Correlates of Personnel Police Officers’ Commitment in Taiwan: A Comparison of Job Commitment and Organizational Commitment

Correlates of Personnel Police Officers’ Commitment in Taiwan: A Comparison of Job Commitment and Organizational Commitment | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Correlates of Personnel Police Officers’ Commitment in Taiwan: A Comparison of Job Commitment and Organizational Commitment Xinting Wang, Chia-Hung Lin This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5852034/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Meta-analyses conducted over time have consistently revealed that high levels of commitment are significantly related to work productivity, innovation, employee retention, and the recruitment of high-quality employees. However, commitment research on policing is understudied. Thus, the current study aims to analyze the correlates of job and organizational commitments among personnel police officers in Taiwan, along with the difference in the antecedents between the two types of commitment. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analyses of a sample of 480 Taiwan personnel police officers indicated that job commitment and organizational commitment have similar predictors. More specifically, both workplace fairness and the nature of the personnel police job are positively related to commitments. Implications for future research are discussed in the end. Criminology Personnel police officers Taiwan officers job commitment organizational commitment Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Commitment has attracted public attention, especially among scholars and practitioners, since the 1970s. The continuous research demonstrated its importance in the workforce. Meta-analyses of studies across time consistently revealed that high levels of commitment are significantly related to work productivity and innovation, employee well-being and retention, and the recruitment of high-quality employees (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005 ; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990 ). Moreover, job and organizational commitments have a spillover impact on life satisfaction and accordingly influence the quality of life, such as happiness (Johnson, 2015 ). Based on the nature of the work environment, two types of commitments are commonly discussed, namely, job commitment and organizational commitment. The mainstream literature on commitment primarily derives from business management (Morrow & McElroy, 1986 ; Johnson, 2015 ). Recently, this body of scholarship has been expanding to the police workforce (for example, Lambert et al., 2021 ; Kuo, 2015 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). Yet, the commitment research on policing is not sufficient for policy implication. The major challenge lies in the difficulty of work performance evaluation among police officers due to the dynamic nature of police work – dangerous, authoritarian, unpredictable, uncertain, and ambiguous (Skolnick, 1966 ; Ingram et al., 2018 ). This “work personality” of policing limits supervisors’ ability to provide consistent feedback on officers’ performance. The contradictory working goals complicate the job in nature, such as the rival expectations between criminal offenders and law-abiding citizens and the conflicts between the protection of the constitutional rights of criminal offenders and the safeguarding of public safety. Consequently, commitment among police officers has been argued to be lower than that of other professions (Zhao & Thurman, 1999 ). At the organizational level, Johnson ( 2015 ) summarized that “fostering organizational commitment among police officers remains an extremely difficult task” due to the nature of the job (p.1157). At the same time, the police workforce is estimated to be challenged by the continuous increase of senior officers' retirements and the lack of job attraction among young generations. The purpose of the current study is to enrich this body of scholarship in policing with three research questions: What are the factors associated with personnel police officers’ job commitment? What are the correlates of personnel police officers’ organizational commitment? Do the two types of commitment share common antecedents? Accordingly, the present study makes at least three contributions to the existing knowledge of commitment among police officers. First, this study focuses on personnel police officers in Taiwan, a unit of officers that has been rarely studied. To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the first studies that focuses on personnel police officers. Personnel police officers assume different work responsibilities than patrol officers or officers from other specialized units. They are in charge of personnel affairs, officer recruitment and training, program development, and policy development and implementation. It is important to understand their commitment to the workplace, given their “nanny” role in the police agency. Second, a comparison of correlates regarding job commitment versus organizational commitment will be conducted. To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the first studies to make the comparison. Job commitment relates to one’s attachment to the profession, while organizational commitment is tied to an employee’s bond with a particular agency. One can fall in love with the job but dislike the institution and vice versa, which also contributes to the turnover rate of the organization. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the common antecedents shared with the two types of commitments. Last but not least, Taiwan police officers are the subject of the present study. Taiwan has a centralized police system where policing is under the direct supervision/control of the National Police Agency (Kuo, 2015 ), which is different from the fragmented system in the United States. Taiwanese policing is undergoing a transformation from an authoritarian style to democratic policing, with a focus on human rights protection and crime control (Wu et al., 2017 ). This transition does not stand alone. It is accompanied by or a consequence of social and cultural changes in society, which individuals have to face and adapt as well. At the same time, the increased supervision of policing, especially the media scrutiny in the era of social media, enlarged police officers’ workload with a lack of effective guidance on the transition, leading to a high level of job stress and a feeling of powerlessness (Cao et al., 2014 ). Therefore, understanding police officers’ commitment, both job and organizational commitments is a call for modern policing. Literature Review Job commitment among police officers Job commitment refers to an employee’s attachment to and involvement with a job, reflecting a special bond between an employee and the job (Chusmir, 1982 ; Jenks et al., 2007 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). Extant literature on job commitment has been tied to job involvement, job satisfaction, job stress, and job productivity. Chusmir ( 1982 ) summarized a three-stage pattern of job commitment, starting from personal influence to external moderating influences to moderated perceptions to job commitment. This linkage is recurring, indicating that job commitment is contingent on individualized, work-related, and environment-based factors. The current study specifically investigates two important factors associated with job commitment, including self-motivation and the nature of the police job. Self-motivation is a sign of job involvement, where the employee has a connection with the job. It is inspired by employees’ enthusiasm and passion for the job and the organization. It may give officers a sense of pride, and therefore, officers are more likely to be successful at work, resulting in a sense of fulfillment. Once that positive psychological cycle has been established, job commitment is deepened by the accumulation over time. As Ellemer et al. ( 1998 ) defined, job commitment concerns individuals’ motivation to pursue professional advancement. A high level of self-motivation or job involvement tends to improve police officers’ job skills and capacities, which in turn increases officers’ job commitment. In an efficient and friendly work environment, employees also willingly exchange their knowledge, confidently seek guidance from colleagues when necessary, and actively overcome job obstacles. For example, Owan ( 2021 ) analyzed data collected from secondary school administrators and reported a significant relationship between staff motivation and affective job commitment. Noteworthy, self-motivation is not a constant and is conditioned on the work environment and organizational culture. The nature of the job is the fundamental and driving factor of job commitment. Previous policing literature primarily focuses on job stress. The current study examines the influence of the positive aspects of police work, including job autonomy, job variety, and the challenging characteristics of police work (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005 ; Lambert & Paoline, 2008 ; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990 ). For example, Lambert and Paoline’s ( 2008 ) study on correctional officers in a large county correctional system reported that job variety increased job satisfaction. Given that job commitment is a product of job satisfaction (Cohen, 2000 ), it is reasonable to argue that job variety is positively associated with job commitment. Kankaanranta ( 2013 ) analyzed data collected from more than 60% of economic crime investigators in Finland. The SEM analysis results indicated that challenging job content and meaningful work assignments were important influencers of job commitment. In her model, appreciation of competence and performance was reported to be the strongest factor associated with job commitment. In conclusion, the nature of the job is conducive to job commitment when it encourages professional improvement, offers various challenging work assignments, and provides flexible work arrangements. The impact of rank and year of service on job commitment is complex. Jenks and coauthors (2007) conducted an exploratory analysis of LAPD officers who participated in the West Point Leadership Program. Those officers were at a high-ranking level with several years of experience in the police workforce. They found that year of service as well as rank, was not significantly associated with job commitment. They argued that the lack of significance could be caused by the commonly shared culture that has been established among the upper-level command staff. However, early policing research, either qualitative or quantitative, discovered rookie officers’ attitudes toward the job did change as they acclimated into the workforce and the job itself (Baker, 1999; Foley et al., 2008 ; Haarr, 2005 ; Garner, 2005 ; Van Maanen, 1973 , 1974 ; White et al., 2010 ). For example, Haarr ( 2005 ) conducted a qualitative analysis of police cadets before and after the academy training. She found that more than a quarter of the recruits dropped out of the police force because of the reality shock – the conflict between ideal policing and the reality of police work. The findings are consistent with Van Maanen’s early (1973, 1974) study that police officers’ idealism faded, and legal cynicism grew as their work experience increased. Baker (1999), who devoted nearly two decades of ethnographic research on law enforcement officers across ranks, reported that the turning point of attitudinal change was serving in the police force for about 5 years. Wang and co-authors (2020) did a study on Chinese police cadets. The OLS regression analysis indicated that the internship (a three-month field training) changed police cadets’ attitudes toward police work. More importantly, they found that the reality shock was not as serious among Chinese cadets as noted in the early studies in the United States. What stood out for their attitudinal change was the actual knowledge cadets learned from the internship. Noteworthy, the internship effect did not last long, only about six months duration. However, the study indicated that years of experience could be an important factor that can influence police officers’ perceptions and, therefore, impact their decision-making about whether to remain in the law enforcement force. Other personal characteristics, such as sex, age, and education, have been found to be associated with job commitment. However, the general effect of those personal characteristics turns out relatively small in comparison to job and organizational characteristics (e.g., Lambert & Paoline, 2008 ). There is also evidence that some of the demographical characteristics fail to reach significance, such as gender (Johnson, 2015 ; Kankaanranta, 2013 ; Olapegba & Onuoha, 2013) and age (Olapegba & Onuoha, 2013). Organizational commitment among police officers Research on organizational commitment can be traced back to the 1970s (e.g., Porter et al., 1974 ). It was not until the 1980s that scholars started to differentiate job commitment from organizational commitment (Morrow, 1983 ). For example, in the analysis of data collected from Israeli police officers, Koslowsky ( 1990 ) emphasized that “commitment to the job does not necessarily imply commitment to the organization, and it is essential to distinguish these in research” (p.168). More importantly, a higher level of overlapping between job goals and organizational goals (a perceived fit) tends to result in a deeper commitment than the counterparts (Adams et al., 1977 ). Later research on organizational commitment identified three dimensions of the concept based on how commitment is formed, including affective commitment, normative commitment, and continuous commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1991 , 1997 ; Mowday et al., 1982 ). The majority of criminal justice studies focused on affective commitment – emotional attachment and psychological affinity to the organization. For example, Lambert and coauthors (2008) examined the correlates of organizational commitment among correctional officers. They found that organizational characteristics are far more important than