Simulation-Based Assessment of Construction Phase Environmental Impacts for Tall Buildings Structural Systems

Simulation-Based Assessment of Construction Phase Environmental Impacts for Tall Buildings Structural Systems | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Simulation-Based Assessment of Construction Phase Environmental Impacts for Tall Buildings Structural Systems Banan Alzoubi, Mehdi Ghiai This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7774942/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The construction phase of tall buildings plays a significant role in environmental degradation due to the intensive use of materials, high energy consumption, and emissions from on-site activities. This study examines the environmental impacts associated with the construction process of tall office buildings by integrating Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). A generic model representing common structural systems and material configurations was developed in Autodesk Revit. Grasshopper and Karamba 3D were utilized to optimize the structural system, enhancing its performance and efficiency. The environmental impact of the construction process, Stage A5 of the building life cycle, as defined by EN 15978 standards, was then assessed using the Tally plugin. MATLAB was used to quantify the energy consumption and CO₂ emissions of the optimized structure. Then, different construction scenarios were optimized using VSGA-III, providing a more precise evaluation of the system’s environmental performance. An LCA analysis was conducted using the Tally plugin within Revit to highlight key impact factors, including fossil fuel depletion, global warming potential, and construction waste. By combining BIM, structural optimization, and advanced analytical tools, this framework provides a reliable tool for early-stage environmental assessments of tall buildings' structural systems, helping architects and designers to make informed decisions to minimize environmental impacts during the construction phase of tall buildings. This process might lead to New or revised green building certifications, Changes in regulatory requirements, and this framework could become a new standard for designing sustainable tall buildings, influencing industry practices and promoting the adoption of sustainable design principles. This study quantified measurable outcomes, including an 18% reduction in CO₂ emissions, a 22% reduction in energy consumption, and a 17% reduction in smog formation potential, thereby demonstrating the framework’s practical effectiveness in minimizing Stage A5 environmental impacts. Future studies could expand this framework by incorporating additional life cycle stages, testing real-world construction projects, and integrating renewable energy solutions or automation strategies to further enhance sustainability outcomes. Tall Buildings Life Cycle Assessment Environmental Impact Building Information Modeling Structural Optimization Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Introduction The construction industry significantly contributes to global carbon emissions, accounting for approximately 39% of energy-related carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions worldwide, with a substantial portion arising from construction activities [1]. Tall buildings, in particular, exert greater environmental impacts than other building types because they require more materials, involve complex structural systems, and present unique logistical challenges [2]. As urban density rises, vertical development becomes more common, making it increasingly important to understand and mitigate the environmental consequences of constructing tall buildings. With the growing need for high-rise buildings, assessing their environmental impacts during the construction phase is essential for promoting sustainable development. Construction activities contribute a large portion of total life cycle emissions. Tall building projects require significant resources and produce high levels of greenhouse gases, making targeted assessments necessary to identify opportunities for reducing environmental harm [3]. Studies show that increasing building height leads to greater material use, which in turn raises greenhouse gas emissions during construction [4]. Recognizing how resources are used during construction supports accountability and guides smarter decisions about materials and structural design. For example, research by Cao et al. shows that choosing materials based on environmental criteria can improve sustainability in high-rise buildings. Their findings highlight the value of incorporating energy calculations and performance metrics to select more eco-friendly options [5]. This focus on material efficiency during construction is especially important, as this phase is frequently overlooked in environmental discussions. Including it in life cycle assessments helps fill a crucial gap in evaluating sustainability [6] Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is widely used to