: “ Well, sometimes it can remain on paper. Now that there are so many routine tasks, we have essential duties, when students come to us through the door, we definitely have to make time for this… Sometimes it can remain on paper. ” (Medium SES, M, 23) School counselors working in lower SES schools stated that they did not implement the program due to the physical facilities of the school, the large number of students and the lack of adequate support for teamwork. S4: “ This project is a team work and our teams cannot come together. There are no teachers and time to do so many projects. All these tasks are left to the school counselor. That is why I use existing studies.” (Lower SES, F, 26) 4 of the school counselors stated that they did not need in-service training on this subject; 10 of them considered to be part of in-service training in case it is provided by an expert who has practical knowledge, and experience in the area, not only theoretical background. Discussion and Conclusion One of the main results obtained in this study is that the duties and focus areas of school counselors vary in schools with different socioeconomic levels (SES). In upper SES schools, school counselors generally provide academic-focused services such as vocational guidance, coping with exam anxiety, and study techniques. In middle SES schools, studies on developing students' motivation, decision-making, and problem-solving skills are at the forefront. In lower SES schools, counselors are more frequently involved in problems such as healthy communication, peer bullying, anger management, and physical assault. School counselors focus and prioritize their duties in their school settings. Considering the unclear role definitions and priorities of school counselors it is parallel to the literature (Bardhoshi, 2012 ; Blake, 2020 ; Culbreth, et al., 2005 ; Freeman & Coll, 1997 ), especially considering the studies on the differences in expectations from them according to the school and the structural characteristics of the school. These differences reflect the unique needs of each SES level, suggesting that the focus of counseling services is shaped by culture, society, and socioeconomic context. For example, one study suggests that counselors in high-achieving schools spend most of their time on program management, coordination, and supporting academic achievement (Fitch & Marshall, 2004 ). Similarly, other research suggests that counselors in affluent schools base their guidance roles more on academic criteria (Carrell & Carrell, 2006 ; Carrell & Hoekstra, 2014 ; Reback, 2010 ), while social and emotional issues take precedence in low-income areas (Yogev & Roditi, 1987 ). It has been reported that emotional and verbal violence is more common in schools in the upper SES due to greater competition among students (Serra-Negra et al., 2015 ), psychological violence and cyberbullying are more common in schools in the middle SES (Livazović & Ham, 2019 ), physical violence is more common in schools in the lower SES, and students face economic violence (e.g., restricted access to resources or financial pressures) (Wang et al., 2009 ). Therefore, the dynamics of violence in each school and the effects of these dynamics on students may differ. At this point, determining the importance and priority of school violence may be important for school counselors in order to control school violence, which is seen from different perspectives in many types of schools. While Ellington et al. ( 2023 ) touched on the critical role of school counselors in determining and preventing school violence, McAdams (2011) points out that teachers have limited professional knowledge to determine violence. It is also important to consider that the conceptualization of what constitutes violence may differ between students and teachers (Rawlings, 2017a ; 2019 ).However, it is important to investigate whether this situation creates discrimination against low socio-economic level schools (López et al., 2021 ; Pina et al., 2021 , 2022 ) and whether it means ignoring the types of violence that occur in higher socio-economic levels (Barboza, et al., 2009 ; Chang, et al., 2013 ; Massarwi and Khoury-Kassabri, 2017 ). School counselors stated that the most striking cases they encountered were related to physical violence and that there was no need to implement a violence prevention action plan in upper SES schools. This points out the importance to understand if non-physical violence is visible and addressed by school counselors in schools. This result points to the existence of different types of violence in each type of school, the need for specialized strategies to address these problems, and the importance of school-based programs (Ozer, 2006 ). It is indicated that preventive studies that pay particular attention to the context in which schools are located have a greater impact (Cook et al., 2000 ; Hawkins et al., 1992 ; Solomon et al., 2000 ). Although teachers often refer to issues such as physical, emotional, economic, sexual violence, cyber violence, and dating violence, the most striking cases of violence for them include physical violence. However, considering that the long-term consequences of emotional violence can be as intense as physical violence, Research suggests that emotional violence may lead to more profound long-term psychological effects compared to physical violence. While physical injuries are often visible and can heal over time, the emotional scars from bullying and psychological abuse can persist into adulthood, affecting interpersonal relationships and mental health (Aras, et al., 2016 ). Although this situation is theoretically known, it is a point that needs to be emphasized regarding the level of visibility of other types of violence. Although all school counselors stated that the Violence Prevention Action Plan was prepared in their schools, it is seen that they see this as a necessity that remains mostly on paper. It is mentioned that one of the important elements that prevents the success of educational programs, strategies, development and reform studies carried out in schools is the difference between policy and practice (Fullan & Miles, 1992 ). There are studies stating that decisions taken in the national context are due to the difficulty of implementation within complex social structures such as the school environment (Salonen-Hakomaki, et al., 2016). This difficulty may arise from the complex structure of schools, policy design, organizational problems or the limitations of the implementer (Spillane et al., 2002 ). Saracaloğlu et al. ( 2010 ) mention the teachers' belief that work such as program development or strategic planning does not contribute to the implementation and that their own feedback is not taken into account in the updates regarding the strategies in question. These beliefs can be related to the perspective on the preparation of the relevant Action Plans. It is stated that the main factor that largely limits the effectiveness of the Violence Prevention Action Plan is the lack of cooperation between teachers and school administration in the process. When the literature is examined, it is stated that the active participation of school administrators and other teachers is of critical importance in terms of the effectiveness of violence prevention efforts (McMahon et al., 2017 ; Petersen, 1997 ). In addition, studies conducted by Stephens ( 1994 ) and Tite ( 2005 ) emphasize that the inclusion of families and other community stakeholders in the process in the fight against violence is vital for the sustainability of success. The results obtained reveal the necessity of structural arrangements that will increase cooperation, awareness training for the stakeholders of the plan, and school-based approaches for the successful implementation of violence prevention plans. Other important factors that limit the effectiveness of the Violence Prevention Action Plan include the inadequacy of the physical structure of schools and the lack of need for this plan in some schools. In schools with large student populations, limited physical spaces make the plan difficult to implement; this situation becomes more evident especially in schools with low socioeconomic levels. In addition, the relatively low incidence of violence in schools with high socioeconomic status leads to the perception of the plan as unnecessary or ineffective. In order to increase the effectiveness of the Violence Prevention Action Plan, the plan should be flexible and restructured to suit the needs and socioeconomic conditions of the school. Declarations Compliance with Ethical Standards Conflict of Interest: The author declares no competing interests. 