Chinese Students’ L2 Classroom Engagement in College: Perceived Teacher Support, Value Beliefs and Self-monitoring

Chinese Students’ L2 Classroom Engagement in College: Perceived Teacher Support, Value Beliefs and Self-monitoring | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Chinese Students’ L2 Classroom Engagement in College: Perceived Teacher Support, Value Beliefs and Self-monitoring Shuai Zheng, Xi Peng, Dan Li, Yi Liu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6950933/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Based on an integrated framework of the Self-Determination Theory and the Expectancy-Value Theory, this study investigated the link between students’ perceived teacher support and their L2 classroom engagement via two mediators: students’ value beliefs of English learning and metacognitive self-monitoring with a sample of 377 college students from a Chinese university. With gender, age and onset age of English learning under control, path analyses showed that perceived teacher support directly predicted L2 classroom engagement, and the link between them was also positively mediated by either students’ value beliefs or self-monitoring. Moreover, this study also revealed that the indirect effect of perceived teacher support on L2 classroom engagement was significant through the serial mediation of students’ value beliefs and then self-monitoring. These findings suggest that in the context of L2 learning, higher level of perceived teacher support will promote college students’ L2 classroom engagement by stimulating students’ value beliefs of L2 learning and strengthening their metacognitive self-monitoring, which provides practical implications to language teaching activities in the classroom setting. L2 classroom engagement perceived teacher support value beliefs self-monitoring mediation effect Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction With English going global and enjoying the prestigious status of global language, many countries have integrated compulsory English courses into the curriculum of their educational systems at different stages. In China, English class has been a compulsory course for decades, normally starting from the second or third grade in elementary school to the first two years in college, and for many students, learning English is a time-consuming and effort-taking journey. It is acknowledged that Chinese students must participate in the English class either willingly or forcedly at least at the stages of primary, middle high and senior high, as entrance examinations await them at each critical juncture. While different from these three phases, English class in college seems no longer to play a significant role for many since there will be no critical English exams ahead anymore if they don’t possess any willingness for the pursuit of a master’s degree. Therefore, second language (L2) learning tends to be more like interest-related, or motivation-driven in Chinese universities. Hence, how to effectively engage college students in the L2 classroom has undergone increasing attention in recent years. The Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) (Eccles et al., 1983 ; Eccles, 2009 ) is often applied to account for the motivational processes behind individual’s achievement-related outcomes (Guo et al., 2015 ; Wang & Degol, 2013 ), which suggests that achievement motivation stems from both people’s expectancies for future success on a task and their perceptions of task values (Part et al., 2020 ), and these expectancies and perceptions are termed as value beliefs by the EVT (Eccles et al., 1983 ). In the context of L2 learning, college students’ learning motivation may be closely related to their evaluation and perceptions of the values of English learning and future learning outcomes, thus influencing their actions and behaviours in the L2 classroom, i.e., whether to engage in L2 classroom or not, which will further have an impact on their L2 achievement, or final attainment. However, college students’ value beliefs of English learning do not emerge in a vacuum, and it may be influenced and shaped by other people’s beliefs and attitudes around them. In college, students are closely connected with their teachers, and previous research indicates that a healthy academic environment where students are able to receive necessary help from teachers will promote their development (e.g., Hughes et al., 2012 ; Quin et al., 2018 ). In the case of L2 learning, students’ perceived teacher support may be positively involved in their value belief construction during the learning process. Nevertheless, how college students’ perceived teacher support would specifically influence their value beliefs of L2 learning has not been fully investigated, and how and to what extent their L2 learning motivation driven by these value beliefs would in turn contribute to L2 classroom engagement also need further exploration. In addition, previous literature presented positive evidence that metacognitive factors are actively involved in L2 learning, for example, self-efficacy (Olivier et al., 2019 ), self-concept (Wang, 2024 ) and self-regulation (Derakhshan & Fathi, 2024 ). As a highly conscious process, L2 learning is also a process of self-monitoring during which L2 learners constantly observe their real-time thinking and actions and regulate their behaviours. Though it seems to be a fact that metacognitive self-monitoring is linked to L2 learning, few empirical studies, to our knowledge, have provided solid evidence. And it is not yet clear as well whether self-monitoring is positively related to perceived teacher support and students’ value beliefs of L2 learning in the classroom. Therefore, this research intended to investigate the relationships among students’ perceived teacher support, value beliefs of English learning, metacognitive self-monitoring and L2 classroom engagement in the Chinese context of non-English majors. 2. Literature review 2.1 Theoretical framework This study integrated the Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) with the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), with the latter providing a general framework while the former situated at the core. The EVT emphasizes internal motivation and posits that expectancy of success and perception of task value are significant psychological factors in task engagement and performance (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000 ). Specifically, an individual will make their choice about task selection and engagement based on their evaluations of the success rate and the benefits in return in doing so. According to the EVT, task value contains 4 major components, namely, attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002 ; Wigfield, Rosenzweig, & Eccles, 2017 ). The former three as a whole are termed as value beliefs, each of which brings an effect to an individual’s implicit motivation behind a task. Attainment value refers to the extent of importance obtained from the successful completion or performance of a specific task; intrinsic value equals the interest and enjoyment received from the participation in a task; whereas utility value is the perceived usefulness of the task for an individual’s future development (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002 ). In terms of L2 learning, we believe that all of these three value beliefs would influence L2 learners’ intrinsic motivation for L2 learning and eventually influence their performance in the classroom, or L2 classroom engagement. Although the value beliefs of college students may to some extent determine their L2 engagement and thus influence their L2 academic achievement, potential social and cognitive factors cannot be overlooked (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ). Therefore, in this study, we adopted two other variables that may be closely related to students’ value beliefs and L2 engagement, perceived teacher support as a socio-psychological factor, and metacognitive self-monitoring as a cognitive factor. According to the SDT, relatedness, competence and autonomy are three fundamental psychological requirements that stimulate an individual’s motivation and self-initiated behaviours (Ryan & Deci, 2017 , 2020 ). Relatedness refers to the feeling or experience of a connection to other individuals, competence is the mastery of a task or of a set of skills, whereas autonomy is the need for freedom or the power of control over an individual’s actions (Ryan & Deci, 2017 ). These three components are intertwined and their interplay impacts learner’s motivation. In this study, we believe perceived teacher support is closely linked with relatedness, and the more support students gain the more competent they would be as L2 learners, which further promotes their L2 classroom engagement. Besides, autonomy may also be obtained by L2 students in the classroom, since they enjoy much more freedom compared with primary and secondary students in China, and they are the ones who make decisions for themselves in the L2 classroom, for instance, whether to accept the teacher’s support, whether to attentively monitor themselves in class and whether to actively engage in L2 learning activities. In short, this study intended to investigate the links and associations between college students’ perceived teacher support, value beliefs of English learning, metacognitive self-monitoring, and L2 classroom engagement. The integration of the EVT and the SDT connected and tightened these seemingly loose factors together, providing a stronger explanation of the possible influencing factors on L2 classroom engagement from the socio-psychological, motivational and cognitive aspects. 2.2 L2 classroom engagement Kuh et al. ( 2008 ) regarded student engagement as the time and energy students invested into educational activities, whereas Wang, Henry and Degol ( 2020 ) provided a more detailed definition, explaining it as students’ qualitative interactions or involvement with learning activities, processes and contexts. As for L2 engagement, it can be defined as the heightened involvement in language learning ((Dörnyei & Kormos, 2000 ). Different studies may adopt different definitions of L2 engagement with respect to varied research purposes and aims. For instance, L2 engagement can be measured at different situational context, in school, at home or in the classroom, and at different time periods, such as a study period or a semester (Sang & Hiver, 2021 ). In this study, L2 engagement was confined to students’ involvement and participation in L2 classroom activities and their interactions with the teacher and classmates (hence L2 classroom engagement), because language learning is a socializing process that involves dynamic interactions (Liu & Li, 2023 ) and the classroom is the best place to observe such a process. Though varied in definition, it is commonly acknowledged that student engagement is multifaceted. Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris ( 2004 ) proposed three key components of engagement: behavioural, cognitive and emotional engagement. Behavioural engagement refers to the students’ participation, effort and attention in learning activities; cognitive engagement involves the cognitive effort, sustained attention and self-regulated strategies adopted by students for the purpose of mastering what they are learning; while emotional engagement relates to students’ feelings towards teachers, peers and learning activities as well as their willingness of and interests in learning (Xu & Feng, 2024 ). These three components characterize how students act, think, and feel in the context of L2 classroom instruction (Vo, 2023 ), and have been investigated by a number of studies. Some studies explored all the three components to get a full picture of their interactive nature and their links with other potential influencing factors in L2 learning (e.g., Vo, 2023 ; Yu et al., 2019 ), and there are also studies that only focused on one component for more in-depth exploration of a certain aspect of engagement so as to provide more specific implications to language teaching and learning (e.g., Phung et al., 2021; Lee, 2020 ). 2.3 Perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement Similar to L2 engagement, teacher support is also a multidimensional construct that may encompass emotional support (Hoi & Mu, 2021 ), academic instruction (Schweder & Raufelder, 2019 ), constructive feedback ((Hejazi & Sadoughi, 2022), etc. Perceived teacher support refers to the extent students believe they can depend on the help or assistance offered by their teachers (OECD, 2019 ). Many researchers and scholars have placed key emphasis on the role of perceived teacher support in school settings, suggesting that more support from the teacher enables the students to be more interested or involved in classroom activities (Lapointe et al., 2005 ). Teachers can provide support, assistance and guidance to students socially, emotionally, and educationally, leading to their engagement and participation in class activities and interactions (Hu & Wang, 2023 ). Previous studies have unveiled the link between perceived teacher support and students’ positive outcomes, for example, in the meta-analysis of 189 studies conducted by Roorda et al. ( 2017 ), a positive correlation has been revealed between teacher-student relationship, learning engagement, and academic outcomes. In the L2 learning context, a number of studies also revealed the positive role of perceived teacher support on L2 achievement (e.g., Zhu, Yang & Yan, 2024 ; Ma et al., 2018 ). However, L2 achievement is the next stage of L2 classroom engagement, without which the whole effect chain seems incomplete. There are a few studies indicating the positive link between perceived teacher support and L2 engagement, for instance, Vo, Hoang and He (2024) found that teacher emotional support promoted students’ L2 classroom engagement. But many of the studies did not strictly divide L2 classroom engagement and out-of-classroom L2 engagement (e.g., Li, 2024 ), which may make the term ‘L2 engagement’ too general. Hence more evidence is needed to support the association of perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement. 