evaluate environmental impacts across a building’s entire life cycle, from material extraction to demolition [7]. Tall buildings require large quantities of materials during construction, making detailed analysis necessary. Traditional evaluation methods often overlook the full range of impacts, particularly those that occur during construction. Mavrokapnidis et al. note that most life cycle greenhouse gas emissions in tall buildings originate from both the construction and operational stages, and that construction impacts, in particular, warrant closer examination due to their scale [8]. The European standard EN 15978 defines different stages of a building’s life cycle, with Stage A5 focusing on the construction phase, which includes on-site energy use, material transport, equipment operation, and waste generation, as shown in Figure 1. This stage encompasses energy consumption on-site, transportation of materials, equipment operation, and waste production [9]. However, activities like hoisting, crane operation, and handling complex materials are often overlooked in LCA studies. As a result, it is crucial to conduct detailed analyses of emissions during the construction phase of tall buildings [10]. To address these gaps, researchers recommend using LCA as a design tool to support informed decisions during both construction and operation [11]. This shift means that minimizing environmental impact becomes a key design priority. By introducing sustainability strategies at the earliest stages, construction teams can more effectively reduce the negative environmental effects of tall building projects [12] Building Information Modeling (BIM) enables early integration of sustainability by providing detailed, data-driven models of buildings [13]. Autodesk Revit, a common BIM platform, supports the creation of parametric models with key material and quantity information for environmental analysis. BIM streamlines data extraction and ensures accuracy, making it a strong foundation for LCA in the early design stages [14]. The Tally plugin, developed by Kieran Timberlake with Autodesk and Thinkstep, connects BIM and LCA by allowing real-time environmental assessments within the BIM environment. Tally combines material quantity data with standardized environmental information from databases like GaBi, improving the accuracy and efficiency of sustainability evaluations [15]. This integration helps architects, engineers, and consultants make better-informed decisions [16]. This integration helps architects, engineers, and consultants make better-informed decisions [17], few focus directly on the construction phase of tall buildings. Much of the existing research uses case-specific models, which limit broader applicability. This reveals a significant need for BIM approaches that can simulate and assess environmental performance during construction. Scalable BIM-based models would enable more strategic, repeatable analyses at the early design stage. Despite advances in BIM-based LCA tools, research focused on the construction phase (Stage A5) of tall buildings is still limited. Existing work often depends on specific case studies, which makes it difficult to apply findings more broadly. This study addresses the gap by creating a standardized parametric model of a typical tall building’s structural system in Autodesk Revit. The model uses common structural components and material specifications, providing a reliable framework for assessing environmental performance during construction. With Tally, a Revit plugin for real-time LCA, this study measures the environmental impacts linked to material transport, equipment uses, and on-site construction activities. The approach identifies key Stage A5 impacts and pinpoints which construction factors contribute most. By clarifying how different activities and material choices affect outcomes, the research guides early-stage decisions focused on sustainability. The result is a replicable and flexible method for improving environmental performance in tall building construction. Literature Review 2.1. Life Cycle Assessment in Tall Buildings Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a method for evaluating the environmental impacts of a product over its entire life cycle [11]. In the context of tall buildings, LCA is used to assess environmental performance across four main phases: • Phase 1: Resource extraction and Materials manufacturing. • Phase 2: Transportation and Construction. • Phase 3: Use stage. • Phase 4: End of life. Figure 4 shows that phases 1, 2, and 4 have significant environmental impacts and carbon emissions. The construction phase is especially important and is often included in whole-building LCA, following BS EN 15978, a widely recognized standard for setting system boundaries in building assessments [18]. However, this phase is not required by ISO 14044, which is the main standard for LEED certification. In LCA, the construction phase adds to the building’s initial embodied carbon and is split into Stage A4 (transport) and Stage A5 (construction and installation). 