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It is under scrutiny at both national and international levels (Chen \u0026amp; Chen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Chen \u0026amp; Wei, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Cosma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Duru \u0026amp; Balkis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Modecki et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Cross-cultural comparisons are made in China (Chen \u0026amp; Chen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), Hong Kong, Japan, Taiwan, Mainland China, Australia, New Zealand (Slee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), North America (Bauman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Cosma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Espelage \u0026amp; Swearer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), Central America (Bauman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), and South Africa (Johannsson, et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough school violence is a fundamental issue addressed by many countries, it is stated that the issue differs across various variables. Cross-country studies indicate that school violence may vary depending on culture (Chen \u0026amp; Chen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), economic factors such as gross national product, GINI coefficient, or education system (e.g., the presence of centralized exams) (Akiba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), and even school characteristics (Johansson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Even in countries have similarities with high levels of school violence, such as the USA and Germany, differences exist in the type and nature of such violence (Leuschner et al., 2011). These differences necessitate a contextual understanding of these practices and evaluations within each country's unique position. Therefore, each country takes action to prevent school violence in its own specific circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen evaluating preventive intervention studies, consensus for preventive function against school violence exists (Gaffney et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Different countries implement various interventions, including educational program interventions, multidisciplinary whole-school approaches, social and behavioral skills development programs, and others (mentoring, social worker involvement, etc.) (Vreeman \u0026amp; Carroll, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). However, the effectiveness of these interventions is inconsistent. More importantly, in-depth contextual information is crucial to better understand the efficacy of specific programs and action plans. The relevant differences may stem from both the nature of the interventions and the varying contexts of the countries involved.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSchool violence in Türkiye and “the Action Plan Against Violence”\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn T\u0026uuml;rkiye, according to a 2007 report submitted to the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TBMM) Research Commission, one in five young people experience physical violence, one in two experience verbal violence, one in three experience emotional violence, and one in seven experience sexual violence. And, high school students perceive that violence is most frequent on the streets (39%), and in and around schools (34%) (TBMM, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Coşkun Armağan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), citing 2022 PISA data, notes that while there has been improvement in indicators of bullying, victimization, and witnessing violence compared to 2018, the situation remains worse than the OECD average. Similarly, the Ministry of National Education (MoNE, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) reports an increase in incidents of social isolation, ridicule, and gossip, but a decrease in threats and forced theft compared to 2018. To address the rising violence in Turkish schools, the strategy and action plan \"Preventing and Reducing Violence in Educational Environments\" was implemented. The legal basis for this plan is the Child Protection Law No. 5395 of 2005. This law aims to protect children in need and secure their rights and well-being. In 2006, the Ministry of National Education's General Directorate of Special Education, Guidance, and Counseling Services issued Circular No. 1342, emphasizing the need to prevent violence in schools due to increasing incidents of violence, aggression, and bullying. The circular advocates for a developmental-preventive approach based on early intervention and problem prevention (MoNE, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis action plan is aligned with the Provincial Action Plan for Protection, Prevention, and Intervention Services in Risky Living Conditions and Circular No. 2006/26. It includes task sharing, forming crisis intervention teams, informing teachers outside the crisis intervention team, providing necessary resources for their work, and establishing a relationship with district/provincial directorates of national education for potential risk scenarios. The plan involves annual activities like family visits, teacher training, and student seminars to identify risk factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eThe role of school counselors\u003c/em\u003e with their dual roles as educators and counselors, school counselors bear significant ethical and legal responsibilities in preventing and responding to school violence (Hermann \u0026amp; Finn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Levy \u0026amp; Lemberger-Truelove, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). As educators, they are uniquely positioned to adapt national policy reforms or changes to the classroom or school environment. However, the successful adaptation of these reforms often depends on various factors (Fullan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). School counselors play a pivotal role in the implementation of this action plan. They are responsible for providing training and raising awareness, fostering cooperation and coordination among stakeholders, facilitating student support programs, enhancing communication with families, monitoring risky behaviors, promoting a positive school climate, and responding effectively to crises. Although the provincial executive commission may not be directly involved in operationalizing the plan, the active participation of school administrators, counselors, families, and the broader community is essential for its planning, implementation, and evaluation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn T\u0026uuml;rkiye, school counselors hold multiple roles, and among these, their level of awareness of school violence and the degree to which they prioritize it are particularly important. Counselors are key actors in assessing violence in schools, conducting risk analyses, and executing prevention, intervention, and crisis management strategies. However, their specific roles in these processes remain somewhat undefined (Ellington et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Research also indicates that counselors may lack sufficient knowledge to accurately diagnose various forms of school violence, which can hinder the effectiveness of school violence prevention programs (McAdams et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The ambiguity surrounding the role definitions of school counselors (Bardhoshi, 1997; Cullbert et al., 2005; Freeman \u0026amp; Coll, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) can lead to varying expectations based on the specific school context (Blake, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Indeed, while some schools prioritize academic success, college preparation, and school choice, others focus on preventing discipline problems (Carrell and Hoekstra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Reback, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Carrell and Carrell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). However, school counselors often dedicate insufficient time to mental health promotion, a key area of their responsibilities (Blake, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eViolence as a socially constructed concept\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is important to remember that the concept of \u0026lsquo;violence\u0026rsquo;, like all other concepts, is socially constructed. Williams (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) highlights that perceptions of violence vary among individuals based on factors such as age, gender, and status. Students, teachers, school counselors, and administrators may conceptualize violence differently. Williams (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) found that many male students in the US do not perceive certain behaviors as sexual violence unless they involve physical acts. As another example, adults often associate violence with gang involvement, gun possession, or physical fights. Interestingly, individuals who carry guns may not view this as an act of violence but as a preventive measure (Mukherjee et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn recent years, poststructuralist debates have emphasized that dominant discourses on violence can hinder effective action (Rawlings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Ringrose (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) notes that research on school violence often focuses on male students, neglecting female students' experiences of violence. Rawlings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017a\u003c/span\u003e) further highlights the differing perceptions of violence between students and school personnel. For example, Rawlings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017b\u003c/span\u003e) study argued discrepancies between teachers' and students' perceptions of sexual violence may differ in relation to power and hiyerarcy relations. Rawlings (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017b\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes the significance of power relations, privileges, and context in understanding school violence and prevention efforts. Her ethnographic research demonstrates that even in privileged schools, violence manifests in various forms. Therefore, it is crucial to consider different intersects including the socio-economic context and types of violence observed in different schools when addressing school violence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne aim of this study focuses on how teachers define violence (or which types of violence they are/are not aware of). However, for policy changes to be effectively implemented, teacher involvement and agreement on priorities are essential. Considering that school counselors are key actors in developing, implementing and evaluating The Action Plan Against Violence, their definition, awareness and prioritization of violence is crucial. School counselors are the primary implementers of these plans, their most common services can provide insights into the prioritization of violence-related issues. Additionally, understanding how they address and prioritize violence within their specific school contexts is important.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheoretical framework\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe concept of violence is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) (Krug et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) as \u0026ldquo;the application of physical force or power to another person in the form of a deliberate threat or reality, causing or likely to cause injury, death or psychological harm to the person exposed\u0026rdquo;. According to Ayan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), violence is \"the expression and reflection of the tendency of aggression, which is accepted to exist naturally in human beings, in an individual or social dimension, but in a way that harms the other.\" Another definition suggests, violence is doing or making someone do something by applying force and pressure (Degenaar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e). It includes acts of coercion, assault, hitting, injuring, and inflicting psychological pain. These behaviors pose a physical and psychological threat to other individuals (Kocacık, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool violence includes violent incidents and acts of aggression encountered on school campuses or in educational institutions. According to Miller (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), school violence can involve \u0026ldquo;child and teacher victimization, child and/or teacher maltreatment, physical and psychological abuse, cyber victimization, cyber threats and bullying, fighting, classroom disorder, physical or psychological injury to teachers and students, faith-related behaviors and activities, sexual and personal space violations, and use of weapons around the school.\u0026rdquo; However, one of the most common types of violence in schools is bullying. Bullying has been conceptualized in different ways by many different researchers and this conceptualization varies from country to country (Hong \u0026amp; Espelage, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). For example, Smith et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) define bullying as \"repeated highly aggressive behaviors, especially towards victims who cannot easily defend themselves\". However, incidents of violence in schools harm the victim, the bully, and all individuals around them. In addition to physical and psychological harm, exposure to violence can also show its effects in various ways such as absenteeism, school failure, and dropping out of school (Ramirez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Especially in lower SES schools, violence and bullying increase students' absenteeism rates and decrease their academic achievement (Bravo-Sanzana et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA meta-analysis on the rates of children's exposure to violence in 68 low-to-middle income countries worldwide revealed that 36.4% of students aged 12\u0026ndash;15 were exposed to physical violence and 34.4% were bullied in the last month (Han, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In