2.4 Mediation of value beliefs and self-monitoring Although positive teacher support may promote students’ L2 engagement and L2 achievement, there is an important part between them, the internal factors of learners. Much of the previous literature focused on how external or environmental factors influence L2 class engagement, such as learning methods (Kong, 2021 ), student-teacher interaction (Virtanen et al., 2015 ), peer relationships (Buhs, 2005 ), and the recent decades have witnessed the increased research on psychological factors within the L2 learners themselves, shedding light on the effects on L2 engagement brought by a number of internal factors, such as self-efficacy (Olivier et al., 2019 ) and L2 emotions (Li & Li, 2023 ). As observed by Burroughs et al. ( 2019 ), teachers are expected to fulfil the responsibility of creating a positive and constructive context and influencing learners’ educational outcomes in the long run. Therefore, some researchers have tried to investigate how teacher support is linked with students’ internal factors, such as motivation. It is shown that a high degree of perceived teacher support would stimulate students’ positive motivation, self-concept, and academic enjoyment (Hasanzadeh, Shayesteh & Pishghadam, 2024 ; Wang, 2009 ; Wentzel et al., 2010 ). On the other hand, some researchers have placed their focus more on how students’ intrinsic motivation promote L2 engagement or L2 achievement. For example, Vo ( 2023 ) used the utility value of L2 learning as an indicator of Vietnamese students’ learning motivation and discovered the positive relationship between utility value and English classroom engagement. Ma et al. ( 2018 ) extended the effect chain by connecting the variables of teacher, student and L2 achievement, and found that a supportive teacher-student relationship predicted positive motivational beliefs, which further contributed to L2 achievement. Since motivation is multidimensional and researchers’ emphasis on and measurement of motivation vary across different studies, this study would like to use the three value beliefs proposed by the EVT as a whole to reflect students’ motivation. Besides, some previous research has proposed that metacognition is also of fundamental importance to the learning process. Metacognition is defined as “thinking about thinking, and regulating that thinking” (Flavell, 1979 ), which underlies all intelligent human behaviour (Hiver et al., 2020 ). It has been extensively investigated to account for the different levels of skill development and subsequent performance, and is regarded as a predictor of adaptive thought and action (Beran, Brandl, Peran, & Proust, 2012 ). Successful individuals are capable of taking advantage of their own thought and actions, through which self-awareness, self-determination and self-direction can be developed (Hiver et al., 2020 ). In language learning, a number of factors related to metacognition have been examined so as to make explicit the associations between human cognition and learning, such as anticipatory planning and metacognitive task-monitoring (Hiver et al., 2020 ). As an essential component of metacognition, metacognitive monitoring involves the perception and assessment of one’s own cognitive activity (Nelson and Narens, 1994 ). To distinguish interpersonal monitoring (Shea et al., 2014 ) and intrapersonal monitoring (Vuillaume et al., 2020 ), we adopted the term ‘metacognitive self-monitoring (or self-monitoring for short)’ in this study and defined it as the cognitively self-initiated activities to monitor one’s cognitive engagement in the L2 classroom. Although self-monitoring is actively engaged in classroom participation as revealed by Xu, Wang and Wu (2024), to our knowledge, there still lacks evidence to show whether metacognitive self-monitoring is linked with perceived teacher support and students’ L2 learning motivation behind value beliefs. In this study, we believe that perceived teacher support would positively influence students’ self-monitoring, for the more support students receive the more they would expect themselves to be engaged in the interactions with the teacher and the more active they would monitor their cognitive activities, thus contributing to better L2 classroom engagement. Moreover, on the presupposition that perceived teacher support positively predicts students’ value beliefs, we also expected to find a chain as: perceived teacher support — value beliefs — metacognitive self-monitoring — L2 classroom engagement. Therefore, drawing upon the frameworks of the EVT and the SDT, and relevant literature as well, we formulated a mediation model (see Fig. 1) containing 4 hypotheses as follows: H1 College students’ perceived teacher support positively predicts their L2 classroom engagement; H2 College students’ value beliefs of L2 learning mediate the relationship between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement; H3 College students’ metacognitive self-monitoring mediates the relationship between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement. H4 The link between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement is serially mediated by value beliefs and then metacognitive self-monitoring. 3. Methodology 3.1 Participants Data were collected using convenience sampling from first-year and second-year non-English majors at a university in west China. All of the participants had the English subject back to their primary and secondary education, and during the time of data collection, they were attending weekly compulsory English classes at university entitled College English , which is an integrated course by nature and lasts for 2 years, covering essential components in English like listening, reading, writing, speaking and translating skills. Students were explained the purpose of this study by the teachers collecting data and were invited to participate anonymously on a voluntary basis. All the participants gave their consent before answering the questionnaire. A total of 428 students completed and submitted the questionnaire, of which 51 (11.92%) were considered invalid and excluded from further analysis. In the remainder of the questionnaires (N = 377, 88.08%), the number of freshman students was 97, and the other 280 were sophomores. Male participants accounted for 48.28% (N = 182) of the total, with an average age of 19.8 (SD = 1.043), and their female counterparts took up 51.72% (N = 195), with an average age of 19.69 (SD = 0.902). 3.2 Instrument This study adopted an online questionnaire via Wenjuanxing (a professional platform in mainland China for online surveys) to collect data. The questionnaire comprised two parts: the first part was about students’ demographic information, such as gender, age, grade, etc., and the second part consisted of 4 scales measuring each of the 4 variables in this research, i.e., students’ perceived teacher support, value beliefs, metacognitive self-monitoring, and L2 classroom engagement. Students could use the link provided to access the questionnaire which was written in Chinese. 3.2.1 Perceived teacher support Previous literature regards teacher support as a multifaceted factor in students’ academic activities whose major components mainly include emotional support, agentive support and cognitive support (e.g., Murberg, 2010 ) in questionnaire scales. Emotional support refers to the positive attention, care, and emotional connection that teachers offer to students, as well as the support to deal with pressure, challenges and negative emotions (Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ). Agentive support is the sufficient freedom and support usually showcased in the assignment of tasks, the selection of teaching/learning materials and the training on problem-solving skills (Patall, Cooper, & Wynn, 2010 ). A number of studies did not make a clear distinction between agentive support and cognitive support, and combined them as one component termed as cognitive agentive support to measure (e.g., Stefanou et al., 2004 ). But there are also scholars suggesting that cognitive support is the offering of academic challenges and the stimulation of students’ curiosity and motivation for learning (Lam & Law, 2007 ). Taking into consideration of the educational system in China and the characteristics of Chinese students, Chai and Gong ( 2013 ) made the 17-item scale (Cronbach’s α = 0.92) for students’ perceived teacher support in math class, of which 7 items are for emotional support, 5 for agentive support and another 5 for cognitive support. This scale has been widely used in China in different subjects and disciplines including foreign language teaching/learning (e.g., Zhang & Wang, 2023 ). Guided by our research aims, we adopted Chai and Gong’s ( 2013 ) scale and made corresponding adaptations by changing the subject name from ‘math’ into ‘English’. The adapted scale consisted of 12 items in total for the measurement of the 3 components. Four items were used to measure emotional support, for example, “the English teacher likes me”. Four items were for agentive support, and a sample item was “the English teacher tries to make us understand the importance of learning English”. Another four items were for cognitive support, for instance, “the English teacher provides us with useful English learning methods and skills”. Participants were asked to rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “1 = strongly disagree” to “5 = strongly agree”. Reliability analysis showed that in this study, the adapted scale had a high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.968), and the confirmatory factor analysis also showed that the adapted scale had a good fit with the empirical data: χ 2 (51) = 173.131, CFI = 0.981 > 0.9, TLI = 0.975 > 0.9, RMSEA = 0.08 ≤ 0.08 (90% CI [0.067, 0.093]), SRMR = 0.022 < 0.05 (Byrne, 2012 ). 3.2.2 Value beliefs of English learning Students’ value beliefs of English learning were measured by a 12-item scale adapted from Part et al. ( 2020 ) from three aspects. Four items assessed students’ attainment value, i.e., the extent of the importance of successful completion of a task (e.g., Is the amount of effort it will take to do well in your English course worthwhile to you?). Intrinsic value, the interest in and joy from a task, were gauged by 4 items, for instance, “Learning the material covered in my English course is enjoyable”. Lastly, the utility value, the perceived usefulness of a task for future development, was estimated by another 4 items, and a sample item was “What I learn in my English course will be useful for me later in life”. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) for the value beliefs scale in this study was 0.94. 3.2.3 Metacognitive self-monitoring Students’ metacognitive self-monitoring was measured by a 6-item scale developed by Hiver et al. ( 2020 ), which targets at the specific metacognitive awareness and self-monitoring process of language learners in the classroom setting. A sample item is “In the language classroom, I am aware of what I am doing as I learn”. Internal reliability analysis showed that one item (In the language classroom, I care very little about how others react to me) should be removed from the scale because of a low corrected item-total correlation for this item (-.563) after reversing the scores as this item was negatively coded. The deletion was further supported by the data for having a good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.893). Hence, there were 5 items in total for this self-monitoring scale. 3.2.4 L2 classroom engagement Students’ L2 classroom engagement was measured by a 12-item scale borrowed from Vo ( 2023 ). The original scale by Hiver et al. ( 2020 ) consists of 24 items, measuring students’ behavioural, cognitive and affective engagement in L2 learning activities. Vo ( 2023 ) selected 12 items from the original scale and made slight adaptations in terms of wording, by adding phrases like “in my English class” to each item, and used the simplified version to test Vietnamese students’ L2 English engagement in the classroom. In consideration of time, efficiency and accuracy, we adopted the simplified version of the scale Vo’s ( 2023 ) adapted, and believe that it specifically targets L2 English engagement in the classroom setting. In the scale, four items were for the measurement of students’ behavioural engagement, such as “When I am in my English class, I pay attention and listen carefully”. Another four items focused on the aspect of cognitive engagement, for example, “In my English class, I think about different ways to solve a problem”. Finally, affective engagement was evaluated by the last four items, and a sample item was “I feel good when I am in my English class”. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) for the L2 classroom engagement scale in this study was 0.969. 3.3 Data analysis 3.3.1 Covariates Previous research has suggested the gender effect on L2 learning and achievement in various ways, for example, the use of metacognitive strategies and English language proficiency (e.g., Dan, Bai & Huang, 2024 ) and L2 learning motivation (e.g., Yeung, Lau & Nie, 2011 ). Besides, the age effect has long been the focus of language acquisition and L2 learning, and a recent study indicated that age was closely linked with environmental supports, cognitive abilities, and motivation for language learning (Caldwell-Harris & MacWhinney, 2023 ). In order to minimize the effect of gender and age-related effects, we controlled gender, age (range: 17–24; Mean = 19.74; SD = .97) and onset age of formal English learning (hereafter OAE; range: 5–15; Mean = 9.95; SD = 2.35) as covariates in data analysis. As a categorical variable, gender was turned into a dummy variable, with ‘male’ coded as 1 and ‘female’ 0. While age and OAE were continuous variables, the values of each were converted into standard scores (z-scores) with a mean average of 0 and an SD of 1. 