demographical variables. Lambert et al. ( 2021 ) continued this body of scholarship toward police officers. Their OLS regression analysis reported a spillover effect of organizational commitment on life satisfaction among Indian police officers. The focus of the present study is particularly on three organizational-based factors associated with commitment, including socialization within the organization, perceived workplace fairness, and supervisor relations. Socialization within the organization covers a variety of intangible aspects of the work and organizational environments, such as bonding with coworkers, feeling supported by them, and the informal organizational culture (Ingram et al., 2018 ; Maanen, 1975 ; Manning, 1970 ; Paoline & Terrill, 2005). Haarr ( 2001 ) studied police recruits’ attitudinal change over 16 months, starting from basic training in the Police Academy to field training to the completion of the probationary period. The multiple regression analyses indicated that organizational environment and culture exerted a significant influence on rookie officers’ attitudinal change. In particular, coworkers’ attitudes and the assigned shifts (subculture) were two of the strongest predictors. Although the study focused on perceptions of community policing and problem-solving policing, it demonstrates the possibility that socialization within the organization can shape rookie officers’ affective commitment. Maanen ( 1975 ) argued that police culture influences officers’ perceptions and behaviors, disregarding their demographics. “Strong departmental loyalty, in-group solidarity, and cohesiveness” are important contributing factors to organizational commitment (p.218). Personal satisfaction with the job and the organization, for example, “subjective feelings of performing an important and worthwhile task,” tends to increase officers’ sense of fulfillment and, therefore, result in a higher level of organizational commitment. Workplace fairness sometimes refers to organizational justice. It concerns the perceived fair treatment within the workplace, including the organization. This type of perception is closely connected with organizational outcomes, such as welfare system, promotion, assignments, performance evaluation, pay, and reward system (Lambert et al., 2023 ; Kuo, 2015 ; Wolf & Lawson, 2020). Research on organizational justice universally discovers a positive relationship with police officer organizational commitment in the U.S., Nigeria, South Korea, India, and China (Crow et al., 2012 ; Frank et al., 2020 ; Lambert et al., 2023 ; Rosenbaum & McCarty, 2017 ; Sun et al., 2022 ). For example, in the analysis of Chinese police officers in three areas, Lambert and co-authors (2023) found that being fairly treated in terms of interactions, processes, and outcomes within the police department resulted in a higher level of affective commitment to the organization. They claimed that organizational justice is also the heart of the legitimacy of an organization. However, in a cross-national comparative study, Chordiya and co-authors (2017) reported that the affective organizational commitment among Indian public managers was higher than the four U.S. States (i.e., Oregon, Florida, Washington, and Utah). Supervisor relations and leadership styles. Effective communication between supervisors and subordinates is essential in police work, given the vague and uncertain nature of the work, such as feedback regarding work performance, communications regarding work expectations, and fair treatment of the work performance (Johnson, 2015 ; Kuo, 2015 ). Johnson ( 2015 , 2008 ) argued that patrol officers tend to appreciate the concrete information received from their supervisors, in particular informal rewards for good performance, providing formal or written feedback on work performance, the modeling of appropriate behavior, and providing written policies and procedures. Active leadership style also increased officers’ involvement in community problem-solving (Engel, 2000 ). Noteworthy, the majority of the policing literature focuses on the backbone of the police force – patrol officers. There is very limited knowledge of police officers in other work duties, such as personnel police officers. The purpose of the present study is to disentangle factors associated with job and organizational commitments among personnel police officers in Taiwan. Methods Data for the current study was collected from all the personnel officers in the Taiwan police force. The initial purpose of the project was for a master’s thesis at The Central Taiwan Police University in 2014. In total, 629 paper-based questionnaires were distributed to the whole police personnel population in Taiwan from October 30 to December 15, 2014. With a response rate of 78%, 491 survey questionnaires were returned. Among the returned questionnaires, 11 were incomplete and, therefore, list-wise deleted. The final sample size of the analysis was 480. In the police system of Taiwan, personnel police officers are the officers who provide assistance and support to the general police officers. More than 90% of the personnel police officers in Taiwan are police grassroots cadres with a four-year bachelor’s degree or a two-year master’s degree granted by the Central Police University in Taiwan. They all have excellent work performance (grade A in performance appraisal) and have passed the personnel examination held by the Personnel Office of the National Police Agency. Moreover, personnel police officers are required to participate in a one-month professional training from the Central Police University before going to their positions. The other 10% of the personnel police officers are selected through the national examination, and they must go through national personnel training as well. In sum, the personnel police officers in Taiwan have been strictly reviewed and trained, and therefore, are professional with excellent capabilities. Job responsibilities for personnel police officers are different from officers in other positions. They engage in personnel affairs in the personnel unit of each police agency. Their role in the police force is like a “nanny,” and they are the strongest and most tender backup for police officers in Taiwan. For example, personnel police officers provide professional assistance and various administrative aids for the general officers, including but not limited to birth allowance, maternity leave, pension, sick leave or wound leave, funeral and burial financial aid, and pension funds. They also play a synergistic role and serve as the nexus of police departments. For example, they are in charge of developing and implementing departmental strategic plans, carrying out personnel policies, designing training programs, and recruiting rookie officers. Outcome Variables The outcome variables of the current study involved two types of commitment in a workforce: job commitment and organizational commitment (Lambert et al., 2023). Job commitment was measured by four items, a reflection of their emotional and psychological attachment to the personnel job: 1) My family is proud of the police personnel job that I am doing now; 2) I am satisfied with the current personnel work; 3) I think my personality is suitable for working in the personnel unit of the police department, and 4) I do not want to continue working in the personnel unit of the police department (recoded). Organizational commitment was measured by five items, capturing their affective connection or bond with the personnel unit in the police department: 1) I have a strong sense of belonging to the police personnel unit; 2) I think the personnel unit is the best one in the police agency; 3) I strongly agree with the values of the police personnel unit; 4) I believe that staying within the personnel unit of the police agency will offer more opportunities for my career development, and 5) I think I will work in the personnel unit of the police agency until retirement. All questions were responded on a five-point Likert scale. Cronbach’s alphas of the two variables were 0.815 and .897, suggesting a high level of congruence among the measurement items. Explanatory Variables A set of latent variables were employed in the current study. The first latent variable was an exhibition of the nature of the job (Lambert & Paoline, 2008). It was measured by three items (five-point Likert scale): 1) I have the flexibility to choose my work approaches; 2) I find my current job challenging, and 3) I feel a sense of accomplishment at work. The Cronbach’s alpha value indicated an acceptable level of internal reliability ( α = .744). The second latent variable in the model concerned the relationship with supervisors in the workplace and was measured by three items (five-point Likert scale): 1) I feel that supervisors treat subordinates equally; 2) My supervisor is willing to take my advice and listen to my opinions, and 3) My supervisor is willing to discuss work goals with me ( α = .872). The latent variable of workplace fairness was a measurement of four items: 1) I am satisfied with the current welfare system of the personnel unit of the police agency; 2) I think the promotion opportunities of personnel staff are fair; 3) I think the performance evaluation system of the personnel unit is fair, and 4) I think the rewarding system of the personnel unit is fair. It was recorded on a five-point Likert scale with a Cronbach’s alpha value of .892. Self motivation was a latent variable attempted to examine officer’s voluntary work morale. It was measured by five items (five-point Likert scale): 1) I proactively assist colleagues in resolving work-related challenges; 2) I proactively share my work experience with newly onboard colleagues; 3) I proactively acquire and learn the necessary knowledge and skills for my job; 4) I overcome difficulties at work on my own, and 5) I work overtime to achieve the work goals of the department ( α = .891). The last latent variable incorporated in the model was a measure of socialization in the workplace based on four items (five-point Likert scale): 1) My colleagues can affirm the personnel tasks I manage; 2) I can accomplish the task regardless of the individuals I am teamed up with; 3) I can adapt to the organizational culture of different police agencies, and 4) I am capable of acquiring new knowledge to enhance the quality of my work ( α = .807). Control Variables Control variables in the current study included sex, age, educational level, year of service, marriage status, and officer rank. Sex was a dichotomous variable with the options of male and female. Age was an ordinal variable, with the response categories ranging from below 30, 31 to 40, 41-50, and above 51. Educational level was also an ordinal variable, and the response options included high school, community college, college, and graduate school or above. Year of service was measured at the ordinal level with 5 options, ranging from 0-5 years, 6-10 years, 11-15 years, 16-20 years, and above 21 years. Two response categories were offered for the variable of marriage status, including marriage and unmarried. Officer rank was a representative of an officer’s hierarchical position in the workplace. It ranged from below the fifth grade, the sixth grade, the seventh grade, the eighth grade, above the ninth grade, and others. Analytical Strategy and Theoretical Model Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used for the current analysis because of its suitability for conducting confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which allows us to investigate the underlying dimensionality of the measurement scales. An advantage of SEM analysis is its capability to assess and correct measurement errors (Byrne, 2011). Additionally, SEM provides the function of incorporating both latent and observed variables in the model and simultaneously controlling for the direct and indirect effects of exogenous and endogenous variables (Byrne, 2011). All analyses in the current study were conducted through Mplus version 8. The model parameters were estimated by robust maximum likelihood. The theoretical model is demonstrated in Figure 1. The hypothesized priori is that both job commitment and organizational commitment can be explained by five latent factors, namely the nature of the job, supervisor relations, workplace fairness, self motivation, and socialization, along with the six demographic control variables. Moreover, the five latent variables are correlated with each other, and the two outcome variables are also correlated. The five latent factors can be explained by the demographic control variables as well. [Insert Figure 1 Here] Results Descriptive Analysis Descriptive analysis results are displayed in Table 1 . The average means of job commitment and organizational commitment suggested a relatively positive commitment among participated personnel police officers. Similarly, the means scores of the other latent variables, including the nature of the job, supervisor relations, self motivation, and socialization, indicated a relatively positive direction. Specifically, participants tended to view the nature of the job as favorable, perceiving their relationship with their supervisor as acceptable, being more self-motivated, and being easy to socialize in the work environment. However, the mean rating of the latent variable of workplace fairness was relatively low. It implies that participants were less likely to be satisfied with the current reward and promotion systems in the police agency. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Commitment among Taiwan Personnel Police Officers (N = 480). Variables Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Job Commitment 4.00 20.00 14.18 2.76 Organizational Commitment 5.00 25.00 15.35 3.82 Nature of the Job 3.00 15.00 10.09 2.15 Supervisor Relations 3.00 15.00 10.93 2.30 Workplace Fairness 4.00 20.00 11.69 3.48 Self Motivation 6.00 25.00 19.77 2.80 Socialization 6.00 20.00 14.89 2.14 Sex 1.00 2.00 1.38 0.49 Age 1.00 4.00 2.34 0.96 Educational Level 1.00 4.00 2.82 0.72 Year of Service 1.00 5.00 1.99 1.36 Marriage Status 1.00 2.00 1.26 0.44 Rank 1.00 6.00 3.21 1.57 Demographical characteristics of participants revealed that more than half of the participants were male offers (62.3%), and the majority of them were married (74%). The age distribution was rather even, featuring a quarter of them below 30 years old, around a quarter of them being 31–40 years old, about 40 percent of them being 41–50 years old, and approximately 10 percent of them aged above 50. Most of the participants had a college degree (61.3%). Twenty percent of them graduated from secondary school, and thirteen percent of them had a master’s degree. Only a small portion of them had a high school degree (5.4%). More than half of the participating officers served in the police force in less than five years (54.8%). Approximately 20 percent of them served in the time range of 6 years to 10 years (19.6%). Around 7 percent of them serviced in the force for more than ten years and less than fifteen years (6.3%). About 10 percent of them served for 16 to 20 years in the police force (10.2%). Slightly less than 10 percent of them served in the police force for more than two decades (9.2%). Participants’ rankings ranged from below 5 grade (17.9%), 6 grade (8.3%), 7 grade (44.6%), 8 grade (10.4%), above 8 grade (1.5%), and others (17.3%). The results of confirmatory factor analysis are displayed in Table 2 . The factor loading scores were .54 or higher, well above the cutoff value of .40 (Lambert et al., 2021 ). Table 2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Latent Variables (N = 480). Variables Estimate S.E. Est./S.E. Job Commitment ( α = .815) My family is proud of the police personnel job that I am doing now. 0.689 0.027 25.181 I am satisfied with the current personnel work. 0.870 0.017 51.780 I think my personality is suitable for working in the personnel unit of the police department. 0.762 0.023 33.055 I do not want to continue working in the personnel unit of the police department (recoded). 0.612 0.032 19.212 Organizational Commitment ( α = .897) I have a strong sense of belonging to the police personnel unit. 0.880 0.014 61.827 I think the personnel unit is the best one in the police agency. 0.761 0.022 34.325 I strongly agree with the values of the police personnel unit. 0.811 0.019 43.150 I believe that staying within the personnel unit of the police agency will offer more promising opportunities for my career development. 0.658 0.029 23.074 I think I will work in the personnel unit of the police agency until retirement. 0.613 0.031 19.673 Nature of the Job ( α = .744) I have the flexibility to choose my work approaches. 0.543 0.036 14.976 I find my current job challenging. 0.699 0.027 25.490 I feel a sense of accomplishment at work. 0.897 0.020 45.464 Supervisor Relations ( α = .872) I feel that supervisors treat subordinates equally. 0.707 0.025 28.111 My supervisor is willing to take my advice and listen to my opinions. 0.922 0.013 73.379 My supervisor is willing to discuss work goals with me. 0.900 0.013 67.185 Workplace Fairness ( α = .892) I am satisfied with the current welfare system of the personnel unit of the police agency. 0.734 0.024 30.903 I think the promotion opportunities of personnel staff are fair. 0.870 0.015 59.445 I think the performance evaluation system of the personnel unit is fair. 0.868 0.015 58.692 I think the rewarding system of the personnel unit is fair. 0.815 0.018 44.531 Self Motivation ( α = .891) I proactively assist colleagues in resolving work-related challenges. 0.814 0.018 44.001 I proactively share my work experience with newly onboard colleagues. 0.840 0.017 49.963 I proactively acquire and learn the necessary knowledge and skills for my job. 0.844 0.016 52.109 I overcome difficulties at work on my own. 0.750 0.023 32.819 I work overtime to achieve the work goals of the department. 0.708 0.026 27.721 Socialization ( α = .807) My colleagues can affirm the personnel tasks I manage. 0.684 0.028 24.227 I can accomplish the task regardless of the individuals I am teamed up with. 0.654 0.030 21.772 I can adapt to the organizational culture of different police agencies. 0.732 0.026 28.569 I am capable of acquiring new knowledge to enhance the quality of my work. 0.800 0.021 37.649 Note. All estimates are significant at .001. [Insert Table 1 Here] [Insert Table 2 Here] SEM Analysis and Empirical Model Figure 2 demonstrates the results of the SEM analysis. All of the indices in the empirical model indicated a good mode fit (CFI = 0.93, TLT = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.05, SRMR = 0.05, R 2 of job commitment = .70, and R 2 of organizational commitment = .72). Only significant standardized coefficients are reported for simplicity of the visual presentation and ease of interpretation of findings. In the same vein, the significant correlations among the latent variables are not reported in the figure. Results derived from the SEM analysis indicated that workplace fairness and the nature of the job were the two latent factors that were significant predictors of the two types of commitment. Specifically, personnel officers who perceived a higher level of workplace fairness were more likely to commit themselves to the personnel job, with a standardized coefficient of .20. Personnel officers who enjoyed the nature of the job, such as flexibility of work approaches, challenging assignments, and a strong sense of accomplishment, were more likely to commit to the job, with a standardized coefficient of .61. Education demonstrated an indirect relationship with job commitment. Participants with a higher level of education were less likely to perceive workplace fairness and, therefore, less likely to attach themselves to the job. Similarly, participants who perceived a higher level of workplace fairness were more likely to attach to the organization, with a standardized coefficient of .43. Personnel officers who enjoyed the nature of the job were more likely to commit themselves to the organization, with a standardized coefficient of .36. Year of service was significantly and positively related to organizational commitment. In other words, personnel officers who had served in the police force for a longer time were more likely to attach to the organization, with a standardized coefficient of .08. Noteworthy, both job commitment and organizational commitment had similar latent predictors, namely workplace fairness and the nature of the job. However, workplace fairness tended to have a stronger influence on organizational commitment, whereas the nature of the job had a stronger effect on job commitment. [Insert Fig. 2 Here] Discussions and Conclusions Commitment in the workplace is crucial for any profession, given its importance to the well-being and productivity of the organization. In law enforcement, police officers are at the heart of the policing job and the police organization. Understanding police officers’ commitment to the job and the organization is essential for public safety. The current study examined commitment among personnel police officers in Taiwan who possess distinct job responsibilities from patrol officers. The results of SEM analyses supported the hypothesis that both job commitment and organizational commitment can be explained by the job and organizational characteristics, including the nature of the job and workplace fairness. Demographical variables, such as educational level and year of service, were also found to be significant. More specifically, the nature of the job and workplace fairness were positively related to job and organizational commitment. The nature of the job was the strongest predictor for job commitment ( β = .61), while workplace fairness was the strongest predictor for organizational commitment ( β = .43). Year of service was positively related to organizational commitment. Yet, its explanation power was limited ( β = .08). Educational level was negatively related to perceived workplace fairness and indirectly influenced job commitment. In the SEM models, 70% of job commitment variance was explained, and 72% of organizational variance was explained. Previous research demonstrated the importance of distinguishing job commitment from organizational commitment (Adams et al., 1977 ; Koslowsky, 1990 ; Morrow, 1983 ). The present study found that the two types of commitment possess similar influencing factors – workplace fairness and the nature of the job. It is evident that job commitment interplays with organizational commitment. The overlapping impact factors regarding the two types of commitment have a positive policy implication. Adams and coauthors (1977) indicated that a higher level of overlapping between job goals and organizational goals (a perceived fit) tends to result in a deeper commitment than their counterparts. Similarly, the overlapping impact factors can be considered “a perceived fit” to enhance both job and organizational commitments. As such, police organizations would benefit from increasing job autonomy and assignment variety. Kankaanranta’s ( 2013 ) analysis of 448 economic crime investigators reported that challenging and diversified work assignments had the potential to maintain or even increase commitment. Lambert and coauthors’ (2021) study on patrol officers also indicated that job involvement tended to increase officers’ productivity, success at work, and positive psychological feelings, which in turn would increase commitment. Applied to personnel police officers, the present study did find a positive and significant effect that job autonomy, assignment variety (challenging content), and feeling of accomplishment had on commitment. Personnel police officers may appreciate the chance to integrate new technologies and communication techniques in their work, such as the use of social media for recruitment, providing training on cybercrime investigations, and offering career development opportunities regarding data analysis. Currently, online activities are more common than decades ago. People can shop online, make payments online, pay taxes online, work online (especially after the COVID-19 pandemic), attend professional training and meetings online, and have instant conversations with family and friends via video communication. E-identity or digital ID has already been established through decades of development. Co-occurrent with the convenience of online activities, cybercrime becomes more and more salient. In particular, with the development of deepfake technologies, people can easily design a “fake you” by imitating the voices and images of you. Often the time, it is difficult to differentiate a real video from a fake one. The major concern about this phenomenon is identity fraud, identity theft, rumor distribution/misinformation, and potential reputation/relationship damage. We are in the information era now, and information is closely intertwined with our decision-making and behaviors (Wang, 2023 ). However, people at the same time are easily distracted by diverse information, including fake news and videos. As the English writer and philosopher Mr. Aldous Huxley predicted in his novel Brave New World , the primary problem of society in the 21st century is information distraction. Mr. Huxley’s idea was contrary to Mr. George Orwell’s novel 1984 . While Mr. Orwell’s concern about information control (i.e., Big Brother) is reasonable, Mr. Huxley did provide an understanding of the current online crime activities. As such, personnel police officers can build a bridge to connect the current societal problems (i.e., the abuse/misuse of AI technology, the prevalence of fake short videos made by deepfake technology, and social manipulation through AI algorithms) to the front-line officers by making policies and providing skill development opportunities. It is evident that when officers can feel the value of their work, they are more likely to remain in the police force and the associated organization (Maanen, 1975 ). In a similar vein, improving workplace fairness would help increase job and organizational commitments among personal police officers (Lambert et al., 2023 ; Kuo, 2015 ; Wolf & Lawson, 2020). In the current study, the rating of workplace fairness was relatively low, featuring a mean of 11.69 (SD = 3.48, Range = 4 to 20). It indicates that there is room for improvement regarding promotion, performance evaluation, reward system, and welfare system in police departments. Educational level was negatively related to workplace fairness. This may be the result of limited career development opportunities being offered in police organizations. Noteworthy, workplace fairness and supervisor relations are significantly correlated ( β = .54, p < .01). Although the variable of supervisor relations was not statistically significant in the prediction of commitment, it is possible that the relationship was mediated by workplace fairness. To identify the mediation relationship, a separate SEM analysis was conducted (Fig. 3 ). Results suggested that the effect of supervisor relations on commitment was mediated by workplace fairness. More importantly, workplace fairness contributed to 54% of the variance regarding organizational commitment. As such, endeavors to improve supervisor-subordinate relations are necessary to enhance workplace fairness and, thus, deepen commitments among personnel police officers. Training on fair treatment, communication skills, and democratic leadership style among supervisors may contribute to workplace fairness and, accordingly, increase officers’ feelings of belonging and attachment. Noteworthy, police officers’ work outcomes, originating from supervisor fairness, have a consequential effect on the citizens served by the system (Wolf & Lawson, 2020). [Insert Fig. 3 Here] Consistent with previous research, the demographical variables exert limited influence on job and organizational commitments (Johnson, 2015 ; Kankaanranta, 2013 ; Lambert & Paoline, 2008 ; Olapegba & Onuoha, 2013). The only significant demographical variable of the present study was the length of service in the police force. The longer time that officers serve in the police force, the more likely that officers will stay in the agency. This could be the consequence that officers accultured into the organization and enjoyed the job itself. Baker (1999) reported that the turning point of attitudinal change was serving in the police force for about 5 years. At this stage of the