an African study, more than 93% of primary school students experienced physical violence by school staff (Devries, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), while in the USA, 56% of students witnessed physical violence and 44% were threatened (Flannery et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). A Balkan study, including T\u0026uuml;rkiye, reported rates of children's exposure to physical violence in schools ranged from 50.6\u0026ndash;76.3% and the rates of exposure to psychological violence ranged from 64.6\u0026ndash;83.2% (Nikolaidis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Students can be exposed to all forms of violence, but some groups are more likely to be exposed to peer violence. Research emphasizes that students with low SES are more likely to be exposed to peer violence (Bilic, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; O'Keefe \u0026amp; Sela-Amit, 1997), while students with high SES are less likely to experience school violence (Demosthenous et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch indicates different results regarding the relationship between socioeconomic status and school violence perpetration. Some studies show that socioeconomic level is not related to exhibiting violence (Larochette, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Magklara, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Shetgiri, et al., 2016; Wang, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), while other studies indicate that violent behaviors are observed more in lower socio-economic levels (Fu, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Olweus, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Woods \u0026amp; Wolke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). A high correlation exists between low average education level of families and victimization (Jansen, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), and Tippett and Wolke (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) state that being an individual from a lower socio-economic level has a high correlation with victimization. Pina et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) point out that this correlation is one of the components of apophoric violence against socio-economically disadvantaged students. In schools, students from higher socioeconomic levels also perpetrate emotional and economic violence in terms of making fun of others and feeling superior (L\u0026oacute;pez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Pina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Massarwi and Khoury-Kassabri (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) point to the relationship between emotional and economic bullying and higher socioeconomic status. Other studies indicate that people at higher socio-economic status have higher risk-taking behaviors related to bullying (Barboza, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Chang, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). These studies indicate that focusing on violence in lower socio-economic schools according to upper or lower socio-economic status may be a limited approach and that this issue should be handled with care in every school type for school counselors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePurpose of the study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe primary aim of this study is to explore the professional context, responsibilities, and perceptions of school counselors with respect to school violence. Specifically, the research investigates how school counselors understand and interpret violence within their institutional settings, their direct experiences with violent incidents, and how they evaluate and reflect upon the implementation of the Action Plan Against Violence (APAV).s\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn doing so, the study also emphasizes the importance of understanding how school violence manifests across different school contexts, including its frequency, forms, and perceived severity. Recognizing these contextual differences is essential for tailoring effective prevention strategies and ensuring the relevance of the APAV in diverse educational environments. By shedding light on both the shared and divergent experiences of school counselors, the study aims to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of their role in violence prevention and policy implementation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study employed a multiple case study design, a qualitative methodological approach suitable for exploring contemporary social phenomena within their real-life contexts, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context are not clearly defined (Yin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, the known phenomenon was the implementation and experience of the \u003cem\u003eViolence Prevention Action Plan\u003c/em\u003e (APAV) in schools. The context varied based on multiple real-life factors, such as the socio-economic status of students, age groups, and the types and prevalence of school violence. Data were collected from seven schools selected to represent different contextual settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy group\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were selected through purposive sampling to ensure representation from diverse school contexts. A total of seven schools in the city of Aydın, Türkiye, were included, representing lower (n = 8 counselors), middle (n = 4), and upper (n = 3) socio-economic environments. Fifteen school counselors participated in the study. Inclusion criteria required that participants had been actively involved in the implementation of the \u003cem\u003eAction Plan Against Violence\u003c/em\u003e (APAV) for at least one year at their current school. All eligible and consenting participants were included in the research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection tools\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were collected using a semi-structured interview form developed specifically for this study to explore school counselors’ roles, perceptions, and experiences regarding school violence and the \u003cem\u003eAction Plan Against Violence (APAV)\u003c/em\u003e. The initial draft of the interview form was prepared in light of the relevant literature and national policy documents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ensure the relevance and depth of the questions, the draft form was reviewed by two experts in the field of Curriculum and Instruction. Based on their feedback, the following adjustments were made:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experts recommended the inclusion of a question specifically focused on the school counselors’ direct experiences with the most challenging or striking case of school violence, which led to the addition of the following item:\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e“Could you share a challenging or significant case you have dealt with, and how you managed it?”\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne of the original questions regarding student behaviors was found to be too broad during the review. The experts suggested breaking it down into more focused components. As a result, it was divided into two separate questions, targeting both observed student problems and types of violence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing expert revisions, a pilot interview was conducted with one school counselor. During the pilot, it was observed that the question:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat kind of student problems do you usually deal with in your school?