3.3.2 Data analysis procedure We first exported the data into an Excel form from the online survey platform and excluded the invalid samples. Then, major data analyses were carried out in three steps. First, descriptive analysis and Pearson partial correlation analysis among variables with gender, age and OAE controlled were performed by SPSS 29.0.1, so as to gain a first insight into the relationships between them. Then, based on our hypothesised mediation model, model fit was tested using a maximum likelihood method in Mplus 8.1.6. Following that, corresponding path analyses were conducted to examine the mediation effects of value beliefs and self-monitoring and the serial mediation of them between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement. We used the Bollen-Stine bootstrapping procedure based on 2000 random samples to evaluate the indirect effects of the two mediators. If the 95% confidential interval (CI) does not contain 0, it indicates that the indirect effect is statistically significant (Preacher & Hayes, 2008 ). 4. Results 4.1 Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis Table 1 presents the mean and standard deviation of each variable and the Pearson partial correlations between them with gender, age and OAE under control. It is shown in Table 1 that perceived teacher support, value beliefs of English learning, metacognitive self-monitoring and L2 engagement are significantly and positively linked with each other. Table 1 Descriptive data and Pearson partial correlations between variables M SD 1 2 3 4 1. Perceived teacher support 4.24 0.59 1 2. Value beliefs of English learning 3.79 0.66 0.549 *** 1 3. Metacognitive self-monitoring 3.61 0.69 0.422 *** 0.594 *** 1 4. L2 classroom engagement 3.70 0.71 0.538 *** 0.690 *** 0.792 *** 1 Note: *** P < 0.001. 4.2 Path analysis In model fit testing, perceived teacher support was the independent variable while L2 classroom engagement was the dependent variable, mediated by value beliefs and self-monitoring. These four variables were used as latent variables, with participants’ gender, age, and OAE controlled as covariates. The model showed a good fit with the data: χ 2 (104) = 314.434, CFI = 0.956 > 0.9, TLI = 0.944 > 0.9, RMSEA = 0.073 < 0.08 (90% CI [0.064, 0.083]), SRMR = 0.061 < 0.08 (Byrne, 2012 ). Follow-up path analyses were performed in sequence based on our research hypotheses, as shown in Fig. 2. The results first showed that perceived teacher support significantly positively predicated L2 classroom engagement (path c’) ( β = 0.151, p < .001, 95% CI [0.081, 0.216]), proving the validity of H1. Then, the first mediator, i.e., value beliefs, was added to the analysis (path a1-b1), and it showed that perceived teacher support could still significantly predict L2 classroom engagement via value beliefs ( β = 0.148, 95% CI [0.093, 0.214]), so H2 was confirmed. Next, we substituted value beliefs with metacognitive self-monitoring as the mediator (path a2-b2), and the result revealed that perceived teacher support was also a significantly positive predictor of L2 classroom engagement mediated by self-monitoring ( β = 0.078, 95% CI [0.019, 0.140]), confirming the validity of H3. Lastly, both value beliefs and self-monitoring were added into the path sequentially (path a1-d-b2), and the result revealed that the link between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement was serially mediated by the two variables ( β = 0.162, 95% CI [0.118, 0.211]), hence H4 was also confirmed. 5. Discussion The path analysis confirmed the positive link between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement, and the model tested in this study is a full mediation model with three mediation paths, i.e., value beliefs, self-monitoring, and value beliefs first and then self-monitoring respectively. Either value beliefs or self-monitoring positively mediate the link between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement as a single mediator, and the serial mediation path connecting the two mediators has also been confirmed. Based on the EVT and the SDT, this study takes full consideration of the external and internal factors stimulating L2 classroom engagement, and provides practical implications and contributions to L2 teachers and the L2 classroom. First, the findings suggest that mediators such as students’ value beliefs and self-monitoring should be valued in the research of L2 teaching/learning. Second, students’ value beliefs of L2 learning have been confirmed to be a driving force behind L2 learning, adding additional evidence to the essential role of intrinsic motivation. Third, the chain mediation model provides new empirical evidence for the effects of the EVT and the SDT on L2 classroom engagement. 5.1 Mediation of value beliefs The results of this study demonstrated that college students’ value beliefs of English learning mediate the link between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement, suggesting that students’ intrinsic motivations behind value beliefs play a vital role in their participation in college English classes. In China, although English courses usually remain compulsory in college, few English teachers would force the students to learn the language as primary and secondary English teachers do, for college is the place for students to make their own choices and be responsible for their decisions. The EVT posits that an individual’s internal motivation for a task comes from their expectancies of future success chance and evaluations of task values (Part et al., 2020 ). In this context, L2 classroom engagement or English learning can be seen as a task for students, and when making their decision of engagement or not, they would take into consideration factors closely related to their personal gains and interests, such as the three value beliefs contained in the ETV that were tested on in this study. We believe that students would evaluate the attainment value, utility value, and intrinsic value of English learning by considering, for example, how important good proficiency of English is for them, how they would benefit from English learning in their future career and lives, how much they are into English learning, etc. and then make their decision on English learning. Apart from the student side, the teacher is also of fundamental importance as shown in previous studies (e.g., Hoi & Mu, 2021 ; Ma et al., 2018 ). On the one hand, a teacher serves as the designer and organizer of classroom activities whose successful carry-out needs participants or audience, especially for language classes for their interactive nature (Vo, 2023 ), so the more support students receive the more willing they will be engaged in class to interact with the teacher, so as the results revealed, that perceived teacher support directly and positively predicts L2 engagement. On the other hand, language teachers usually share their L2 learning experiences and personal stories in class which may explicitly or implicitly inform the students of the importance and usefulness of English learning, thus influencing students’ value beliefs and contributing to their classroom engagement. According to the attachment theory, students may regard teachers as attachment figures who could establish warm and supportive relationships with them (Bergin & Bergin, 2009 ), which could in turn positively influence students’ academic performance (Sabol & Pianta, 2012 ). Therefore, the support provided by teachers can never be overlooked or underestimated in the school setting, for it can not only engage students in learning activities (Engels et al., 2021 ), but stimulate or promote students’ internal motivations, for example, enhancing their value beliefs of L2 learning in this case. From the point of SDT, the concept of relatedness, which is the perception or experience of a connection to other individuals (Ryan & Deci, 2017 ), may explain this teacher-student relationship. Students may tend to relate themselves to the teacher from whom they could receive help and support, during which a connection is built. In China, where the culture has been deeply influenced by Confucianism, teachers are regarded by many as know-all experts (Huan et al., 2012 ) and authority, and students may be more easily influenced by the teacher’s value beliefs. 5.2 Mediation of metacognitive self-monitoring This study also confirmed the mediating role of metacognitive self-monitoring between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement. In psychology, self-monitoring is a part of learners’ metacognition which refers to their self-awareness and regulation of their cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979 ; Zhang & Zhang, 2018 ). The path analysis result showed that perceived teacher support positively predicted metacognitive self-monitoring, which indicates that a higher level of teacher support leads to higher self-awareness of the students in the classroom. Considering the fact that L2 classes are usually instructed in the target language, students are more easily to be distracted by other irrelevant stuff because of the unfamiliarity of the instructional language, much more freedom in class, and lower learning motivation (compared with primary and secondary stages). Therefore, we believe the English teacher plays a central role and only when students can perceive and receive patient guidance, timely help and warm encouragement from the teacher in class will they be more aware of their cognitive activities and more focused in the classroom. Besides, the positive link between self-monitoring and L2 classroom engagement suggests that students of higher self-monitoring capacity engage more in L2 learning activities. This may be attributed to self-regulation in learning. Those who are good at monitoring their cognitive processes are apt to notice whether they are focused or distracted in class earlier and more easily, thus helping them maintain their attention or take corresponding strategies or actions to drag them back to reconcentrate. Self-monitoring can be seen as a kind of self-regulation, and a large body of evidence has proved the positive association between self-regulation and learning achievements (e.g., Derakhshan & Fathi, 2024 ). However, we prefer to view metacognitive self-monitoring as the precursor of self-regulation and corresponding strategies, which is situated front ahead in the metacognition spectrum. Therefore, this study adds evidence to the relationship between self-monitoring and L2 classroom engagement, and further extends the effect chain between students’ metacognition and achievement, which can be presented as ‘metacognitive self-monitoring — self-regulation (strategies) — L2 classroom engagement — L2 achievement’. 5.3 Serial mediation of value beliefs and metacognitive self-monitoring The results of this research also confirmed the serial mediation effects of value beliefs and metacognitive self-monitoring between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement. The key finding here is the link between the two mediators, i.e., value beliefs and self-monitoring. We believe that a higher degree of value beliefs towards English learning stimulates a higher level of self-monitoring, that is, students are more sensitive or aware of their mental processes when they have stronger learning motivation, in order to make sure they are attentive and stay focused in the classroom. The whole chain of the four variables in this study can be interpreted from the perspective of the SDT which proposes that relatedness, competence, and autonomy drive self-initiated behaviour and motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2017 , 2020 ). In the classroom setting, L2 learners have constant contact with their English teacher who may be seen as an important attachment figure (Bergin & Bergin, 2009 ), and the perception of connectedness by students has been proven to be a predictor of their actions and emotional involvement (Ruzek et al., 2016 ). With the support from the teacher, students gain confidence and develop competence, and competence is defined as the mastery of a task or a set of skills (Ryan & Deci, 2017 ). Skinner et al. ( 2008 ) suggest competence is a key motivator for students’ cognitive engagement, since the feeling of mastery will stimulate more behavioural and emotional engagement (Annamalai et al., 2023 ). In our study, those who perceive more teacher support may place more value on English learning and possess stronger learning motivations, thus possessing higher language proficiency. Such competence strengthens students’ metacognitive self-monitoring in class, which is a kind of cognitive engagement by nature and further encourages them to engage in the L2 classroom, behaviourally, cognitively and affectively. As for the concept of autonomy, the psychological need for freedom or control over an individual’s actions (Ryan & Deci, 2017 ), functions as a driving force behind students’ behavioural involvement (Skinner et al., 2008 ) and cognitive engagement (Annamalai et al., 2023 ) in the classroom. Students often enjoy a high level of freedom in college providing that they would not disturb the class, and this autonomy may be reflected in each of the three variables, perceived teacher support, value beliefs and self-monitoring, and have an impact on their L2 classroom engagement. It is suggested that strong autonomy support for students may improve their enjoyment of lessons (Skinner et al., 2008 ), which may further contribute to stronger learning motivations and more active L2 engagement. From the aspect of the EVT, students’ value beliefs of English learning play an essential role in L2 learning. It stays at the core of the effect chain and serves as a bridge, connecting the external factor (the teacher) and the internal factors within the framework of the SDT. Students’ learning motivation stems from the support of the teacher, and then drives them to participate in L2 classroom activities under active metacognitive self-monitoring. 