career, police officers tend to experience burnout and develop legal cynicism. Officers who participated in the current study had a mean score of 1.99 regarding service time (SD = 1.36, Range = 1 to 5). Specifically, more than half of the participating officers served in the police force in less than five years (54.8%). Approximately 9% of them served in the police force for more than two decades. Therefore, it is possible that those officers’ perceptions of the police organization and police work may change over time. Longitudinal data would be desirable for tracking these attitudinal changes. As with all research, the current analyses had limitations. The first one is the lack of longitudinal data to examine attitudinal change over time. Therefore, the results cannot be generalized to officers in their later careers. Second, only affective commitment was examined in the present study. As Meyer and Allen ( 1991 , 1997 ) identified, there are three broad types of commitment, including affective, normative, and continuous commitments. It is necessary to investigate if the three types of commitment share similar predictors. Third, previous research reported that subcultures formed based on work shifts or squads influenced officers’ perceptions (Ingram et al., 2018 ). Peer influence is stronger among subgroups that share similar work personalities. Thus, it is possible that these subcultures may affect officers’ perceptions of the job and the organization. In closing, understanding factors that shape both job and organizational commitments among police officers is important, and personnel police officers in particular. The present study suggested that the nature of the job and workplace fairness are two strong predictors of commitment. Consistent with previous studies, the demographical variables were generally unrelated to commitment among personnel police officers. That is to say, with respect to commitment, both job and organizational characteristics play a more important role than demographics. Declarations The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the ethics committee at Central Police University in Taiwan. All participants provided informed consent to participate. References Adams, E. E., Laker, D. R. & Hulin, C. L. (1977). An investigation of the influence of job level and functional specialty on job attitudes and perception. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 335-343. Byrne, B.M., 2011. Structural Equation Modeling with Mplus: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming. Routledge, NY. Cao, L., Huang, L., & Sun, I. (2014). Policing in Taiwan: From authoritarianism to democracy . London, England: Routledge. Chordiya, R., Sabharwal, M., & Goodman, D. (2017). Affective organizational commitment and job satisfaction: A cross-national comparative study. Public Administration, 95 , 178-195. Chusmir, L. H. (1982). Job commitment and the organizational woman. Academy of Management Review, 7 , 595-602. Cohen, A. (2000). The relationship between commitment forms and work outcomes: A comparison of three models. Human Relations, 53 , 387-417. Crow, M. S., Lee, C. B., & Joo, J. J. (2012). Organizational justice and organizational commitment among South Korean police officers: An investigation of job satisfaction as a mediator. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 35 , 402-423. Engel, R. (2000). The effects of supervisory styles on patrol officer behavior. Police Quarterly, 3, 262-293. Ellemer, N., Gilder, D., & Heurel, H. (1998). Career-oriented versus team-oriented commitment and behavior at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 , 717-30. Frank, J., Lambert, E. G., Qureshi, H., Myer, A. J., Klahm, C. F., Smith, B., & Hogan, N. L. (2020). Disentangling the direct and indirect effects of task, individual, and organizational factors on occupational citizenship behavior. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 31 , 1136-1164. Foley, P., Guameri, C., & Kelly, M. (2008). Reasons for choosing a police career: Changes over two decades. International Journal of Police Science and Management , 10 , 2-8. Garner, R. (2005). Police attitudes: The impact of experience after training. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice , 1 , 56-70. Haarr, R.N. (2001). The impact of basic training and occupational socialization on police recruits. Police Quarterly, 4 , 402-433. Haarr, R.N. (2005). Factors affecting the decision of police recruits to ‘drop out’ of police work. Police Quarterly, 8 , 431-453. Ingram, J. R., Terrill, W., & Paoline, E. A., III (2018). Police culture and officer behavior: application of a multilevel framework. Criminology, 56 , 780-811. Jenks, D. A., Carter, J. S., & Jenks, C. A. (2007). Command staff leadership training and job commitment in the LAPD. Southwest Journal of Criminal Justice, 4 , 106-119. Johnson, R. R. (2008). Effectively communicating performance expectations to subordinates: Patrol officer perceptions. Law Enforcement Executive Forum, 8 , 103-112. Johnson, R. R. (2015). Police organizational commitment: The influence of supervisor feedback and support. Crime & Delinquency, 61 , 1155-1180. Kankaanranta, T. (2013). Factors influencing economic crime investigators’ job commitment. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 14 , 53-65. Koslowsky, M. (1990). Staff/line distinctions in job and organizational commitment. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63 , 167-173. Kristof-Brown, A., Zimmerman, R., & Johnson, E. (2005). Consequences of individual’s fit at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology , 58 , 281-342. Kuo, S. (2015). Occupational stress, job satisfaction, and affective commitment to policing among Taiwanese police officers. Police Quarterly, 18 , 27-54. Lambert, E. G., Liu, J., & Jiang, S. (2023). Research note – The connection of organizational justice views with Chinese police officer organizational commitment. Policing: An International Journal, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-12-2022-0156. Lambert, E. G., & Paoline, E. A. (2008). The influence of individual, job, and organizational characteristics on correctional staff job stress, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Criminal Justice Review, 33 , 541-564. Lambert, E. G., Qureshi, H., & Frank, J. (2021). The good life: Exploring the effects job stress, job involvement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment on the life satisfaction of police officers. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 23 , 279-292. Maanen, J. V. (1975). Police socialization: A longitudinal examination of job attitudes in an urban police department. Administrative Science Quarterly, 20 , 207-228. Manning, P. K. (1970). Talking and becoming: A review of organizational socialization. In Jack D. Douglas (ed.) Understanding Everyday Life : 239-258. Chicago: Aldine. Mathieu, J., & Zajac, D. (1990). A review and meta-analysis of the antecedents, correlates, and consequences of organizational commitment. Psychological Bulletin , 108 , 171-194. Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. (1991). A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1 , 64-98. Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. (1997). Commitment in the Workplace: Theory, Research, and Application . Thousand Oaks: Sage. Morrow, P. C. (1983). Concept redundancy in organizational research: The case of work commitment. Academy of Management Review, 8, 486-500. Morrow, P. C., & McElroy, J. C. (1986). On assessing measures of work commitment. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 7 , 139-145. Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W., & Steers, R. M. (1982). Employee–organization linkages: The psychology of commitment, absenteeism, and turnover . New York: Academic Press. Owan, V. J. (2021). Predictive path modeling of indicators of secondary school instructors’ affective, continuance and normative job commitment. Journal of International Cooperation and Development, 4 , 86-108. Porter, L. W., Steers, R. M., Mowday, R. T., & Boulian, P. V. (1974). Organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover among psychiatric technicians. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59 , 603-609. Rosenbaum, D. P., & McCarty, W. P. (2017). Organizational justice and officer ‘buy in’ in American policing. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 40, 71-85. Skolnick, J. H. (1966). Justice without Trial: Law Enforcement in Democratic Society . Wiley: New York. Sun, I. Y., Wu, Y., Otu, S. E., Aro, G. C., Akor, I. C., & Nnam, M. U. (2022). Linking organizational justice to organizational commitment among Nigerian police officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 49 , 220-238. Van Maanen, J. (1973). Observations on the making of policemen. Human Organization , 32 , 407-418. Van Maanen, J. (1974). Working the street: A developmental view of police behavior. In H. Jacob (Ed.), The potential for reform in criminal justice (pp. 83-110). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Wang, X. (2023). The influence of social media consumption on college students’ perceived commitment to the police occupation. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 24 , 710-727. Wang, X., Zhao, J., & Qu, J. (2022). Factors associated with job commitment among Chinese police cadets: A longitudinal study. Policing: An International Journal, 45 , 846-859. White, M., Cooper, J., Saunders, J., & Raganella, A. (2010). Motivations for becoming a police officer: Re-assessing officer attitudes and job satisfaction after six years on the street. Journal of Criminal Justice , 38 , 520-530. Wolfe, S. E., & Lawson, S. G. (2020). The organizational justice effect among criminal justice employees: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 58 , 619-644. Wu, Y., Sun, I. Y., Chang, C. K., & Hsu, K. K. (2017). Procedural justice received and given: Supervisory treatment, emotional states, and behavioral compliance among Taiwanese police officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 44 , 963-982. Zhao, J., & Thurman, Q. (1999). Sources of job satisfaction among police officers: A test of demographic and work environment variables. Justice Quarterly , 16 , 153-173. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5852034","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":403732287,"identity":"8d1a6b69-53de-42b1-b7c4-4bc74ad1ac97","order_by":0,"name":"Xinting Wang","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA6klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZiBOgHE+NoApA0JaGBtgWhhnEqUFqLABrp2XGC0Gx3mPP3i4oxbIOHv4te2OusQG9uZtEvi0SDbzJTYknjnOYHAmL80698zhxAaeY2V4tfAz8xg2JLYdYzA7kGNmnNt2ILFBIscMrxY2uJbzb8yMLduADpN/g18L1JYaBrMbOcaPGduYgbbw4Nci2cxjOCOx7QCP/Y03Zoy9Zw4bt/GkFVvg02Jw/ozBx59tdXKS/TnGH37uqJPtZz+88QY+LVBwmAfkL7B72IhQDgJ1IIL5A5GqR8EoGAWjYIQBAHZeScp22pI2AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8456-3657","institution":"Ball State University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xinting","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""},{"id":403732288,"identity":"396e5960-6425-4377-9a4a-6add2356155a","order_by":1,"name":"Chia-Hung Lin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Sam Houston State University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chia-Hung","middleName":"","lastName":"Lin","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-01-17 23:38:38","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5852034/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5852034/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":74902207,"identity":"65ef6be5-c5cf-4b84-9205-e4ece0437bda","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-28 07:31:17","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":92958,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTheoretical Model of Commitment among Personnel Police Officers in Taiwan (N = 480).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote. The latent variables are hypothesized to be correlated with each other. To remain simple, those relationships are not displayed in the figure.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5852034/v1/013972ff0e1136be7ffa2c9c.png"},{"id":74903433,"identity":"bce121e0-b97b-4983-b50a-37973853165b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-28 07:39:17","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":72583,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEmpirical Model of Commitment among Personnel Police Officers in Taiwan (N = 480).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote. The two latent variables are correlated with each other. Job commitment is also correlated with organizational commitment.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5852034/v1/ce98ec9ac3bbde0568fbd721.png"},{"id":74902210,"identity":"5ee29a7a-2770-4f8f-ba89-d90982f990b2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-28 07:31:17","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58649,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe Mediation Effect of Workplace Fairness among Personnel Police Officers in Taiwan (N = 480).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote. Job commitment is also correlated with organizational commitment.