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewas too general and yielded unfocused responses. Based on this insight, the question was reworded as: \u003cem\u003e“Based on your observations, what are the most prominent problem areas among students in your school?”\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter implementing all suggestions and revisions, the final version of the interview form consisted of 16 open-ended questions, designed to allow for in-depth responses while maintaining a consistent structure across participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExample questions from the final version include:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eCan you briefly introduce yourself? How long have you been working as a school counselor, and how many years have you been at this school?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow would you describe your current school and its student profile?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow do you define school violence? What types are most frequently observed?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat kind of services do you offer in response to violence and aggression?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat has been the most difficult or notable case involving school violence that you encountered?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow was the APAV implemented in your school, and what challenges have you faced?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWould you consider participating in an in-service training on this topic? What kind of content or structure would you expect?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The semi-structured nature of the form enabled the researcher to follow a flexible yet consistent path throughout the interviews, encouraging participants to share rich narratives while ensuring comparability of data across cases.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection and analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e This study was approved by the Aydın Adnan Menderes University Educational Research Ethics Committee (Approval No: 2018/10, Date: 22.11.2018) and the Turkish Ministry of Education. Participants were informed about the study's purpose, confidentiality measures, voluntary participation, and their right to withdraw at any time. Written and verbal informed consent was obtained. Interviews were audio-recorded with permission. When recording was not permitted, the researcher took detailed notes and confirmed them with the participants to ensure trustworthiness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interview data were analyzed using inductive content analysis supported by descriptive analysis, following a multi-stage qualitative data analysis process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll interviews were first transcribed verbatim by the researcher. The data were then analyzed through first-cycle and second-cycle coding, following the framework proposed by Saldaña (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). In the first cycle, an open coding process was used to identify initial codes, corresponding to the smallest meaningful units of data, extracted directly from participants’ expressions. These initial codes were then organized into descriptive categories that reflected patterns or commonalities across participants. In the second cycle, these categories were synthesized into broader themes that addressed the core research questions and provided interpretive insight.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis approach allowed for both data-driven coding and interpretive abstraction, in line with Saldaña's (2013) emphasis on iterative, layered meaning-making in qualitative research. Although the initial coding was conducted by the researcher, the coding structure and theme development were reviewed in consultation with a faculty advisor. The advisor provided critical feedback throughout the analysis process, and decisions about code merging, category naming, and theme construction were discussed collaboratively to enhance trustworthiness and researcher reflexivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eExample of Code–Category–Theme Progression in Inductive Content Analysis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheme\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample Codes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSchool Context \u0026amp; School counselor Role\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool environment by SES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e“competitive students”, “arrogant attitudes”, “exam anxiety”, “crowded classes”\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCounseling services offered\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e“career guidance”, “anger management”, “personal development”\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePerceptions of Violence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDefinitions and manifestations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e“emotional harm”, “verbal insults”, “peer pressure”, “economic exclusion”\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAPAV Implementation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImplementation challenges\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e“paperwork burden”, “no teamwork”, “admin passivity”, “only on paper”\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdaptation to school context\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e“partially implemented”, “alternative strategies used”, “unrealistic goals”\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTraining Needs\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessional development needs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e“practical not theoretical”, “expert-led sessions”, “role-play scenarios”\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach participant was assigned a code name (e.g., S3, S12), and each quotation presented in the findings is accompanied by the participant’s school SES level, gender, and years of experience to aid in contextual interpretation.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Findings","content":"\u003ch2\u003eHow do they define their current school and their duties in this school?\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen the responses of the participants are analyzed, it is observed that there is a strong competition among the students in the schools in the Upper SES since there are successful students in these schools, and that the students are sometimes described as “arrogant” and “selfish” by the teachers. In these schools, it is stated that academic success has an important place for students, families and teachers. Participation in social activities is emphasized. It is stated that the small number of students is an advantage for these schools. In addition, exam anxiety, fear of failure and feelings of inadequacy constitute the most important problem areas in Upper SES schools. Educational and vocational guidance services are more common in Upper SES schools. Within the scope of educational guidance services, information about efficient study techniques and strategies that can be applied to increase academic success are provided; for vocational guidance services, activities such as career counseling, university and profession introductions, interviews with graduating students, university visits are carried out.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS3: “... \u003cem\u003eSince the academic achievement of the students is very high, our problem is more in the educational guidance and vocational guidance dimensions.