6. Implications and limitations The findings of this research can provide certain pedagogical implications for L2 learning and teaching. With the expansion of online courses and machine-assisted self-learning in recent years, classroom instruction may have fallen into a disadvantaged position and is unvalued by some students. However, the most invaluable thing about face-to-face teaching is the interaction and communication between human beings instead of unidirectional listening to an indifferent computer. Hence the role of human teachers can never be underestimated, and a healthy teacher-student relationship will benefit the both sides and lead to win-win outcomes. Learning a second language is an arduous journey which requires appropriate guidance and constant encouragement, and teachers are the ones to fulfil this role by imparting knowledge, stimulating motivation, providing encouragement, and enlightening minds. Teachers should give full play to their connection to students as warm-blooded human beings and convey things what the machines can never provide, and this is also what the concept of relatedness emphasizes within the SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2020 ). On the other hand, stimulating L2 learning motivation is also crucial to the establishment of a good L2 classroom climate as revealed by this study. The three components contained in the value beliefs of the EVT, i.e., attainment value, intrinsic value, and utility value, shed light on the possible directions teachers can work on in future classroom instruction to arouse students’ motivation for L2 learning. Teachers may design specific tasks to clarify the importance of English learning in today’s globalized world, share true stories related to language learning around them, and explain the benefits of being a bilingual, to promote students’ attainment and utility values. Games and fun should also be valued from time to time to motivate students’ interests and intrinsic value, which will in turn facilitate L2 learning. Besides, the classroom shall not be a place full of ‘dictatorship’ and pressure, and the teacher is not expected to keep everyone under control in the class, but to trust students and return freedom to them, which is encouraged by the concept of ‘autonomy’ in the SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2017 ). As adults, students have adequate capability to metacognitively monitor themselves and behave themselves in class, and they are expected to take control of their lives and be responsible for their choices. Nonetheless, this study has some limitations which could be optimized or addressed in future research. First, the data came from students studying at the same university in China, so the universality of the results shall be further tested by comparing data from universities of different levels, different places and even different countries. Second, we used convenience sampling when collecting questionnaire data, which can be improved in future research so as to make the results more robust and representative. Lastly, this research is a cross-sectional quantitative study, and longitudinal studies as well as qualitative methods should also be valued and combined in the future. 7. Conclusion In the context of L2 English learning in a Chinese university, this study revealed the positive link between students’ perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement, mediated by either students’ value beliefs of English learning or their metacognitive self-monitoring. In addition, a serial mediation effect of value beliefs and then self-monitoring has also been found between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom involvement. With value beliefs at the core, external and internal factors that contribute to active L2 classroom involvement have been systematically integrated in this study within the integrated framework of the EVT and the SDT. This research adds empirical evidence to the existing literature of the indispensable role of human teachers in L2 learning on the one hand, and sheds light on the initiative role of the L2 learners on the other. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate: Ethical approval was obtained prior to the starting of this study from the Ethics Committee of School of Foreign Studies, University of Science and Technology Beijing. Prior to the commencement of the questionnaire survey, participants were explained in detail the purposes of the study and the major components of the questionnaire. Participants were also informed that their participation was on a voluntary basis and the whole process was anonymous. Due to the protection of participants’ privacy, they were not asked to sign their real names on a written consent form, instead, they understood and confirmed that their participation in the questionnaire survey was a proof of their informed consent as they had been told. Consent for publication: Participants were fully informed about the objectives of the research and how the data collected would be stored and used for publication. They provided voluntary consent by taking part in the research, free from any form of coercion or external pressure. Availability of data and material: The datasets analysed in this study are restricted by the Review Board of School of Foreign Studies, University of Science and Technology Beijing, due to participants’ privacy protection and the inclusion of potential identifiers and thus cannot be made publicly available. Requests for access to the data can be directed to the Review Board at [email protected] or to the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The questionnaire material is available from the corresponding author upon request. Funding: No funding was received for this study. Competing interests: The authors declare that there are no competing interests to report. Authors’ contributions: SZ: Conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6950933","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":476886960,"identity":"2de764fd-131c-43b7-9036-b300d8f7b057","order_by":0,"name":"Shuai Zheng","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/UlEQVRIie3PsUrDQBzH8V84iMs9wP84mjyBkBLIVPoshkBcCjpmkFAImOUeIGDxGTplNeEgLn0Is3QXUTp6RVGHRm4UvC8c9+e4z/AHXK4/GJnTfU0ozDkDvLU92QGcWZDvybu1IKJWc32NEuFdNYyv94v0gbF+bLAMziec5LtIN9DwNsNlPGvzVDE/m2+RxUl3mgSUX2hu1mG0SqRotSE8EU/o0naKhPsjKeHT1ZsUGwsiiXWGMHBa+eJ5/Um2vxChMkMizYnyRGLIY6XNLk00vQs99tULL8ogbLK9ONwsZnVd9aMqlsEU+SgCP16M/3ixyztYfnS5XK7/1TssF1K5W9i5iwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Science and Technology Beijing","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shuai","middleName":"","lastName":"Zheng","suffix":""},{"id":476886961,"identity":"ee60f94a-536c-486b-8221-d7ec0f8a2f58","order_by":1,"name":"Xi Peng","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chengdu University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xi","middleName":"","lastName":"Peng","suffix":""},{"id":476886962,"identity":"88ddfb61-6b59-4c74-90f2-770e04485539","order_by":2,"name":"Dan Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chengdu University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dan","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":476886963,"identity":"a35275ae-501d-404a-b81c-79b4e7e4b1ec","order_by":3,"name":"Yi Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chengdu University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yi","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-22 18:08:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6950933/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6950933/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":85692367,"identity":"297a1a6e-8a32-4910-b552-3fcd8fcb9eaa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-30 17:17:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":40054,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe hypothesised mediation model\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6950933/v1/949fb30b0fcb3fbbef453ea5.jpg"},{"id":85692370,"identity":"cde71a8e-0f92-48b1-bf21-a5326fa05245","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-30 17:17:59","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41052,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResults of path analysis\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6950933/v1/730dfa73db4f6e509750a2db.jpg"},{"id":92833493,"identity":"2634f7b9-5ec4-4784-aec7-e97b9e4e6256","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-06 07:09:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":907574,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6950933/v1/cc428890-b14d-4298-a3d0-b9440ab0c3bb.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Chinese Students’ L2 Classroom Engagement in College: Perceived Teacher Support, Value Beliefs and Self-monitoring","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWith English going global and enjoying the prestigious status of global language, many countries have integrated compulsory English courses into the curriculum of their educational systems at different stages. In China, English class has been a compulsory course for decades, normally starting from the second or third grade in elementary school to the first two years in college, and for many students, learning English is a time-consuming and effort-taking journey. It is acknowledged that Chinese students must participate in the English class either willingly or forcedly at least at the stages of primary, middle high and senior high, as entrance examinations await them at each critical juncture. While different from these three phases, English class in college seems no longer to play a significant role for many since there will be no critical English exams ahead anymore if they don\u0026rsquo;t possess any willingness for the pursuit of a master\u0026rsquo;s degree. Therefore, second language (L2) learning tends to be more like interest-related, or motivation-driven in Chinese universities. Hence, how to effectively engage college students in the L2 classroom has undergone increasing attention in recent years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) (Eccles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Eccles, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) is often applied to account for the motivational processes behind individual\u0026rsquo;s achievement-related outcomes (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Wang \u0026amp; Degol, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), which suggests that achievement motivation stems from both people\u0026rsquo;s expectancies for future success on a task and their perceptions of task values (Part et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and these expectancies and perceptions are termed as value beliefs by the EVT (Eccles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). In the context of L2 learning, college students\u0026rsquo; learning motivation may be closely related to their evaluation and perceptions of the values of English learning and future learning outcomes, thus influencing their actions and behaviours in the L2 classroom, i.e., whether to engage in L2 classroom or not, which will further have an impact on their L2 achievement, or final attainment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, college students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs of English learning do not emerge in a vacuum, and it may be influenced and shaped by other people\u0026rsquo;s beliefs and attitudes around them. In college, students are closely connected with their teachers, and previous research indicates that a healthy academic environment where students are able to receive necessary help from teachers will promote their development (e.g., Hughes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Quin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In the case of L2 learning, students\u0026rsquo; perceived teacher support may be positively involved in their value belief construction during the learning process. Nevertheless, how college students\u0026rsquo; perceived teacher support would specifically influence their value beliefs of L2 learning has not been fully investigated, and how and to what extent their L2 learning motivation driven by these value beliefs would in turn contribute to L2 classroom engagement also need further exploration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, previous literature presented positive evidence that metacognitive factors are actively involved in L2 learning, for example, self-efficacy (Olivier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), self-concept (Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and self-regulation (Derakhshan \u0026amp; Fathi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). As a highly conscious process, L2 learning is also a process of self-monitoring during which L2 learners constantly observe their real-time thinking and actions and regulate their behaviours. Though it seems to be a fact that metacognitive self-monitoring is linked to L2 learning, few empirical studies, to our knowledge, have provided solid evidence. And it is not yet clear as well whether self-monitoring is positively related to perceived teacher support and students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs of L2 learning in the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, this research intended to investigate the relationships among students\u0026rsquo; perceived teacher support, value beliefs of English learning, metacognitive self-monitoring and L2 classroom engagement in the Chinese context of non-English majors.