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5852034/v1/748615d00a87b0b0b22a9afb.png"},{"id":74903899,"identity":"76d74050-3db1-4b74-858a-b78d5efa1b42","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-28 07:47:17","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":923454,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5852034/v1/83f6549c-742a-4855-a3a5-9877bda6ee8a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelates of Personnel Police Officers’ Commitment in Taiwan: A Comparison of Job Commitment and Organizational Commitment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCommitment has attracted public attention, especially among scholars and practitioners, since the 1970s. The continuous research demonstrated its importance in the workforce. Meta-analyses of studies across time consistently revealed that high levels of commitment are significantly related to work productivity and innovation, employee well-being and retention, and the recruitment of high-quality employees (Kristof-Brown et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Mathieu \u0026amp; Zajac, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, job and organizational commitments have a spillover impact on life satisfaction and accordingly influence the quality of life, such as happiness (Johnson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Based on the nature of the work environment, two types of commitments are commonly discussed, namely, job commitment and organizational commitment. The mainstream literature on commitment primarily derives from business management (Morrow \u0026amp; McElroy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Johnson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Recently, this body of scholarship has been expanding to the police workforce (for example, Lambert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kuo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYet, the commitment research on policing is not sufficient for policy implication. The major challenge lies in the difficulty of work performance evaluation among police officers due to the dynamic nature of police work \u0026ndash; dangerous, authoritarian, unpredictable, uncertain, and ambiguous (Skolnick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1966\u003c/span\u003e; Ingram et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This \u0026ldquo;work personality\u0026rdquo; of policing limits supervisors\u0026rsquo; ability to provide consistent feedback on officers\u0026rsquo; performance. The contradictory working goals complicate the job in nature, such as the rival expectations between criminal offenders and law-abiding citizens and the conflicts between the protection of the constitutional rights of criminal offenders and the safeguarding of public safety. Consequently, commitment among police officers has been argued to be lower than that of other professions (Zhao \u0026amp; Thurman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). At the organizational level, Johnson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) summarized that \u0026ldquo;fostering organizational commitment among police officers remains an extremely difficult task\u0026rdquo; due to the nature of the job (p.1157). At the same time, the police workforce is estimated to be challenged by the continuous increase of senior officers' retirements and the lack of job attraction among young generations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe purpose of the current study is to enrich this body of scholarship in policing with three research questions: What are the factors associated with personnel police officers\u0026rsquo; job commitment? What are the correlates of personnel police officers\u0026rsquo; organizational commitment? Do the two types of commitment share common antecedents? Accordingly, the present study makes at least three contributions to the existing knowledge of commitment among police officers. First, this study focuses on personnel police officers in Taiwan, a unit of officers that has been rarely studied. To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the first studies that focuses on personnel police officers. Personnel police officers assume different work responsibilities than patrol officers or officers from other specialized units. They are in charge of personnel affairs, officer recruitment and training, program development, and policy development and implementation. It is important to understand their commitment to the workplace, given their \u0026ldquo;nanny\u0026rdquo; role in the police agency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, a comparison of correlates regarding job commitment versus organizational commitment will be conducted. To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the first studies to make the comparison. Job commitment relates to one\u0026rsquo;s attachment to the profession, while organizational commitment is tied to an employee\u0026rsquo;s bond with a particular agency. One can fall in love with the job but dislike the institution and vice versa, which also contributes to the turnover rate of the organization. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the common antecedents shared with the two types of commitments. Last but not least, Taiwan police officers are the subject of the present study. Taiwan has a centralized police system where policing is under the direct supervision/control of the National Police Agency (Kuo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), which is different from the fragmented system in the United States. Taiwanese policing is undergoing a transformation from an authoritarian style to democratic policing, with a focus on human rights protection and crime control (Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This transition does not stand alone. It is accompanied by or a consequence of social and cultural changes in society, which individuals have to face and adapt as well. At the same time, the increased supervision of policing, especially the media scrutiny in the era of social media, enlarged police officers\u0026rsquo; workload with a lack of effective guidance on the transition, leading to a high level of job stress and a feeling of powerlessness (Cao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, understanding police officers\u0026rsquo; commitment, both job and organizational commitments is a call for modern policing.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eJob commitment among police officers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eJob commitment refers to an employee\u0026rsquo;s attachment to and involvement with a job, reflecting a special bond between an employee and the job (Chusmir, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e; Jenks et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Extant literature on job commitment has been tied to job involvement, job satisfaction, job stress, and job productivity. Chusmir (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e) summarized a three-stage pattern of job commitment, starting from personal influence to external moderating influences to moderated perceptions to job commitment. This linkage is recurring, indicating that job commitment is contingent on individualized, work-related, and environment-based factors. The current study specifically investigates two important factors associated with job commitment, including self-motivation and the nature of the police job.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-motivation is a sign of job involvement, where the employee has a connection with the job. It is inspired by employees\u0026rsquo; enthusiasm and passion for the job and the organization. It may give officers a sense of pride, and therefore, officers are more likely to be successful at work, resulting in a sense of fulfillment. Once that positive psychological cycle has been established, job commitment is deepened by the accumulation over time. As Ellemer et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e) defined, job commitment concerns individuals\u0026rsquo; motivation to pursue professional advancement. A high level of self-motivation or job involvement tends to improve police officers\u0026rsquo; job skills and capacities, which in turn increases officers\u0026rsquo; job commitment. In an efficient and friendly work environment, employees also willingly exchange their knowledge, confidently seek guidance from colleagues when necessary, and actively overcome job obstacles. For example, Owan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) analyzed data collected from secondary school administrators and reported a significant relationship between staff motivation and affective job commitment. Noteworthy, self-motivation is not a constant and is conditioned on the work environment and organizational culture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe nature of the job is the fundamental and driving factor of job commitment. Previous policing literature primarily focuses on job stress. The current study examines the influence of the positive aspects of police work, including job autonomy, job variety, and the challenging characteristics of police work (Kristof-Brown et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Lambert \u0026amp; Paoline, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Mathieu \u0026amp; Zajac, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). For example, Lambert and Paoline\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) study on correctional officers in a large county correctional system reported that job variety increased job satisfaction. Given that job commitment is a product of job satisfaction (Cohen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), it is reasonable to argue that job variety is positively associated with job commitment. Kankaanranta (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) analyzed data collected from more than 60% of economic crime investigators in Finland. The SEM analysis results indicated that challenging job content and meaningful work assignments were important influencers of job commitment. In her model, appreciation of competence and performance was reported to be the strongest factor associated with job commitment. In conclusion, the nature of the job is conducive to job commitment when it encourages professional improvement, offers various challenging work assignments, and provides flexible work arrangements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe impact of rank and year of service on job commitment is complex. Jenks and coauthors (2007) conducted an exploratory analysis of LAPD officers who participated in the West Point Leadership Program. Those officers were at a high-ranking level with several years of experience in the police workforce. They found that year of service as well as rank, was not significantly associated with job commitment. They argued that the lack of significance could be caused by the commonly shared culture that has been established among the upper-level command staff. However, early policing research, either qualitative or quantitative, discovered rookie officers\u0026rsquo; attitudes toward the job did change as they acclimated into the workforce and the job itself (Baker, 1999; Foley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Haarr, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Garner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Van Maanen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1973\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e; White et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). For example, Haarr (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a qualitative analysis of police cadets before and after the academy training. She found that more than a quarter of the recruits dropped out of the police force because of the reality shock \u0026ndash; the conflict between ideal policing and the reality of police work. The findings are consistent with Van Maanen\u0026rsquo;s early (1973, 1974) study that police officers\u0026rsquo; idealism faded, and legal cynicism grew as their work experience increased. Baker (1999), who devoted nearly two decades of ethnographic research on law enforcement officers across ranks, reported that the turning point of attitudinal change was serving in the police force for about 5 years. Wang and co-authors (2020) did a study on Chinese police cadets. The OLS regression analysis indicated that the internship (a three-month field training) changed police cadets\u0026rsquo; attitudes toward police work. More importantly, they found that the reality shock was not as serious among Chinese cadets as noted in the early studies in the United States. What stood out for their attitudinal change was the actual knowledge cadets learned from the internship. Noteworthy, the internship effect did not last long, only about six months duration. However, the study indicated that years of experience could be an important factor that can influence police officers\u0026rsquo; perceptions and, therefore, impact their decision-making about whether to remain in the law enforcement force. Other personal characteristics, such as sex, age, and education, have been found to be associated with job commitment. However, the general effect of those personal characteristics turns out relatively small in comparison to job and organizational characteristics (e.g., Lambert \u0026amp; Paoline, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). There is also evidence that some of the demographical characteristics fail to reach significance, such as gender (Johnson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Kankaanranta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Olapegba \u0026amp; Onuoha, 2013) and age (Olapegba \u0026amp; Onuoha, 2013).