2.1. Life Cycle Assessment in the Construction Industry LCA has become a key tool for measuring the environmental impacts of buildings throughout their life cycle. It helps stakeholders identify and reduce carbon emissions and other impacts at each stage, from material extraction and transportation to construction, operation, and demolition [20]. EN 15978 provides a framework for organizing a building's life cycle into stages. Stage A5 focuses on the construction phase, covering machinery use, material transport, on-site assembly, and temporary resource consumption [9]. The primary goal of building LCA is to minimize environmental impacts, reduce carbon emissions, lower energy consumption, and lower costs. This section provides an overview of current research priorities in building LCA [21] A summary of major focus areas in building LCA research is shown in Table 1. Table 1: A summary of major focus areas in building LCA research Author(s) Building LCA Focus Area Goal Results Studied LCA Stage [22] Informal and formal building types Address data gaps in LMI (low- and middle-income) countries Developed reproducibility metrics highlighted the need for LCA of traditional buildings A (1-3) [23] Carbon footprint of materials Evaluate the environmental impacts of materials Identified low-carbon alternatives in building materials A (1-3) [24] Energy efficiency strategies Analyze energy demand reductions Provided case studies on innovative technologies B (1-5) [25] End-of-life scenarios Assess the implications of building a disposal Highlighted recycling potential & resource recovery C (1-4) [26] Life cycle costs Optimize the economic performance of buildings Developed models for cost-effectiveness over lifespans Whole LCA [27] BIM integration and modular design Improve the accuracy and comprehensive assessment of buildings Identified the need to include underexplored lifecycle phases, highlighting opportunities for impact reduction. Whole LCA [28] Site-Specific Data Utilization Calculate the environmental impacts of an office building The major impacts of materials and HVAC systems were identified, and reliable data from contractors was used. B (1-5) [29] Technical and electrical equipment Assess environmental impacts by including detailed components Technical and electrical equipment contribute to 38% of total ecological impacts; significant discrepancies in simplified assessments noted. Whole LCA [30] Whole-building performance Explore integrated LCA with energy modeling The holistic approach demonstrated improved accuracy in embodied energy assessments, leading to better performance predictions. A (1-3) [31] Materials optimization and recycling Analyze the impacts of material selection and recycling methods Identified potential reduction in carbon footprint through optimized material choices and enhanced recycling processes. A (1-3) & D [32] Use of renewable and low-impact materials Evaluate the benefits of using sustainable materials Significant reductions in lifecycle GHG emissions were found with updated materials and design strategies. A (1-3) [33] Digital tools in LCA Integrate LCA with BIM for enhanced data acquisition Implementation of BIM in LCA resulted in a more efficient workflow and comprehensive environmental impact assessment. Whole LCA The table highlights that many studies stress the importance of accurate environmental impact assessments using parametric modeling and material evaluation. For example, [23] identified low-carbon material alternatives, showing the value of early design choices to reduce global warming potential and fossil fuel use. Likewise, [32] found that renewable and low-impact materials can greatly lower life cycle greenhouse gas emissions, supporting sustainability efforts from the start of a project. Research on digital integration and BIM-based tools [27, 33] shows that including detailed lifecycle data through BIM improves the quality of environmental assessments, especially when using tools like Tally to analyze construction-stage impacts. This approach not only makes assessments more accurate but also allows for the inclusion of phases that are often overlooked. For example, [22] highlights the need to address data gaps, especially in low- and middle-income contexts, by using more standardized and reproducible modeling methods, such as developing a generic Revit model. Other studies [28, 29] emphasized that specific components, like HVAC and electrical systems, play a major role in overall environmental impact and benefit from detailed parametric modeling. Even with growing research on building LCA, there is still a lack of studies focused on the construction phase (Stage A5) of tall building structures. Most existing work looks at general building types or focuses on operational phases, missing the unique challenges of high-rise construction like crane logistics, material hoisting, and structural assembly. This gap makes it harder to make informed, sustainable choices early on in the design of tall buildings. These challenges—such as cranes, scaffolding, concrete pumps, and vertical transport—are unique to tall buildings and create environmental impacts not seen in low-rise projects [2]. 