\u003c/em\u003e” (Upper SES, M, 24)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchools in the middle SES are defined as high schools with successful and conscious students who are successful in the field of equal weight, who do not have many adaptation and relationship problems. It is stated that students achieve an average level of success and need motivation to be more successful. Parents are described as open to cooperation and interested. While the biggest problem areas in Middle SES schools are career choice and academic achievement, peer conflict and bullying and communication problems are common in Lower and Middle SES schools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen the schools in the Middle SES are analyzed, it is seen that vocational and educational guidance services are provided more intensively, but personal guidance activities are also included. For vocational guidance services; career selection, career promotion, career planning and university introductions are carried out in all schools in the Middle SES. In addition, educational guidance activities such as field and course selection and efficient study techniques are also provided. In addition, within the scope of personal guidance services, services such as increasing motivation, conflict resolution, anger management, personal development activities and psychological counseling are provided.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS8: “\u003cem\u003eWe do many things such as vocational activities, introduction of the new exam system, help in choosing a field, psychological counseling.\u003c/em\u003e” (Middle SES, F, 26)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS9: “\u003cem\u003eWe mainly provide educational and vocational guidance services. Apart from this, we also work with children when they have problems in decision-making processes due to adolescence or when they have problems that they cannot solve or overcome with their families or close friends.\u003c/em\u003e” (Middle SES, F, 17)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe lower SES are generally defined as crowded schools with lower academic success. Teachers stated that parents are not willing to cooperation. In schools with lower SES, in addition to the peer bullying and conflict and communication problems mentioned above, fighting, fighting, lack of sense of belonging, aimlessness, low academic success, absenteeism and anger management constitute the biggest problem areas. Included in personal guidance services in schools located in the lower SES; activities such as individual and group psychological counseling, adaptation studies, peer conflict, and harmful habit prevention studies are emphasized. In addition, it is stated that studies are carried out on university and profession promotions and field and branch selection. The fact that personal guidance services are more included in schools with low socio-economic levels may be due to the fact that students need to develop their social skills more.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eHow do they approach the concept of violence and what are their experiences of school violence?\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eViolence is defined as harmful behavior, behaviors that hurt or make someone feel bad, trying to make them do something by pressuring them, threatening them, all actions that cause pain and harm, and the person being exposed to an undesired behavior. However, the types of violence that teachers mention at this point are physical (11), verbal (8), psychological (10), economic (2) and sexual (4). In addition, school counselors state that students are not aware of the fact that they can harm each other in some cases and that students need to be aware of this issue.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn different socio-economic level schools, the types and causes of violence experienced by teachers differ. For example, in upper socio-economic level schools, psychological violence is generally focused on competition, while in middle socio-economic level schools, psychological violence, which may include written and verbal forms such as name-calling, is observed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS9: “\u003cem\u003e… They use verbal violence specific to adolescence a lot towards each other… When they don’t like it, they say “you’ve become so ugly” or “idiot, idiot, naive, is that what you call it?\u003c/em\u003e” (Medium SES, F, 17)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn upper SES schools, behaviors such as ignoring can be exhibited. It is stated that physical violence is almost non-existent and verbal violence rarely occurs. The strong competition between students prepares the environment for psychological violence. It is stated that psychological violence incidents, mostly verbal or written, are encountered in schools in the middle SES. In lower socioeconomic level schools, it is reported that there are different types of violence such as physical, psychological and economic violence. Although various forms of violence are observed in all types of schools, the type or expression of violence may differ.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS12: “\u003cem\u003eThere is a competition between them, it has turned into you are better, I am better. … They used everything as an excuse and caused such an argument, it escalated to the point of upsetting and beating each other\u003c/em\u003e.” (Lower SES, M, 12)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen the most striking cases related with violence is asked; 9 physicals, 1 economic, 4 psychological violence incidents were encountered. While the main problem expressed in middle and upper SES schools was related to psychological violence, it is thought-provoking that teachers addressed physical violence as a striking problem.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eWhat are their experiences with the Violence Prevention Action Plan?\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll school counselors stated that the violence prevention action plan was prepared in their schools, since it is an obligation for all schools. The strengths of the program are stated as working in groups and including students, teachers and parents in the established team. It is also stated that it is goal-oriented, restructuring and applicable. Its weaknesses are stated as not being suitable for every type of school. Although the characteristics of the school types are different, the implementation of the same program is defined as a disadvantage. However, the Violence Prevention Action Plan is seen as paperwork that school counselors have to do. School counselors are stated that other teachers and administrators avoid taking responsibility during the implementation phase and this burden falls entirely on their shoulders. The implementation of the plan becomes difficult due to the lack of support from other stakeholders. It is seen that physical conditions make implementation difficult in lower SES schools with a large number of students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS2: “\u003cem\u003eWell, unfortunately, it is one of the tasks that has been left to us for a long time. Although it seems like the school administration's executive work, there is no such thing. Guidance teachers do all these tasks in schools\u003c/em\u003e” (Lower SES, F, 33).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll school counselors state that the Violence Prevention Action Plan has been prepared, but for the implementation phase, 3 of the school counselors say it is not implemented, 4 say it is implemented, and 7 say it is partially implemented. The reasons for not implementing it are stated as other teachers and administrators not being open to cooperation or not feeling the need for this plan.