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eOrganizational commitment among police officers\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch on organizational commitment can be traced back to the 1970s (e.g., Porter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e). It was not until the 1980s that scholars started to differentiate job commitment from organizational commitment (Morrow, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). For example, in the analysis of data collected from Israeli police officers, Koslowsky (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized that \u0026ldquo;commitment to the job does not necessarily imply commitment to the organization, and it is essential to distinguish these in research\u0026rdquo; (p.168). More importantly, a higher level of overlapping between job goals and organizational goals (a perceived fit) tends to result in a deeper commitment than the counterparts (Adams et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e). Later research on organizational commitment identified three dimensions of the concept based on how commitment is formed, including affective commitment, normative commitment, and continuous commitment (Meyer \u0026amp; Allen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Mowday et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). The majority of criminal justice studies focused on affective commitment \u0026ndash; emotional attachment and psychological affinity to the organization. For example, Lambert and coauthors (2008) examined the correlates of organizational commitment among correctional officers. They found that organizational characteristics are far more important than demographical variables. Lambert et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) continued this body of scholarship toward police officers. Their OLS regression analysis reported a spillover effect of organizational commitment on life satisfaction among Indian police officers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe focus of the present study is particularly on three organizational-based factors associated with commitment, including socialization within the organization, perceived workplace fairness, and supervisor relations. Socialization within the organization covers a variety of intangible aspects of the work and organizational environments, such as bonding with coworkers, feeling supported by them, and the informal organizational culture (Ingram et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Maanen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e; Manning, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e; Paoline \u0026amp; Terrill, 2005). Haarr (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) studied police recruits\u0026rsquo; attitudinal change over 16 months, starting from basic training in the Police Academy to field training to the completion of the probationary period. The multiple regression analyses indicated that organizational environment and culture exerted a significant influence on rookie officers\u0026rsquo; attitudinal change. In particular, coworkers\u0026rsquo; attitudes and the assigned shifts (subculture) were two of the strongest predictors. Although the study focused on perceptions of community policing and problem-solving policing, it demonstrates the possibility that socialization within the organization can shape rookie officers\u0026rsquo; affective commitment. Maanen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e) argued that police culture influences officers\u0026rsquo; perceptions and behaviors, disregarding their demographics. \u0026ldquo;Strong departmental loyalty, in-group solidarity, and cohesiveness\u0026rdquo; are important contributing factors to organizational commitment (p.218). Personal satisfaction with the job and the organization, for example, \u0026ldquo;subjective feelings of performing an important and worthwhile task,\u0026rdquo; tends to increase officers\u0026rsquo; sense of fulfillment and, therefore, result in a higher level of organizational commitment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorkplace fairness sometimes refers to organizational justice. It concerns the perceived fair treatment within the workplace, including the organization. This type of perception is closely connected with organizational outcomes, such as welfare system, promotion, assignments, performance evaluation, pay, and reward system (Lambert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kuo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Wolf \u0026amp; Lawson, 2020). Research on organizational justice universally discovers a positive relationship with police officer organizational commitment in the U.S., Nigeria, South Korea, India, and China (Crow et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Frank et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Lambert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Rosenbaum \u0026amp; McCarty, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Sun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). For example, in the analysis of Chinese police officers in three areas, Lambert and co-authors (2023) found that being fairly treated in terms of interactions, processes, and outcomes within the police department resulted in a higher level of affective commitment to the organization. They claimed that organizational justice is also the heart of the legitimacy of an organization. However, in a cross-national comparative study, Chordiya and co-authors (2017) reported that the affective organizational commitment among Indian public managers was higher than the four U.S. States (i.e., Oregon, Florida, Washington, and Utah).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupervisor relations and leadership styles. Effective communication between supervisors and subordinates is essential in police work, given the vague and uncertain nature of the work, such as feedback regarding work performance, communications regarding work expectations, and fair treatment of the work performance (Johnson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Kuo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Johnson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) argued that patrol officers tend to appreciate the concrete information received from their supervisors, in particular informal rewards for good performance, providing formal or written feedback on work performance, the modeling of appropriate behavior, and providing written policies and procedures. Active leadership style also increased officers\u0026rsquo; involvement in community problem-solving (Engel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Noteworthy, the majority of the policing literature focuses on the backbone of the police force \u0026ndash; patrol officers. There is very limited knowledge of police officers in other work duties, such as personnel police officers. The purpose of the present study is to disentangle factors associated with job and organizational commitments among personnel police officers in Taiwan.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eData for the current study was collected from all the personnel officers in the Taiwan police force. The initial purpose of the project was for a master’s thesis at The Central Taiwan Police University in 2014. In total, 629 paper-based questionnaires were distributed to the whole police personnel population in Taiwan from October 30 to December 15, 2014. With a response rate of 78%, 491 survey questionnaires were returned. Among the returned questionnaires, 11 were incomplete and, therefore, list-wise deleted. The final sample size of the analysis was 480.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the police system of Taiwan, personnel police officers are the officers who provide assistance and support to the general police officers. More than 90% of the personnel police officers in Taiwan are police grassroots cadres with a four-year bachelor’s degree or a two-year master’s degree granted by the Central Police University in Taiwan. They all have excellent work performance (grade A in performance appraisal) and have passed the personnel examination held by the Personnel Office of the National Police Agency. Moreover, personnel police officers are required to participate in a one-month professional training from the Central Police University before going to their positions. The other 10% of the personnel police officers are selected through the national examination, and they must go through national personnel training as well. In sum, the personnel police officers in Taiwan have been strictly reviewed and trained, and therefore, are professional with excellent capabilities. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJob responsibilities for personnel police officers are different from officers in other positions. They engage in personnel affairs in the personnel unit of each police agency. Their role in the police force is like a “nanny,” and they are the strongest and most tender backup for police officers in Taiwan. For example, personnel police officers provide professional assistance and various administrative aids for the general officers, including but not limited to birth allowance, maternity leave, pension, sick leave or wound leave, funeral and burial financial aid, and pension funds. They also play a synergistic role and serve as the nexus of police departments. For example, they are in charge of developing and implementing departmental strategic plans, carrying out personnel policies, designing training programs, and recruiting rookie officers.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOutcome Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe outcome variables of the current study involved two types of commitment in a workforce: job commitment and organizational commitment (Lambert et al., 2023). Job commitment was measured by four items, a reflection of their emotional and psychological attachment to the personnel job: 1) My family is proud of the police personnel job that I am doing now; 2) I am satisfied with the current personnel work; 3) I think my personality is suitable for working in the personnel unit of the police department, and 4) I do not want to continue working in the personnel unit of the police department (recoded). Organizational commitment was measured by five items, capturing their affective connection or bond with the personnel unit in the police department: 1) I have a strong sense of belonging to the police personnel unit; 2) I think the personnel unit is the best one in the police agency; 3) I strongly agree with the values of the police personnel unit; 4) I believe that staying within the personnel unit of the police agency will offer more opportunities for my career development, and 5) I think I will work in the personnel unit of the police agency until retirement. All questions were responded on a five-point Likert scale. Cronbach’s alphas of the two variables were 0.815 and .897, suggesting a high level of congruence among the measurement items.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExplanatory Variables\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA set of latent variables were employed in the current study. The first latent variable was an exhibition of the nature of the job (Lambert \u0026amp; Paoline, 2008). It was measured by three items (five-point Likert scale): 1) I have the flexibility to choose my work approaches; 2) I find my current job challenging, and 3) I feel a sense of accomplishment at work. The Cronbach’s alpha value indicated an acceptable level of internal reliability (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e = .744). The second latent variable in the model concerned the relationship with supervisors in the workplace and was measured by three items (five-point Likert scale): 1) I feel that supervisors treat subordinates equally; 2) My supervisor is willing to take my advice and listen to my opinions, and 3) My supervisor is willing to discuss work goals with me (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e = .872). The latent variable of workplace fairness was a measurement of four items: 1) I am satisfied with the current welfare system of the personnel unit of the police agency; 2) I think the promotion opportunities of personnel staff are fair; 3) I think the performance evaluation system of the personnel unit is fair, and 4) I think the rewarding system of the personnel unit is fair. It was recorded on a five-point Likert scale with a Cronbach’s alpha value of .892. Self motivation was a latent variable attempted to examine officer’s voluntary work morale. It was measured by five items (five-point Likert scale): 1) I proactively assist colleagues in resolving work-related challenges; 2) I proactively share my work experience with newly onboard colleagues; 3) I proactively acquire and learn the necessary knowledge and skills for my job; 4) I overcome difficulties at work on my own, and 5) I work overtime to achieve the work goals of the department (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e = .891). The last latent variable incorporated in the model was a measure of socialization in the workplace based on four items (five-point Likert scale): 1) My colleagues can affirm the personnel tasks I manage; 2) I can accomplish the task regardless of the individuals I am teamed up with; 3) I can adapt to the organizational culture of different police agencies, and 4) I am capable of acquiring new knowledge to enhance the quality of my work (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e = .807).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eControl Variables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Control variables in the current study included sex, age, educational level, year of service, marriage status, and officer rank. Sex was a dichotomous variable with the options of male and female. Age was an ordinal variable, with the response categories ranging from below 30, 31 to 40, 41-50, and above 51. Educational level was also an ordinal variable, and the response options included high school, community college, college, and graduate school or above. Year of service was measured at the ordinal level with 5 options, ranging from 0-5 years, 6-10 years, 11-15 years, 16-20 years, and above 21 years. Two response categories were offered for the variable of marriage status, including marriage and unmarried. Officer rank was a representative of an officer’s hierarchical position in the workplace. It ranged from below the fifth grade, the sixth grade, the seventh grade, the eighth grade, above the ninth grade, and others.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnalytical Strategy and Theoretical Model\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStructural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used for the current analysis because of its suitability for conducting confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which allows us to investigate the underlying dimensionality of the measurement scales. An advantage of SEM analysis is its capability to assess and correct measurement errors (Byrne, 2011). Additionally, SEM provides the function of incorporating both latent and observed variables in the model and simultaneously controlling for the direct and indirect effects of exogenous and endogenous variables (Byrne, 2011). All analyses in the current study were conducted through Mplus version 8. The model parameters were estimated by robust maximum likelihood. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe theoretical model is demonstrated in Figure 1. The hypothesized priori is that both job commitment and organizational commitment can be explained by five latent factors, namely the nature of the job, supervisor relations, workplace fairness, self motivation, and socialization, along with the six demographic control variables. Moreover, the five latent variables are correlated with each other, and the two outcome variables are also correlated. The five latent factors can be explained by the demographic control variables as well. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Insert Figure 1 Here]\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDescriptive Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive analysis results are displayed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The average means of job commitment and organizational commitment suggested a relatively positive commitment among participated personnel police officers. Similarly, the means scores of the other latent variables, including the nature of the job, supervisor relations, self motivation, and socialization, indicated a relatively positive direction. Specifically, participants tended to view the nature of the job as favorable, perceiving their relationship with their supervisor as acceptable, being more self-motivated, and being easy to socialize in the work environment. However, the mean rating of the latent variable of workplace fairness was relatively low. It implies that participants were less likely to be satisfied with the current reward and promotion systems in the police agency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive Statistics for Commitment among Taiwan Personnel Police Officers (N = 480).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStd. Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJob Commitment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganizational Commitment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNature of the Job\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupervisor Relations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorkplace Fairness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf Motivation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocialization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducational Level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear of Service\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarriage Status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemographical characteristics of participants revealed that more than half of the participants were male offers (62.3%), and the majority of them were married (74%). The age distribution was rather even, featuring a quarter of them below 30 years old, around a quarter of them being 31–40 years old, about 40 percent of them being 41–50 years old, and approximately 10 percent of them aged above 50. Most of the participants had a college degree (61.3%). Twenty percent of them graduated from secondary school, and thirteen percent of them had a master’s degree. Only a small portion of them had a high school degree (5.4%). More than half of the participating officers served in the police force in less than five years (54.8%). Approximately 20 percent of them served in the time range of 6 years to 10 years (19.6%). Around 7 percent of them serviced in the force for more than ten years and less than fifteen years (6.3%). About 10 percent of them served for 16 to 20 years in the police force (10.2%). Slightly less than 10 percent of them served in the police force for more than two decades (9.2%). Participants’ rankings ranged from below 5 grade (17.9%), 6 grade (8.3%), 7 grade (44.6%), 8 grade (10.4%), above 8 grade (1.5%), and others (17.3%). The results of confirmatory factor analysis are displayed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The factor loading scores were .54 or higher, well above the cutoff value of .40 (Lambert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfirmatory Factor Analysis for Latent Variables (N = 480).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstimate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS.E.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEst./S.E.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eJob Commitment\u003c/b\u003e (\u003cem\u003eα =\u003c/em\u003e .815)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMy family is proud of the police personnel job that I am doing now.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.689\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.181\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI am satisfied with the current personnel work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.870\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.780\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI think my personality is suitable for working in the personnel unit of the police department.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.762\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.055\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI do not want to continue working in the personnel unit of the police department (recoded).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.612\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.212\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOrganizational Commitment\u003c/b\u003e (\u003cem\u003eα =\u003c/em\u003e .897)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI have a strong sense of belonging to the police personnel unit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.880\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.827\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI think the personnel unit is the best one in the police agency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.761\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.325\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI strongly agree with the values of the police personnel unit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.811\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI believe that staying within the personnel unit of the police agency will offer more promising opportunities for my career development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.658\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.074\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI think I will work in the personnel unit of the police agency until retirement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.613\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.673\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNature of the Job\u003c/b\u003e (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e = .744)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI have the flexibility to choose my work approaches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.543\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.976\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI find my current job challenging.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.699\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI feel a sense of accomplishment at work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.897\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.464\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSupervisor Relations\u003c/b\u003e (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e = .872)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI feel that supervisors treat subordinates equally.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.707\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMy supervisor is willing to take my advice and listen to my opinions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.922\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.379\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMy supervisor is willing to discuss work goals with me.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.900\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.185\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWorkplace Fairness\u003c/b\u003e (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e = .892)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI am satisfied with the current welfare system of the personnel unit of the police agency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.734\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.903\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI think the promotion opportunities of personnel staff are fair.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.870\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI think the performance evaluation system of the personnel unit is fair.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.868\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.692\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI think the rewarding system of the personnel unit is fair.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.531\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSelf Motivation\u003c/b\u003e (\u003cem\u003eα =\u003c/em\u003e .891)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI proactively assist colleagues in resolving work-related challenges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.814\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI proactively share my work experience with newly onboard colleagues.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.840\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.963\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI proactively acquire and learn the necessary knowledge and skills for my job.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.844\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI overcome difficulties at work on my own.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.750\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.819\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI work overtime to achieve the work goals of the department.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.708\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.721\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSocialization\u003c/b\u003e (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e = .807)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMy colleagues can affirm the personnel tasks I manage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.684\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.227\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI can accomplish the task regardless of the individuals I am teamed up with.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.654\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.772\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI can adapt to the organizational culture of different police agencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.732\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.569\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI am capable of acquiring new knowledge to enhance the quality of my work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.649\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNote. All estimates are significant at .001.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e Here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e Here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSEM Analysis and Empirical Model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e demonstrates the results of the SEM analysis. All of the indices in the empirical model indicated a good mode fit (CFI = 0.93, TLT = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.05, SRMR = 0.05, R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e of job commitment = .70, and R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e of organizational commitment = .72). Only significant standardized coefficients are reported for simplicity of the visual presentation and ease of interpretation of findings. In the same vein, the significant correlations among the latent variables are not reported in the figure. Results derived from the SEM analysis indicated that workplace fairness and the nature of the job were the two latent factors that were significant predictors of the two types of commitment. Specifically, personnel officers who perceived a higher level of workplace fairness were more likely to commit themselves to the personnel job, with a standardized coefficient of .20. Personnel officers who enjoyed the nature of the job, such as flexibility of work approaches, challenging assignments, and a strong sense of accomplishment, were more likely to commit to the job, with a standardized coefficient of .61. Education demonstrated an indirect relationship with job commitment. Participants with a higher level of education were less likely to perceive workplace fairness and, therefore, less likely to attach themselves to the job.