2.2. BIM as a Framework for Sustainability Analysis BIM provides a detailed digital model of structures and has quickly become essential for integrated design, visualization, cost estimation, and performance analysis. Autodesk Revit stands out among BIM platforms for its parametric modeling and ability to generate precise quantity takeoffs, which are important for later environmental assessments [34]. Because of its structured data, BIM is an ideal source for LCA tools, especially during early design when decisions have the most impact on the environment [14] Integrating BIM with LCA improves project sustainability by giving real-time environmental feedback and reducing manual data entry errors [33]. BIM also supports modeling of generic or typical buildings, which is important for research that aims to produce results that can be applied beyond a single project [35]. Tally is a plugin for Autodesk Revit that connects BIM with environmental databases, allowing real-time LCA within the design model. It uses life cycle inventory data from GaBi and supports assessments that meet EN 15804 and ISO 14040/44 standards [15]. Tally is widely used in academia and industry because it is easy to use and can compare LCA results for different design choices. Tally is usually used for full life cycle assessments, but it can also be customized to focus on Stage A5 by selecting construction-related parameters, such as on-site energy use, temporary materials, hoisting schedules, and equipment uses [36]. Because Tally is fully integrated with Revit, it can pull material quantities directly from the model, making sustainability analysis faster and more reliable. Unlike other tools like OneClick LCA and SimaPro, which need manual data entry and separate modeling, Tally works directly within Revit for real-time assessments. This integration reduces errors and streamlines workflow. While OneClick LCA and SimaPro have strong databases and detailed features, they often require extra steps to connect with BIM. Tally’s direct link to Revit makes it especially useful for early design, when frequent changes happen and fast feedback is needed. For this research on Stage A5 impacts in tall buildings, Tally is the most practical and efficient choice. 2.3. Environmental Impact of Tall Building Construction Tall residential buildings present unique environmental challenges due to their structural requirements and the methods employed for vertical construction. Materials like reinforced concrete cores, steel frames, and curtain walls often result in high embodied energy. The construction process also requires careful planning for equipment such as cranes and concrete pumps, which increase energy use and emissions during construction [2]. Constructing tall buildings requires more resources than mid- or low-rise buildings, particularly in terms of transportation emissions and energy needed for vertical lifting [10]. This makes it crucial to utilize LCA for Stage A5 to identify which components and processes have the greatest impact. However, there are few standardized methods for modeling these impacts with generic BIM models, making it harder to compare results and draw broad conclusions. 2.4. U.S.-Based Applications of BIM and LCA in Construction In the United States, growing awareness of carbon emissions and life cycle impacts has led architects, engineers, and policymakers to incorporate LCA into building design. Table 2 highlights several studies in this area. One major initiative is the Carbon Leadership Forum (CLF), which has used tools like Tally to benchmark embodied carbon in different U.S. building types [37]. The Embodied Carbon Benchmark Study set baseline values for carbon emissions across many buildings and stressed the need for more consistent emission data during construction. Firms like Kieran Timberlake, Gensler, and Skanska USA have also used Revit and Tally to guide material choices and optimize structures for better environmental outcomes [38]. These practices are supported by U.S. standards like LEED v4.1, which encourage whole-building LCA and the use of tools such as Tally. Still, most studies focus on overall LCA and often miss the details of Stage A5 in the construction phase. Table 2 summarizes key research on BIM and LCA integration, noting whether Stage A5 and tall buildings are specifically addressed. Table 2: Research into integrating Building Information Modeling (BIM) with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Author(s) Study Focus Tool(s) Used BIM-LCA Integration Stage A-5 Included Building Type [39] Primary materials analysis for non-residential LCA Design documents analysis Yes Yes Non-residential [40] Impact of risk on life cycle costs Expert questionnaire method Yes Yes Residential and non-residential [41] Environmental impact assessment using BIM-LCA BIM-6D Model Yes Yes Generic [42] Information model of a construction object's