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS3: “… \u003cem\u003eEven though violence is not a problem, if we go and talk about violence every week. It is left hanging in the air\u003c/em\u003e….” (Upper SES, M, 24).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS10: “… \u003cem\u003eFrankly, it is not a very applicable violence action. Since some things work on paper, some aspects work on paper. We try to solve it with our own methods\u003c/em\u003e.” (Medium SES, M, 23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is noteworthy that teachers working in schools with more psychological violence and verbal violence in their schools stated that the implementation of the violence prevention action plan in their schools was dysfunctional or that there were differences between the recommended program and the program they implemented.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS11: “\u003cem\u003eWell, sometimes it can remain on paper. Now that there are so many routine tasks, we have essential duties, when students come to us through the door, we definitely have to make time for this… Sometimes it can remain on paper.\u003c/em\u003e” (Medium SES, M, 23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool counselors working in lower SES schools stated that they did not implement the program due to the physical facilities of the school, the large number of students and the lack of adequate support for teamwork.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eS4: “\u003cem\u003eThis project is a team work and our teams cannot come together. There are no teachers and time to do so many projects. All these tasks are left to the school counselor. That is why I use existing studies.”\u003c/em\u003e (Lower SES, F, 26)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e4 of the school counselors stated that they did not need in-service training on this subject; 10 of them considered to be part of in-service training in case it is provided by an expert who has practical knowledge, and experience in the area, not only theoretical background.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion and Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOne of the main results obtained in this study is that the duties and focus areas of school counselors vary in schools with different socioeconomic levels (SES). In upper SES schools, school counselors generally provide academic-focused services such as vocational guidance, coping with exam anxiety, and study techniques. In middle SES schools, studies on developing students' motivation, decision-making, and problem-solving skills are at the forefront. In lower SES schools, counselors are more frequently involved in problems such as healthy communication, peer bullying, anger management, and physical assault. School counselors focus and prioritize their duties in their school settings. Considering the unclear role definitions and priorities of school counselors it is parallel to the literature (Bardhoshi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Blake, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Culbreth, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Freeman \u0026amp; Coll, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), especially considering the studies on the differences in expectations from them according to the school and the structural characteristics of the school. These differences reflect the unique needs of each SES level, suggesting that the focus of counseling services is shaped by culture, society, and socioeconomic context.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor example, one study suggests that counselors in high-achieving schools spend most of their time on program management, coordination, and supporting academic achievement (Fitch \u0026amp; Marshall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, other research suggests that counselors in affluent schools base their guidance roles more on academic criteria (Carrell \u0026amp; Carrell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Carrell \u0026amp; Hoekstra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Reback, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), while social and emotional issues take precedence in low-income areas (Yogev \u0026amp; Roditi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). It has been reported that emotional and verbal violence is more common in schools in the upper SES due to greater competition among students (Serra-Negra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), psychological violence and cyberbullying are more common in schools in the middle SES (Livazović \u0026amp; Ham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), physical violence is more common in schools in the lower SES, and students face economic violence (e.g., restricted access to resources or financial pressures) (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the dynamics of violence in each school and the effects of these dynamics on students may differ. At this point, determining the importance and priority of school violence may be important for school counselors in order to control school violence, which is seen from different perspectives in many types of schools. While Ellington et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) touched on the critical role of school counselors in determining and preventing school violence, McAdams (2011) points out that teachers have limited professional knowledge to determine violence. It is also important to consider that the conceptualization of what constitutes violence may differ between students and teachers (Rawlings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017a\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).However, it is important to investigate whether this situation creates discrimination against low socio-economic level schools (López et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Pina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and whether it means ignoring the types of violence that occur in higher socio-economic levels (Barboza, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Chang, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Massarwi and Khoury-Kassabri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchool counselors stated that the most striking cases they encountered were related to physical violence and that there was no need to implement a violence prevention action plan in upper SES schools. This points out the importance to understand if non-physical violence is visible and addressed by school counselors in schools. This result points to the existence of different types of violence in each type of school, the need for specialized strategies to address these problems, and the importance of school-based programs (Ozer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). It is indicated that preventive studies that pay particular attention to the context in which schools are located have a greater impact (Cook et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Hawkins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Solomon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Although teachers often refer to issues such as physical, emotional, economic, sexual violence, cyber violence, and dating violence, the most striking cases of violence for them include physical violence. However, considering that the long-term consequences of emotional violence can be as intense as physical violence, Research suggests that emotional violence may lead to more profound long-term