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Theoretical framework\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study integrated the Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) with the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), with the latter providing a general framework while the former situated at the core. The EVT emphasizes internal motivation and posits that expectancy of success and perception of task value are significant psychological factors in task engagement and performance (Wigfield \u0026amp; Eccles, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, an individual will make their choice about task selection and engagement based on their evaluations of the success rate and the benefits in return in doing so. According to the EVT, task value contains 4 major components, namely, attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, and cost (Eccles \u0026amp; Wigfield, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Wigfield, Rosenzweig, \u0026amp; Eccles, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The former three as a whole are termed as value beliefs, each of which brings an effect to an individual\u0026rsquo;s implicit motivation behind a task. Attainment value refers to the extent of importance obtained from the successful completion or performance of a specific task; intrinsic value equals the interest and enjoyment received from the participation in a task; whereas utility value is the perceived usefulness of the task for an individual\u0026rsquo;s future development (Eccles \u0026amp; Wigfield, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). In terms of L2 learning, we believe that all of these three value beliefs would influence L2 learners\u0026rsquo; intrinsic motivation for L2 learning and eventually influence their performance in the classroom, or L2 classroom engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the value beliefs of college students may to some extent determine their L2 engagement and thus influence their L2 academic achievement, potential social and cognitive factors cannot be overlooked (Eccles \u0026amp; Wigfield, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, in this study, we adopted two other variables that may be closely related to students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs and L2 engagement, perceived teacher support as a socio-psychological factor, and metacognitive self-monitoring as a cognitive factor. According to the SDT, relatedness, competence and autonomy are three fundamental psychological requirements that stimulate an individual\u0026rsquo;s motivation and self-initiated behaviours (Ryan \u0026amp; Deci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Relatedness refers to the feeling or experience of a connection to other individuals, competence is the mastery of a task or of a set of skills, whereas autonomy is the need for freedom or the power of control over an individual\u0026rsquo;s actions (Ryan \u0026amp; Deci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). These three components are intertwined and their interplay impacts learner\u0026rsquo;s motivation. In this study, we believe perceived teacher support is closely linked with relatedness, and the more support students gain the more competent they would be as L2 learners, which further promotes their L2 classroom engagement. Besides, autonomy may also be obtained by L2 students in the classroom, since they enjoy much more freedom compared with primary and secondary students in China, and they are the ones who make decisions for themselves in the L2 classroom, for instance, whether to accept the teacher\u0026rsquo;s support, whether to attentively monitor themselves in class and whether to actively engage in L2 learning activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn short, this study intended to investigate the links and associations between college students\u0026rsquo; perceived teacher support, value beliefs of English learning, metacognitive self-monitoring, and L2 classroom engagement. The integration of the EVT and the SDT connected and tightened these seemingly loose factors together, providing a stronger explanation of the possible influencing factors on L2 classroom engagement from the socio-psychological, motivational and cognitive aspects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 L2 classroom engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eKuh et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) regarded student engagement as the time and energy students invested into educational activities, whereas Wang, Henry and Degol (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) provided a more detailed definition, explaining it as students\u0026rsquo; qualitative interactions or involvement with learning activities, processes and contexts. As for L2 engagement, it can be defined as the heightened involvement in language learning ((D\u0026ouml;rnyei \u0026amp; Kormos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Different studies may adopt different definitions of L2 engagement with respect to varied research purposes and aims. For instance, L2 engagement can be measured at different situational context, in school, at home or in the classroom, and at different time periods, such as a study period or a semester (Sang \u0026amp; Hiver, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, L2 engagement was confined to students\u0026rsquo; involvement and participation in L2 classroom activities and their interactions with the teacher and classmates (hence L2 classroom engagement), because language learning is a socializing process that involves dynamic interactions (Liu \u0026amp; Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and the classroom is the best place to observe such a process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThough varied in definition, it is commonly acknowledged that student engagement is multifaceted. Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) proposed three key components of engagement: behavioural, cognitive and emotional engagement. Behavioural engagement refers to the students\u0026rsquo; participation, effort and attention in learning activities; cognitive engagement involves the cognitive effort, sustained attention and self-regulated strategies adopted by students for the purpose of mastering what they are learning; while emotional engagement relates to students\u0026rsquo; feelings towards teachers, peers and learning activities as well as their willingness of and interests in learning (Xu \u0026amp; Feng, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). These three components characterize how students act, think, and feel in the context of L2 classroom instruction (Vo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), and have been investigated by a number of studies. Some studies explored all the three components to get a full picture of their interactive nature and their links with other potential influencing factors in L2 learning (e.g., Vo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Yu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and there are also studies that only focused on one component for more in-depth exploration of a certain aspect of engagement so as to provide more specific implications to language teaching and learning (e.g., Phung et al., 2021; Lee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilar to L2 engagement, teacher support is also a multidimensional construct that may encompass emotional support (Hoi \u0026amp; Mu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), academic instruction (Schweder \u0026amp; Raufelder, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), constructive feedback ((Hejazi \u0026amp; Sadoughi, 2022), etc. Perceived teacher support refers to the extent students believe they can depend on the help or assistance offered by their teachers (OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Many researchers and scholars have placed key emphasis on the role of perceived teacher support in school settings, suggesting that more support from the teacher enables the students to be more interested or involved in classroom activities (Lapointe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeachers can provide support, assistance and guidance to students socially, emotionally, and educationally, leading to their engagement and participation in class activities and interactions (Hu \u0026amp; Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Previous studies have unveiled the link between perceived teacher support and students\u0026rsquo; positive outcomes, for example, in the meta-analysis of 189 studies conducted by Roorda et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), a positive correlation has been revealed between teacher-student relationship, learning engagement, and academic outcomes. In the L2 learning context, a number of studies also revealed the positive role of perceived teacher support on L2 achievement (e.g., Zhu, Yang \u0026amp; Yan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Ma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, L2 achievement is the next stage of L2 classroom engagement, without which the whole effect chain seems incomplete. There are a few studies indicating the positive link between perceived teacher support and L2 engagement, for instance, Vo, Hoang and He (2024) found that teacher emotional support promoted students\u0026rsquo; L2 classroom engagement. But many of the studies did not strictly divide L2 classroom engagement and out-of-classroom L2 engagement (e.g., Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which may make the term \u0026lsquo;L2 engagement\u0026rsquo; too general. Hence more evidence is needed to support the association of perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Mediation of value beliefs and self-monitoring\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough positive teacher support may promote students\u0026rsquo; L2 engagement and L2 achievement, there is an important part between them, the internal factors of learners. Much of the previous literature focused on how external or environmental factors influence L2 class engagement, such as learning methods (Kong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), student-teacher interaction (Virtanen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), peer relationships (Buhs, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), and the recent decades have witnessed the increased research on psychological factors within the L2 learners themselves, shedding light on the effects on L2 engagement brought by a number of internal factors, such as self-efficacy (Olivier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and L2 emotions (Li \u0026amp; Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs observed by Burroughs et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), teachers are expected to fulfil the responsibility of creating a positive and constructive context and influencing learners\u0026rsquo; educational outcomes in the long run. Therefore, some researchers have tried to investigate how teacher support is linked with students\u0026rsquo; internal factors, such as motivation. It is shown that a high degree of perceived teacher support would stimulate students\u0026rsquo; positive motivation, self-concept, and academic enjoyment (Hasanzadeh, Shayesteh \u0026amp; Pishghadam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Wentzel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, some researchers have placed their focus more on how students\u0026rsquo; intrinsic motivation promote L2 engagement or L2 achievement. For example, Vo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) used the utility value of L2 learning as an indicator of Vietnamese students\u0026rsquo; learning motivation and discovered the positive relationship between utility value and English classroom engagement. Ma et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) extended the effect chain by connecting the variables of teacher, student and L2 achievement, and found that a supportive teacher-student relationship predicted positive motivational beliefs, which further contributed to L2 achievement. Since motivation is multidimensional and researchers\u0026rsquo; emphasis on and measurement of motivation vary across different studies, this study would like to use the three value beliefs proposed by the EVT as a whole to reflect students\u0026rsquo; motivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides, some previous research has proposed that metacognition is also of fundamental importance to the learning process. Metacognition is defined as \u0026ldquo;thinking about thinking, and regulating that thinking\u0026rdquo; (Flavell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e), which underlies all intelligent human behaviour (Hiver et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). It has been extensively investigated to account for the different levels of skill development and subsequent performance, and is regarded as a predictor of adaptive thought and action (Beran, Brandl, Peran, \u0026amp; Proust, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Successful individuals are capable of taking advantage of their own thought and actions, through which self-awareness, self-determination and self-direction can be developed (Hiver et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In language learning, a number of factors related to metacognition have been examined so as to make explicit the associations between human cognition and learning, such as anticipatory planning and metacognitive task-monitoring (Hiver et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs an essential component of metacognition, metacognitive monitoring involves the perception and assessment of one\u0026rsquo;s own cognitive activity (Nelson and Narens, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). To distinguish interpersonal monitoring (Shea et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and intrapersonal monitoring (Vuillaume et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), we adopted the term \u0026lsquo;metacognitive self-monitoring (or self-monitoring for short)\u0026rsquo; in this study and defined it as the cognitively self-initiated activities to monitor one\u0026rsquo;s cognitive engagement in the L2 classroom. Although self-monitoring is actively engaged in classroom participation as revealed by Xu, Wang and Wu (2024), to our knowledge, there still lacks evidence to show whether metacognitive self-monitoring is linked with perceived teacher support and students\u0026rsquo; L2 learning motivation behind value beliefs. In this study, we believe that perceived teacher support would positively influence students\u0026rsquo; self-monitoring, for the more support students receive the more they would expect themselves to be engaged in the interactions with the teacher and the more active they would monitor their cognitive activities, thus contributing to better L2 classroom engagement. Moreover, on the presupposition that perceived teacher support positively predicts students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs, we also expected to find a chain as: perceived teacher support \u0026mdash; value beliefs \u0026mdash; metacognitive self-monitoring \u0026mdash; L2 classroom engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, drawing upon the frameworks of the EVT and the SDT, and relevant literature as well, we formulated a mediation model (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;1) containing 4 hypotheses as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eH1\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollege students\u0026rsquo; perceived teacher support positively predicts their L2 classroom engagement;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eH2\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollege students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs of L2 learning mediate the relationship between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eH3\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollege students\u0026rsquo; metacognitive self-monitoring mediates the relationship between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eH4\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe link between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement is serially mediated by value beliefs and then metacognitive self-monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were collected using convenience sampling from first-year and second-year non-English majors at a university in west China. All of the participants had the English subject back to their primary and secondary education, and during the time of data collection, they were attending weekly compulsory English classes at university entitled \u003cem\u003eCollege English\u003c/em\u003e, which is an integrated course by nature and lasts for 2 years, covering essential components in English like listening, reading, writing, speaking and translating skills. Students were explained the purpose of this study by the teachers collecting data and were invited to participate anonymously on a voluntary basis. All the participants gave their consent before answering the questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 428 students completed and submitted the questionnaire, of which 51 (11.92%) were considered invalid and excluded from further analysis. In the remainder of the questionnaires (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;377, 88.08%), the number of freshman students was 97, and the other 280 were sophomores. Male participants accounted for 48.28% (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;182) of the total, with an average age of 19.8 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.043), and their female counterparts took up 51.72% (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;195), with an average age of 19.69 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.902).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Instrument\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study adopted an online questionnaire via Wenjuanxing (a professional platform in mainland China for online surveys) to collect data. The questionnaire comprised two parts: the first part was about students\u0026rsquo; demographic information, such as gender, age, grade, etc., and the second part consisted of 4 scales measuring each of the 4 variables in this research, i.e., students\u0026rsquo; perceived teacher support, value beliefs, metacognitive self-monitoring, and L2 classroom engagement. Students could use the link provided to access the questionnaire which was written in Chinese.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Perceived teacher support\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious literature regards teacher support as a multifaceted factor in students\u0026rsquo; academic activities whose major components mainly include emotional support, agentive support and cognitive support (e.g., Murberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) in questionnaire scales. Emotional support refers to the positive attention, care, and emotional connection that teachers offer to students, as well as the support to deal with pressure, challenges and negative emotions (Skinner \u0026amp; Belmont, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). Agentive support is the sufficient freedom and support usually showcased in the assignment of tasks, the selection of teaching/learning materials and the training on problem-solving skills (Patall, Cooper, \u0026amp; Wynn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). A number of studies did not make a clear distinction between agentive support and cognitive support, and combined them as one component termed as cognitive agentive support to measure (e.g., Stefanou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). But there are also scholars suggesting that cognitive support is the offering of academic challenges and the stimulation of students\u0026rsquo; curiosity and motivation for learning (Lam \u0026amp; Law, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Taking into consideration of the educational system in China and the characteristics of Chinese students, Chai and Gong (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) made the 17-item scale (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.92) for students\u0026rsquo; perceived teacher support in math class, of which 7 items are for emotional support, 5 for agentive support and another 5 for cognitive support. This scale has been widely used in China in different subjects and disciplines including foreign language teaching/learning (e.g., Zhang \u0026amp; Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Guided by our research aims, we adopted Chai and Gong\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) scale and made corresponding adaptations by changing the subject name from \u0026lsquo;math\u0026rsquo; into \u0026lsquo;English\u0026rsquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe adapted scale consisted of 12 items in total for the measurement of the 3 components. Four items were used to measure emotional support, for example, \u0026ldquo;the English teacher likes me\u0026rdquo;. Four items were for agentive support, and a sample item was \u0026ldquo;the English teacher tries to make us understand the importance of learning English\u0026rdquo;. Another four items were for cognitive support, for instance, \u0026ldquo;the English teacher provides us with useful English learning methods and skills\u0026rdquo;. Participants were asked to rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from \u0026ldquo;1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly disagree\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly agree\u0026rdquo;. Reliability analysis showed that in this study, the adapted scale had a high internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.968), and the confirmatory factor analysis also showed that the adapted scale had a good fit with the empirical data: \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (51)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;173.131, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.981\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.9, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.975\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.9, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.08 (90% CI [0.067, 0.093]), SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.022\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 (Byrne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Value beliefs of English learning\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; value beliefs of English learning were measured by a 12-item scale adapted from Part et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) from three aspects. Four items assessed students\u0026rsquo; attainment value, i.e., the extent of the importance of successful completion of a task (e.g., Is the amount of effort it will take to do well in your English course worthwhile to you?). Intrinsic value, the interest in and joy from a task, were gauged by 4 items, for instance, \u0026ldquo;Learning the material covered in my English course is enjoyable\u0026rdquo;. Lastly, the utility value, the perceived usefulness of a task for future development, was estimated by another 4 items, and a sample item was \u0026ldquo;What I learn in my English course will be useful for me later in life\u0026rdquo;. The internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α) for the value beliefs scale in this study was 0.94.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.3 Metacognitive self-monitoring\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; metacognitive self-monitoring was measured by a 6-item scale developed by Hiver et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), which targets at the specific metacognitive awareness and self-monitoring process of language learners in the classroom setting. A sample item is \u0026ldquo;In the language classroom, I am aware of what I am doing as I learn\u0026rdquo;. Internal reliability analysis showed that one item (In the language classroom, I care very little about how others react to me) should be removed from the scale because of a low corrected item-total correlation for this item (-.563) after reversing the scores as this item was negatively coded. The deletion was further supported by the data for having a good internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.893). Hence, there were 5 items in total for this self-monitoring scale.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.4 L2 classroom engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents\u0026rsquo; L2 classroom engagement was measured by a 12-item scale borrowed from Vo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The original scale by Hiver et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) consists of 24 items, measuring students\u0026rsquo; behavioural, cognitive and affective engagement in L2 learning activities. Vo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) selected 12 items from the original scale and made slight adaptations in terms of wording, by adding phrases like \u0026ldquo;in my English class\u0026rdquo; to each item, and used the simplified version to test Vietnamese students\u0026rsquo; L2 English engagement in the classroom. In consideration of time, efficiency and accuracy, we adopted the simplified version of the scale Vo\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) adapted, and believe that it specifically targets L2 English engagement in the classroom setting. In the scale, four items were for the measurement of students\u0026rsquo; behavioural engagement, such as \u0026ldquo;When I am in my English class, I pay attention and listen carefully\u0026rdquo;. Another four items focused on the aspect of cognitive engagement, for example, \u0026ldquo;In my English class, I think about different ways to solve a problem\u0026rdquo;. Finally, affective engagement was evaluated by the last four items, and a sample item was \u0026ldquo;I feel good when I am in my English class\u0026rdquo;. The internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α) for the L2 classroom engagement scale in this study was 0.969.