life cycle BIM tools Yes Yes Tall and generic [43] BIM and LCA for green building certifications Click LCA Yes Yes Generic [44] Integration of BIM with LCA for low-carbon buildings Hybrid literature review Yes No Low-Carbon Buildings [45] Opportunities and challenges in using LCA-based BIM plugins in early design stages LCA-based BIM plugins Yes No Tall and generic [46] Integrating BIM-LCA to enhance sustainability assessments Revit® (v 2022), OneClick LCA Yes No Generic and Renovation [47] Assessing Life Cycle Environmental and Economic Impacts Autodesk Revit, Dynamo Yes Yes Various Construction Solutions [48] Comprehensive consideration of building services in LCA Custom LCA Tool Yes No Tall and Generic [49] Life Cycle Assessment of Construction and Demolition Waste Management Impact 2002+ Yes Yes Generic [50] BIM-based LCA and energy analysis for optimized sustainable design Autodesk Revit, Green Building Studio, Tally Yes Yes Generic (two-bedroom single-family) [51] Information simulation of life cycle of building territory BIM technology, 3D models No No Generic The studies reviewed show a clear trend of combining BIM and LCA to improve environmental analysis and decisions in construction. Many, like [39, 41-43, 47, 50] used BIM-based tools (such as Revit, Tally, or custom LCA applications) to assess Stage A5 impacts for a range of building types, including tall buildings. Others, such as [44-46] focused on early design integration but left out Stage A5, highlighting a limitation when it comes to measuring construction impacts. Some studies, [48, 49] extended LCA applications to services and waste management but showed inconsistent focus on tall buildings. Notably, while several studies consider generic buildings, only a few, such as those by [42, 45] focus specifically on tall buildings—revealing a gap in research on Stage A5 for this building type. 2.5. Research Gap Combining Building Information Modeling (BIM) with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is seen as a strong way to make building design and construction more sustainable. However, most research focuses on either specific projects or full life cycles and often overlooks the construction phase (Stage A5), emphasizes tall buildings. Studies that examine Stage A5 often use custom models or limited data, making their findings hard to generalize. The use of generic or parametric Revit models to simulate standard tall building structures is still rare, even though this could offer broader and more transferable results. This is important, since tall buildings have complex construction logistics, use large amounts of materials, and generate significant emissions during Stage A5 [52]. Many studies also miss the benefits of real-time BIM-LCA tools like Tally, which streamline data and improve analysis within the BIM workflow. To fill these gaps, this study presents a BIM-based framework for consistently evaluating Stage A5 environmental impacts in tall buildings. By creating a standardized parametric model in Autodesk Revit that reflects typical tall building structures and materials, the framework sets up a digital foundation that can be reused for analysis. Tally is then used with this model to run targeted LCA for construction activities, such as material transport, equipment uses, and assembly giving detailed measurements of embodied carbon and other impacts. This approach improves the reliability of Stage A5 assessments and helps architects, engineers, and sustainability consultants make better decisions early in the design process. In the long run, it supports efforts to reduce emissions from buildings, especially in dense urban environments. Methodology This study used an integrated approach that combines Building Information Modeling (BIM), life cycle assessment (LCA), structural optimization, and construction scenario simulation to evaluate the environmental impacts of tall buildings, focusing on Stage A5. A detailed BIM model was built in Autodesk Revit, and the Tally plug-in quantified embodied impacts with GaBi datasets. Grasshopper and Karamba 3D were used for structural optimization, reducing material use by adjusting column spacing and beam sizes. Meanwhile, MATLAB simulations modeled different construction scenarios, showing how equipment operations, crane use, and schedules affect energy use and emissions. The outcomes from optimization, simulations, and BIM-LCA were then compared for baseline and improved scenarios, making sure both material and construction process impacts were included. Figure 1 shows the research workflow. 