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, participants who perceived a higher level of workplace fairness were more likely to attach to the organization, with a standardized coefficient of .43. Personnel officers who enjoyed the nature of the job were more likely to commit themselves to the organization, with a standardized coefficient of .36. Year of service was significantly and positively related to organizational commitment. In other words, personnel officers who had served in the police force for a longer time were more likely to attach to the organization, with a standardized coefficient of .08. Noteworthy, both job commitment and organizational commitment had similar latent predictors, namely workplace fairness and the nature of the job. However, workplace fairness tended to have a stronger influence on organizational commitment, whereas the nature of the job had a stronger effect on job commitment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Insert Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e Here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussions and Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eCommitment in the workplace is crucial for any profession, given its importance to the well-being and productivity of the organization. In law enforcement, police officers are at the heart of the policing job and the police organization. Understanding police officers’ commitment to the job and the organization is essential for public safety. The current study examined commitment among personnel police officers in Taiwan who possess distinct job responsibilities from patrol officers. The results of SEM analyses supported the hypothesis that both job commitment and organizational commitment can be explained by the job and organizational characteristics, including the nature of the job and workplace fairness. Demographical variables, such as educational level and year of service, were also found to be significant. More specifically, the nature of the job and workplace fairness were positively related to job and organizational commitment. The nature of the job was the strongest predictor for job commitment (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = .61), while workplace fairness was the strongest predictor for organizational commitment (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = .43). Year of service was positively related to organizational commitment. Yet, its explanation power was limited (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = .08). Educational level was negatively related to perceived workplace fairness and indirectly influenced job commitment. In the SEM models, 70% of job commitment variance was explained, and 72% of organizational variance was explained.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious research demonstrated the importance of distinguishing job commitment from organizational commitment (Adams et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e; Koslowsky, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Morrow, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). The present study found that the two types of commitment possess similar influencing factors – workplace fairness and the nature of the job. It is evident that job commitment interplays with organizational commitment. The overlapping impact factors regarding the two types of commitment have a positive policy implication. Adams and coauthors (1977) indicated that a higher level of overlapping between job goals and organizational goals (a perceived fit) tends to result in a deeper commitment than their counterparts. Similarly, the overlapping impact factors can be considered “a perceived fit” to enhance both job and organizational commitments. As such, police organizations would benefit from increasing job autonomy and assignment variety. Kankaanranta’s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) analysis of 448 economic crime investigators reported that challenging and diversified work assignments had the potential to maintain or even increase commitment. Lambert and coauthors’ (2021) study on patrol officers also indicated that job involvement tended to increase officers’ productivity, success at work, and positive psychological feelings, which in turn would increase commitment. Applied to personnel police officers, the present study did find a positive and significant effect that job autonomy, assignment variety (challenging content), and feeling of accomplishment had on commitment. Personnel police officers may appreciate the chance to integrate new technologies and communication techniques in their work, such as the use of social media for recruitment, providing training on cybercrime investigations, and offering career development opportunities regarding data analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCurrently, online activities are more common than decades ago. People can shop online, make payments online, pay taxes online, work online (especially after the COVID-19 pandemic), attend professional training and meetings online, and have instant conversations with family and friends via video communication. E-identity or digital ID has already been established through decades of development. Co-occurrent with the convenience of online activities, cybercrime becomes more and more salient. In particular, with the development of deepfake technologies, people can easily design a “fake you” by imitating the voices and images of you. Often the time, it is difficult to differentiate a real video from a fake one. The major concern about this phenomenon is identity fraud, identity theft, rumor distribution/misinformation, and potential reputation/relationship damage. We are in the information era now, and information is closely intertwined with our decision-making and behaviors (Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, people at the same time are easily distracted by diverse information, including fake news and videos. As the English writer and philosopher Mr. Aldous Huxley predicted in his novel \u003cem\u003eBrave New World\u003c/em\u003e, the primary problem of society in the 21st century is information distraction. Mr. Huxley’s idea was contrary to Mr. George Orwell’s novel \u003cem\u003e1984\u003c/em\u003e. While Mr. Orwell’s concern about information control (i.e., Big Brother) is reasonable, Mr. Huxley did provide an understanding of the current online crime activities. As such, personnel police officers can build a bridge to connect the current societal problems (i.e., the abuse/misuse of AI technology, the prevalence of fake short videos made by deepfake technology, and social manipulation through AI algorithms) to the front-line officers by making policies and providing skill development opportunities. It is evident that when officers can feel the value of their work, they are more likely to remain in the police force and the associated organization (Maanen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn a similar vein, improving workplace fairness would help increase job and organizational commitments among personal police officers (Lambert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kuo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Wolf \u0026amp; Lawson, 2020). In the current study, the rating of workplace fairness was relatively low, featuring a mean of 11.69 (SD = 3.48, Range = 4 to 20). It indicates that there is room for improvement regarding promotion, performance evaluation, reward system, and welfare system in police departments. Educational level was negatively related to workplace fairness. This may be the result of limited career development opportunities being offered in police organizations. Noteworthy, workplace fairness and supervisor relations are significantly correlated (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e=\u003c/b\u003e .54, p \u0026lt; .01). Although the variable of supervisor relations was not statistically significant in the prediction of commitment, it is possible that the relationship was mediated by workplace fairness. To identify the mediation relationship, a separate SEM analysis was conducted (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Results suggested that the effect of supervisor relations on commitment was mediated by workplace fairness. More importantly, workplace fairness contributed to 54% of the variance regarding organizational commitment. As such, endeavors to improve supervisor-subordinate relations are necessary to enhance workplace fairness and, thus, deepen commitments among personnel police officers. Training on fair treatment, communication skills, and democratic leadership style among supervisors may contribute to workplace fairness and, accordingly, increase officers’ feelings of belonging and attachment. Noteworthy, police officers’ work outcomes, originating from supervisor fairness, have a consequential effect on the citizens served by the system (Wolf \u0026amp; Lawson, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e[Insert Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e Here]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsistent with previous research, the demographical variables exert limited influence on job and organizational commitments (Johnson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Kankaanranta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Lambert \u0026amp; Paoline, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Olapegba \u0026amp; Onuoha, 2013). The only significant demographical variable of the present study was the length of service in the police force. The longer time that officers serve in the police force, the more likely that officers will stay in the agency. This could be the consequence that officers accultured into the organization and enjoyed the job itself. Baker (1999) reported that the turning point of attitudinal change was serving in the police force for about 5 years. At this stage of the career, police officers tend to experience burnout and develop legal cynicism. Officers who participated in the current study had a mean score of 1.99 regarding service time (SD = 1.36, Range = 1 to 5). Specifically, more than half of the participating officers served in the police force in less than five years (54.8%). Approximately 9% of them served in the police force for more than two decades. Therefore, it is possible that those officers’ perceptions of the police organization and police work may change over time. Longitudinal data would be desirable for tracking these attitudinal changes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs with all research, the current analyses had limitations. The first one is the lack of longitudinal data to examine attitudinal change over time. Therefore, the results cannot be generalized to officers in their later careers. Second, only affective commitment was examined in the present study. As Meyer and Allen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) identified, there are three broad types of commitment, including affective, normative, and continuous commitments. It is necessary to investigate if the three types of commitment share similar predictors. Third, previous research reported that subcultures formed based on work shifts or squads influenced officers’ perceptions (Ingram et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Peer influence is stronger among subgroups that share similar work personalities. Thus, it is possible that these subcultures may affect officers’ perceptions of the job and the organization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn closing, understanding factors that shape both job and organizational commitments among police officers is important, and personnel police officers in particular. The present study suggested that the nature of the job and workplace fairness are two strong predictors of commitment. Consistent with previous studies, the demographical variables were generally unrelated to commitment among personnel police officers. That is to say, with respect to commitment, both job and organizational characteristics play a more important role than demographics.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study protocol was reviewed and approved by the ethics committee at Central Police University in Taiwan. All participants provided informed consent to participate.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAdams, E. E., Laker, D. R. \u0026amp; Hulin, C. L. (1977). An investigation of the influence of job level and functional specialty on job attitudes and \u003cem\u003eperception. Journal of Applied Psychology,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e62, 335-343.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eByrne, B.M., 2011. Structural Equation Modeling with Mplus: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming. Routledge, NY.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCao, L., Huang, L., \u0026amp; Sun, I. 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Sources of job satisfaction among police officers: A test of demographic and work environment variables. \u003cem\u003eJustice Quarterly\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e16\u003c/em\u003e, 153-173. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Ball State University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Personnel police officers, Taiwan officers, job commitment, organizational commitment ","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5852034/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5852034/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMeta-analyses conducted over time have consistently revealed that high levels of commitment are significantly related to work productivity, innovation, employee retention, and the recruitment of high-quality employees. However, commitment research on policing is understudied. Thus, the current study aims to analyze the correlates of job and organizational commitments among personnel police officers in Taiwan, along with the difference in the antecedents between the two types of commitment. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analyses of a sample of 480 Taiwan personnel police officers indicated that job commitment and organizational commitment have similar predictors. More specifically, both workplace fairness and the nature of the personnel police job are positively related to commitments. Implications for future research are discussed in the end.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Correlates of Personnel Police Officers’ Commitment in Taiwan: A Comparison of Job Commitment and Organizational Commitment","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-01-28 07:31:12","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5852034/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1e9f96c4-2b45-4026-bebf-3df2626e0486","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 28th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":43049430,"name":"Criminology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-01-28T07:31:12+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-01-28 07:31:12","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5852034","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5852034","identity":"rs-5852034","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}