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1 Covariates\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious research has suggested the gender effect on L2 learning and achievement in various ways, for example, the use of metacognitive strategies and English language proficiency (e.g., Dan, Bai \u0026amp; Huang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and L2 learning motivation (e.g., Yeung, Lau \u0026amp; Nie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Besides, the age effect has long been the focus of language acquisition and L2 learning, and a recent study indicated that age was closely linked with environmental supports, cognitive abilities, and motivation for language learning (Caldwell-Harris \u0026amp; MacWhinney, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In order to minimize the effect of gender and age-related effects, we controlled gender, age (range: 17\u0026ndash;24; Mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19.74; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.97) and onset age of formal English learning (hereafter OAE; range: 5\u0026ndash;15; Mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.95; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.35) as covariates in data analysis. As a categorical variable, gender was turned into a dummy variable, with \u0026lsquo;male\u0026rsquo; coded as 1 and \u0026lsquo;female\u0026rsquo; 0. While age and OAE were continuous variables, the values of each were converted into standard scores (z-scores) with a mean average of 0 and an SD of 1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.2 Data analysis procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe first exported the data into an Excel form from the online survey platform and excluded the invalid samples. Then, major data analyses were carried out in three steps. First, descriptive analysis and Pearson partial correlation analysis among variables with gender, age and OAE controlled were performed by SPSS 29.0.1, so as to gain a first insight into the relationships between them. Then, based on our hypothesised mediation model, model fit was tested using a maximum likelihood method in Mplus 8.1.6. Following that, corresponding path analyses were conducted to examine the mediation effects of value beliefs and self-monitoring and the serial mediation of them between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement. We used the Bollen-Stine bootstrapping procedure based on 2000 random samples to evaluate the indirect effects of the two mediators. If the 95% confidential interval (CI) does not contain 0, it indicates that the indirect effect is statistically significant (Preacher \u0026amp; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the mean and standard deviation of each variable and the Pearson partial correlations between them with gender, age and OAE under control. It is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e that perceived teacher support, value beliefs of English learning, metacognitive self-monitoring and L2 engagement are significantly and positively linked with each other.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive data and Pearson partial correlations between variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Perceived teacher support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Value beliefs of English learning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.549\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Metacognitive self-monitoring\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.422\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.594\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. L2 classroom engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.538\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.690\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.792\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNote: \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Path analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn model fit testing, perceived teacher support was the independent variable while L2 classroom engagement was the dependent variable, mediated by value beliefs and self-monitoring. These four variables were used as latent variables, with participants\u0026rsquo; gender, age, and OAE controlled as covariates. The model showed a good fit with the data: \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (104)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;314.434, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.956\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.9, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.944\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.9, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.073\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.08 (90% CI [0.064, 0.083]), SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.061\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.08 (Byrne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollow-up path analyses were performed in sequence based on our research hypotheses, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2. The results first showed that perceived teacher support significantly positively predicated L2 classroom engagement (path c\u0026rsquo;) (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.151, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI [0.081, 0.216]), proving the validity of H1. Then, the first mediator, i.e., value beliefs, was added to the analysis (path a1-b1), and it showed that perceived teacher support could still significantly predict L2 classroom engagement via value beliefs (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.148, 95% CI [0.093, 0.214]), so H2 was confirmed. Next, we substituted value beliefs with metacognitive self-monitoring as the mediator (path a2-b2), and the result revealed that perceived teacher support was also a significantly positive predictor of L2 classroom engagement mediated by self-monitoring (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.078, 95% CI [0.019, 0.140]), confirming the validity of H3. Lastly, both value beliefs and self-monitoring were added into the path sequentially (path a1-d-b2), and the result revealed that the link between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement was serially mediated by the two variables (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.162, 95% CI [0.118, 0.211]), hence H4 was also confirmed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe path analysis confirmed the positive link between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement, and the model tested in this study is a full mediation model with three mediation paths, i.e., value beliefs, self-monitoring, and value beliefs first and then self-monitoring respectively. Either value beliefs or self-monitoring positively mediate the link between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement as a single mediator, and the serial mediation path connecting the two mediators has also been confirmed. Based on the EVT and the SDT, this study takes full consideration of the external and internal factors stimulating L2 classroom engagement, and provides practical implications and contributions to L2 teachers and the L2 classroom. First, the findings suggest that mediators such as students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs and self-monitoring should be valued in the research of L2 teaching/learning. Second, students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs of L2 learning have been confirmed to be a driving force behind L2 learning, adding additional evidence to the essential role of intrinsic motivation. Third, the chain mediation model provides new empirical evidence for the effects of the EVT and the SDT on L2 classroom engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Mediation of value beliefs\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this study demonstrated that college students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs of English learning mediate the link between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement, suggesting that students\u0026rsquo; intrinsic motivations behind value beliefs play a vital role in their participation in college English classes. In China, although English courses usually remain compulsory in college, few English teachers would force the students to learn the language as primary and secondary English teachers do, for college is the place for students to make their own choices and be responsible for their decisions. The EVT posits that an individual\u0026rsquo;s internal motivation for a task comes from their expectancies of future success chance and evaluations of task values (Part et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In this context, L2 classroom engagement or English learning can be seen as a task for students, and when making their decision of engagement or not, they would take into consideration factors closely related to their personal gains and interests, such as the three value beliefs contained in the ETV that were tested on in this study. We believe that students would evaluate the attainment value, utility value, and intrinsic value of English learning by considering, for example, how important good proficiency of English is for them, how they would benefit from English learning in their future career and lives, how much they are into English learning, etc. and then make their decision on English learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eApart from the student side, the teacher is also of fundamental importance as shown in previous studies (e.g., Hoi \u0026amp; Mu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). On the one hand, a teacher serves as the designer and organizer of classroom activities whose successful carry-out needs participants or audience, especially for language classes for their interactive nature (Vo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), so the more support students receive the more willing they will be engaged in class to interact with the teacher, so as the results revealed, that perceived teacher support directly and positively predicts L2 engagement. On the other hand, language teachers usually share their L2 learning experiences and personal stories in class which may explicitly or implicitly inform the students of the importance and usefulness of English learning, thus influencing students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs and contributing to their classroom engagement. According to the attachment theory, students may regard teachers as attachment figures who could establish warm and supportive relationships with them (Bergin \u0026amp; Bergin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), which could in turn positively influence students\u0026rsquo; academic performance (Sabol \u0026amp; Pianta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the support provided by teachers can never be overlooked or underestimated in the school setting, for it can not only engage students in learning activities (Engels et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), but stimulate or promote students\u0026rsquo; internal motivations, for example, enhancing their value beliefs of L2 learning in this case. From the point of SDT, the concept of relatedness, which is the perception or experience of a connection to other individuals (Ryan \u0026amp; Deci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), may explain this teacher-student relationship. Students may tend to relate themselves to the teacher from whom they could receive help and support, during which a connection is built. In China, where the culture has been deeply influenced by Confucianism, teachers are regarded by many as know-all experts (Huan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and authority, and students may be more easily influenced by the teacher\u0026rsquo;s value beliefs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Mediation of metacognitive self-monitoring\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also confirmed the mediating role of metacognitive self-monitoring between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement. In psychology, self-monitoring is a part of learners\u0026rsquo; metacognition which refers to their self-awareness and regulation of their cognitive processes (Flavell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang \u0026amp; Zhang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The path analysis result showed that perceived teacher support positively predicted metacognitive self-monitoring, which indicates that a higher level of teacher support leads to higher self-awareness of the students in the classroom. Considering the fact that L2 classes are usually instructed in the target language, students are more easily to be distracted by other irrelevant stuff because of the unfamiliarity of the instructional language, much more freedom in class, and lower learning motivation (compared with primary and secondary stages). Therefore, we believe the English teacher plays a central role and only when students can perceive and receive patient guidance, timely help and warm encouragement from the teacher in class will they be more aware of their cognitive activities and more focused in the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides, the positive link between self-monitoring and L2 classroom engagement suggests that students of higher self-monitoring capacity engage more in L2 learning activities. This may be attributed to self-regulation in learning. Those who are good at monitoring their cognitive processes are apt to notice whether they are focused or distracted in class earlier and more easily, thus helping them maintain their attention or take corresponding strategies or actions to drag them back to reconcentrate. Self-monitoring can be seen as a kind of self-regulation, and a large body of evidence has proved the positive association between self-regulation and learning achievements (e.g., Derakhshan \u0026amp; Fathi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, we prefer to view metacognitive self-monitoring as the precursor of self-regulation and corresponding strategies, which is situated front ahead in the metacognition spectrum. Therefore, this study adds evidence to the relationship between self-monitoring and L2 classroom engagement, and further extends the effect chain between students\u0026rsquo; metacognition and achievement, which can be presented as \u0026lsquo;metacognitive self-monitoring \u0026mdash; self-regulation (strategies) \u0026mdash; L2 classroom engagement \u0026mdash; L2 achievement\u0026rsquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.3 Serial mediation of value beliefs and metacognitive self-monitoring\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this research also confirmed the serial mediation effects of value beliefs and metacognitive