psychological effects compared to physical violence. While physical injuries are often visible and can heal over time, the emotional scars from bullying and psychological abuse can persist into adulthood, affecting interpersonal relationships and mental health (Aras, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Although this situation is theoretically known, it is a point that needs to be emphasized regarding the level of visibility of other types of violence. Although all school counselors stated that the Violence Prevention Action Plan was prepared in their schools, it is seen that they see this as a necessity that remains mostly on paper. It is mentioned that one of the important elements that prevents the success of educational programs, strategies, development and reform studies carried out in schools is the difference between policy and practice (Fullan \u0026amp; Miles, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). There are studies stating that decisions taken in the national context are due to the difficulty of implementation within complex social structures such as the school environment (Salonen-Hakomaki, et al., 2016). This difficulty may arise from the complex structure of schools, policy design, organizational problems or the limitations of the implementer (Spillane et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Saracaloğlu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) mention the teachers' belief that work such as program development or strategic planning does not contribute to the implementation and that their own feedback is not taken into account in the updates regarding the strategies in question. These beliefs can be related to the perspective on the preparation of the relevant Action Plans.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is stated that the main factor that largely limits the effectiveness of the Violence Prevention Action Plan is the lack of cooperation between teachers and school administration in the process. When the literature is examined, it is stated that the active participation of school administrators and other teachers is of critical importance in terms of the effectiveness of violence prevention efforts (McMahon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Petersen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, studies conducted by Stephens (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) and Tite (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) emphasize that the inclusion of families and other community stakeholders in the process in the fight against violence is vital for the sustainability of success. The results obtained reveal the necessity of structural arrangements that will increase cooperation, awareness training for the stakeholders of the plan, and school-based approaches for the successful implementation of violence prevention plans. Other important factors that limit the effectiveness of the Violence Prevention Action Plan include the inadequacy of the physical structure of schools and the lack of need for this plan in some schools. In schools with large student populations, limited physical spaces make the plan difficult to implement; this situation becomes more evident especially in schools with low socioeconomic levels. In addition, the relatively low incidence of violence in schools with high socioeconomic status leads to the perception of the plan as unnecessary or ineffective. In order to increase the effectiveness of the Violence Prevention Action Plan, the plan should be flexible and restructured to suit the needs and socioeconomic conditions of the school.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompliance with Ethical Standards\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConflict of Interest: The author declares no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Aydın Adnan Menderes University Educational Research Ethics Committee (Approval No: 2018/10, Date: 22.11.2018). Permission to conduct the study was also obtained from the Turkish Ministry of National Education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e Written and verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Participants were informed about the aims of the research, their right to withdraw at any time, the voluntary nature of participation, and the measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkiba M, LeTendre GK, Baker DP, Goesling B (2002) Student victimization: National and school system effects on school violence in 37 nations. Am Educ Res J 39(4):829\u0026ndash;853. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3102/00028312039004829\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3102/00028312039004829\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAras Ş, \u0026Ouml;zan S, Timbil S, Şemin S, Kasap\u0026ccedil;i O (2016) Exposure of students to emotional and physical violence in the school environment. 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Adolescence 22(87):625\u0026ndash;639\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Aydin Adnan Menderes University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"violence, violence prevention, Violence Prevention Action Plan, school counselors, educational environments","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6982181/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6982181/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores school counselors\u0026rsquo; perceptions of their roles in addressing school violence and their evaluations of the \u003cem\u003eAction Plan Against Violence (APAV)\u003c/em\u003e. Drawing on semi-structured interviews with 15 school counselors working in schools from varying socioeconomic backgrounds, the study reveals that counselors' roles are shaped by contextual dynamics and vary notably across settings. Four key themes emerged from the data: (1) school context and counselor roles, (2) perceptions of violence, (3) implementation of the action plan, and (4) training needs. Counselors working in lower socioeconomic schools primarily addressed physical violence, emphasizing issues such as absenteeism, aggression, and lack of motivation. In contrast, those in middle and upper socioeconomic schools highlighted psychological and verbal violence, often rooted in competition and peer pressure. However, many counselors in higher SES schools did not see addressing these forms of violence as central to their role. The APAV was frequently described as a bureaucratic task with limited adaptability to specific school contexts, often implemented superficially or only on paper. The findings point to a need for context-sensitive, school-based violence prevention strategies, increased awareness and training opportunities for school counselors, and stronger institutional support. A policy shift that clearly defines and empowers counselors\u0026rsquo; roles in violence prevention is essential for more effective implementation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"School Violence and the Efficacy of the Action Plan Against Violence: A School Counselor Perspective","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-27 07:53:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6982181/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"efb2a1a3-5f9b-4dc2-8ad0-dc1087e0fcfa","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":50630448,"name":"Educational Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-27T07:53:27+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-27 07:53:26","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6982181","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6982181","identity":"rs-6982181","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}