self-monitoring between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement. The key finding here is the link between the two mediators, i.e., value beliefs and self-monitoring. We believe that a higher degree of value beliefs towards English learning stimulates a higher level of self-monitoring, that is, students are more sensitive or aware of their mental processes when they have stronger learning motivation, in order to make sure they are attentive and stay focused in the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe whole chain of the four variables in this study can be interpreted from the perspective of the SDT which proposes that relatedness, competence, and autonomy drive self-initiated behaviour and motivation (Ryan \u0026amp; Deci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In the classroom setting, L2 learners have constant contact with their English teacher who may be seen as an important attachment figure (Bergin \u0026amp; Bergin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), and the perception of connectedness by students has been proven to be a predictor of their actions and emotional involvement (Ruzek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). With the support from the teacher, students gain confidence and develop competence, and competence is defined as the mastery of a task or a set of skills (Ryan \u0026amp; Deci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Skinner et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) suggest competence is a key motivator for students\u0026rsquo; cognitive engagement, since the feeling of mastery will stimulate more behavioural and emotional engagement (Annamalai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In our study, those who perceive more teacher support may place more value on English learning and possess stronger learning motivations, thus possessing higher language proficiency. Such competence strengthens students\u0026rsquo; metacognitive self-monitoring in class, which is a kind of cognitive engagement by nature and further encourages them to engage in the L2 classroom, behaviourally, cognitively and affectively. As for the concept of autonomy, the psychological need for freedom or control over an individual\u0026rsquo;s actions (Ryan \u0026amp; Deci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), functions as a driving force behind students\u0026rsquo; behavioural involvement (Skinner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) and cognitive engagement (Annamalai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) in the classroom. Students often enjoy a high level of freedom in college providing that they would not disturb the class, and this autonomy may be reflected in each of the three variables, perceived teacher support, value beliefs and self-monitoring, and have an impact on their L2 classroom engagement. It is suggested that strong autonomy support for students may improve their enjoyment of lessons (Skinner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), which may further contribute to stronger learning motivations and more active L2 engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the aspect of the EVT, students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs of English learning play an essential role in L2 learning. It stays at the core of the effect chain and serves as a bridge, connecting the external factor (the teacher) and the internal factors within the framework of the SDT. Students\u0026rsquo; learning motivation stems from the support of the teacher, and then drives them to participate in L2 classroom activities under active metacognitive self-monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Implications and limitations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this research can provide certain pedagogical implications for L2 learning and teaching. With the expansion of online courses and machine-assisted self-learning in recent years, classroom instruction may have fallen into a disadvantaged position and is unvalued by some students. However, the most invaluable thing about face-to-face teaching is the interaction and communication between human beings instead of unidirectional listening to an indifferent computer. Hence the role of human teachers can never be underestimated, and a healthy teacher-student relationship will benefit the both sides and lead to win-win outcomes. Learning a second language is an arduous journey which requires appropriate guidance and constant encouragement, and teachers are the ones to fulfil this role by imparting knowledge, stimulating motivation, providing encouragement, and enlightening minds. Teachers should give full play to their connection to students as warm-blooded human beings and convey things what the machines can never provide, and this is also what the concept of relatedness emphasizes within the SDT (Ryan \u0026amp; Deci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, stimulating L2 learning motivation is also crucial to the establishment of a good L2 classroom climate as revealed by this study. The three components contained in the value beliefs of the EVT, i.e., attainment value, intrinsic value, and utility value, shed light on the possible directions teachers can work on in future classroom instruction to arouse students\u0026rsquo; motivation for L2 learning. Teachers may design specific tasks to clarify the importance of English learning in today\u0026rsquo;s globalized world, share true stories related to language learning around them, and explain the benefits of being a bilingual, to promote students\u0026rsquo; attainment and utility values. Games and fun should also be valued from time to time to motivate students\u0026rsquo; interests and intrinsic value, which will in turn facilitate L2 learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides, the classroom shall not be a place full of \u0026lsquo;dictatorship\u0026rsquo; and pressure, and the teacher is not expected to keep everyone under control in the class, but to trust students and return freedom to them, which is encouraged by the concept of \u0026lsquo;autonomy\u0026rsquo; in the SDT (Ryan \u0026amp; Deci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). As adults, students have adequate capability to metacognitively monitor themselves and behave themselves in class, and they are expected to take control of their lives and be responsible for their choices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNonetheless, this study has some limitations which could be optimized or addressed in future research. First, the data came from students studying at the same university in China, so the universality of the results shall be further tested by comparing data from universities of different levels, different places and even different countries. Second, we used convenience sampling when collecting questionnaire data, which can be improved in future research so as to make the results more robust and representative. Lastly, this research is a cross-sectional quantitative study, and longitudinal studies as well as qualitative methods should also be valued and combined in the future.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the context of L2 English learning in a Chinese university, this study revealed the positive link between students\u0026rsquo; perceived teacher support and L2 classroom engagement, mediated by either students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs of English learning or their metacognitive self-monitoring. In addition, a serial mediation effect of value beliefs and then self-monitoring has also been found between perceived teacher support and L2 classroom involvement. With value beliefs at the core, external and internal factors that contribute to active L2 classroom involvement have been systematically integrated in this study within the integrated framework of the EVT and the SDT. This research adds empirical evidence to the existing literature of the indispensable role of human teachers in L2 learning on the one hand, and sheds light on the initiative role of the L2 learners on the other.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was obtained prior to the starting of this study from the Ethics Committee of School of Foreign Studies, University of Science and Technology Beijing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior to the commencement of the questionnaire survey, participants were explained in detail the purposes of the study and the major components of the questionnaire. Participants were also informed that their participation was on a voluntary basis and the whole process was anonymous. Due to the protection of participants’ privacy, they were not asked to sign their real names on a written consent form, instead, they understood and confirmed that their participation in the questionnaire survey was a proof of their informed consent as they had been told.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were fully informed about the objectives of the research and how the data collected would be stored and used for publication. They provided voluntary consent by taking part in the research, free from any form of coercion or external pressure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAvailability of data and material:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets analysed in this study are restricted by the Review Board of School of Foreign Studies, University of Science and Technology Beijing, due to participants’ privacy protection and the inclusion of potential identifiers and thus cannot be made publicly available. Requests for access to the data can be directed to the Review Board at [email protected] or to the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The questionnaire material is available from the corresponding author upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding was received for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there are no competing interests to report.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors’ contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSZ: Conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing. XP: Methodology, validation, investigation, resources, writing—review and editing. DL: validation, formal analysis, resources, writing—review and editing. YL: resources, writing—review and editing, supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnnamalai, N., Eltahir, M. E., Zyoud, S. H., Soundrarajan, D., Zakarneh, B., \u0026amp; Salhi, A., N. R (2023). Exploring English language learning via Chabot: A case study from a self determination theory perspective. \u003cem\u003eComputers and Education: Artificial Intelligence\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e, 100148.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBergin, C., \u0026amp; Bergin, D. (2009). Attachment in the classroom. \u003cem\u003eEducational Psychology Review\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e21\u003c/em\u003e, 141\u0026ndash;170.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBeran, M. J., Brandl, J. L., Peran, J., \u0026amp; Proust, J. 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Relationships between teacher feedback and English writing proficiency in Chinese students: The mediating effect of writing self-regulated learning strategies. \u003cem\u003eSystem\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e123\u003c/em\u003e, 103338.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"L2 classroom engagement, perceived teacher support, value beliefs, self-monitoring, mediation effect","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6950933/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6950933/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eBased on an integrated framework of the Self-Determination Theory and the Expectancy-Value Theory, this study investigated the link between students\u0026rsquo; perceived teacher support and their L2 classroom engagement via two mediators: students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs of English learning and metacognitive self-monitoring with a sample of 377 college students from a Chinese university. With gender, age and onset age of English learning under control, path analyses showed that perceived teacher support directly predicted L2 classroom engagement, and the link between them was also positively mediated by either students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs or self-monitoring. Moreover, this study also revealed that the indirect effect of perceived teacher support on L2 classroom engagement was significant through the serial mediation of students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs and then self-monitoring. These findings suggest that in the context of L2 learning, higher level of perceived teacher support will promote college students\u0026rsquo; L2 classroom engagement by stimulating students\u0026rsquo; value beliefs of L2 learning and strengthening their metacognitive self-monitoring, which provides practical implications to language teaching activities in the classroom setting.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Chinese Students’ L2 Classroom Engagement in College: Perceived Teacher Support, Value Beliefs and Self-monitoring","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-30 17:17:54","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6950933/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ade9cd76-f686-420f-ae18-835024b80cc2","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 30th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-06T07:08:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-30 17:17:54","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6950933","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6950933","identity":"rs-6950933","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}