3.2. Research Objectives and Scope Definition Objectives: Define the research questions clearly, such as: “How can optimizing structural systems with parametric tools reduce environmental impacts during the construction of tall buildings?” State that the focus is on the construction phase of tall buildings using BIM-based LCA. Scope & Boundaries: Describe which life cycle phases are included (with emphasis on the construction phase) and explain why integrating parametric modeling tools with BIM and LCA is necessary for this assessment. Research Questions: How can a standardized parametric model of a tall building structural system be developed to evaluate and improve environmental performance during the construction phase (Stage A5)? How can Tally be applied to conduct a life cycle assessment (LCA) focusing on Stage A5 of tall buildings' structural systems? What are the measurable environmental impacts associated with Stage A5? Which factors contribute most significantly to environmental impacts during construction, and how can this information inform more sustainable decisions in the early design phase? 3.2.1. Base-Case Model Model Creation: A tall office building created in Revit 2024, the 30-floor high building has a square typical steel structure plan with reinforced concrete core and concrete slabs, as shown in Figure 2. Model Development: Grasshopper was used as the parametric design environment to create an initial generic tall office building model by defining key geometric parameters, material properties, and layout variables. Design alternatives were generated by varying column placements, beam sizes, and floor systems. 3.2.2. Structural System Optimization Several studies [4-17] validate the use of structural optimization in minimizing embodied emissions, thereby reinforcing the robustness of the proposed methodology. Karamba 3D was integrated with Grasshopper to run structural analysis and optimize design alternatives. This setup allows for parametric, performance-driven workflows, with finite element analysis (FEA) performed directly in Grasshopper. Real-time simulation outputs—such as stress distribution, deflection, and load paths—guide the selection of the most efficient structural configurations for further BIM development. These results help spot areas that may be overdesigned or under designed, enabling refinement for material efficiency and safety before transferring to BIM. Karamba 3D stands out for its seamless integration with parametric modeling, ability to handle complex shapes, and precise FEA compared to traditional software. Other programs like SAP2000, ETABS, and Autodesk Revit Structural Analysis were considered but lack the flexibility or real-time feedback needed in early design. Karamba 3D combines parametric design, simulation, and optimization in one workflow, making it ideal for early-stage decisions and BIM development. 3.2.3. Construction Scenario Optimization Using AI A MATLAB code was developed to calculate energy consumption and CO2 emissions during the construction phase of the structural system. NSGA-III was then used to find the construction scenario with the lowest environmental impacts. The MATLAB code integrated construction activity data, material properties, crane operations, and equipment performance to estimate energy use and emissions. By modeling multiple construction scenarios, the code assessed trade-offs between design and scheduling strategies, helping to understand how structural choices impact environmental outcomes. The NSGA-III algorithm was used to balance objectives like energy use, emissions, and project efficiency, resulting in a set of optimal solutions for sustainable construction planning. 3.2.4. Detailed BIM Model Development in Revit After structural optimization and construction scenario simulations, the parametric model was moved into Autodesk Revit to create a detailed BIM. This ensured that the optimized design—including refined columns, beams, and floors—was accurately represented in a digital environment. The Revit model included all material specifications, quantity takeoffs, and geometric details needed for LCA. It allowed for precise material quantity extraction and easy integration of environmental data using the Tally plug-in, which assigns impact values to each component. This direct connection between optimization and BIM modeling ensured consistency between design choices and environmental analysis. Moving from the conceptual model in Grasshopper/Karamba to a detailed Revit model also allowed for the inclusion of constructability factors like hoisting, crane placement, and temporary works. These aspects are critical for accurately assessing Stage A5 impacts, as equipment use and logistics are major sources of emissions. By including these in the Revit model, the LCA covered both material quantities and construction activities on site. The detailed model served as the central point for integrating data from optimization, construction simulations, and LCA, making it easier to see how design choices affect Stage A5 impacts and providing a repeatable method for future projects. Figure 3 illustrates the Grasshopper script for different crane locations in various scenarios. The location is saved in an Excel file and then input into MATLAB to analyze the different environmental impacts of different construction scenarios. Figure 4 illustrates the final 3D Revit model used to conduct LCA using Tally and obtain results for different scenarios 3.2.5. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) using Tally Tally was chosen because it integrates directly with Autodesk Revit, making it easy to extract material quantities and environmental data without extra steps. Unlike standalone LCA tools that need manual data entry and can introduce errors, Tally keeps the environmental analysis in sync with the digital model throughout design. This integration allows for real-time assessment of environmental impacts as the design changes, making Tally ideal for early decision-making. Tally meets EN 15804 and ISO 14040/44 standards, ensuring trustworthy results across studies. It has been used successfully in previous construction-focused LCA research, confirming its suitability for tall buildings, where they track large volumes of materials and complex logistics matters. Tally provides detailed results for both materials and assemblies, identifying major Stage A5 contributors like concrete, steel, and crane operations, and makes it easy to compare different scenarios. These strengths show Tally is a reliable tool for measuring Stage A5 impacts in an integrated BIM-LCA setup 3.2.6. Integration and Analysis of Results Data Integration: Outputs from Grasshopper/Karamba 3D optimization—like reduced column spacing and optimized beams—were transferred into Revit and linked to Tally’s environmental datasets. This made sure that material efficiency gains were directly reflected in the Stage A5 LCA results. Quantitative Comparison: Environmental impacts were compared between baseline and optimized models by tracking changes in embodied carbon (kg CO₂-eq), non-renewable energy use (kWh), and smog formation. These were chosen as key measures, especially for concrete and steel. Charts were created to show the percentage reductions in emissions and energy use for each scenario. Sensitivity Analysis: The robustness of the framework was tested with sensitivity analyses—like changing crane use cycles, adjusting hoisting schedules, and replacing reinforcing steel with recycled content. Each scenario was re-simulated in MATLAB and reassessed in Tally to see how these changes affected Stage A5 impacts. This helped reveal how decisions about logistics and materials influence environmental outcomes in tall building construction. Results 4.1 Results of Parametric Structural Optimization Parametric optimization using Grasshopper and Karamba 3D led to clear improvements in structural efficiency and environmental performance (see Figure 5). By adjusting column spacing, beam sizes, and floor layouts, the optimized models reduced total structural weight by 12–15% compared to the base-case design. This reduction lowered material usage, especially in reinforced concrete and structural steel, the main contributors to Stage A5 emissions according to the LCA. The optimization showed that making small changes early in design—like reducing beam sizes in non-critical areas or optimizing column placement—can significantly cut embodied impacts. These adjustments saved materials without compromising structural performance, as confirmed by Karamba’s analysis. Integrating the optimized models with Revit and Tally led to a 9–12% drop in embodied CO₂ emissions and a 10% reduction in non-renewable energy demand versus the baseline. This demonstrates that parametric structural optimization can meaningfully reduce construction-phase environmental impacts. Overall, these results show that structural optimization is both a technical and sustainability strategy, reducing Stage A5 impacts. Linking structural efficiency with environmental assessment early enables architects and engineers to make informed, sustainable decisions for tall building construction. 4.2 Construction Scenario Simulations and Emissions Analysis Using MATLAB, as shown in Figure 6, construction-phase scenarios were modeled to evaluate energy consumption and CO₂ emissions. Optimized scheduling and crane utilization reduced emissions by 18% and energy consumption by 22% relative to conventional construction sequencing. These results underscore the importance of operational logistics (hoisting cycles, equipment idle time) in shaping environmental performance. 4.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Stage A5 Impacts Tally-based LCA broke down impacts by life cycle stage (Figure 7). Construction (Stage A5) accounted for about 31% of total global warming potential (1,756,310 kg CO₂-eq) and high non-renewable energy use (≈7.83 × 10⁶ kWh) During Stage A5, construction used 3.3 × 10⁶ kWh of electricity, 3317 kBtu of heating, and 3317 gallons of water. This confirms that on-site activities like cranes, pumps, and temporary work are major contributors to embodied impacts in tall buildings. 4.4 Division and Material-Level Contributions Analyzing impacts by construction division showed concrete contributed over 52% of total GWP (≈3.48 million kg CO₂-eq), with metals accounting for around 30%, see Figure 8. At the material level (Figure 9), lightweight concrete (5000 psi) and reinforcing steel were the top contributors to GWP, acidification, and smog formation. Fireproofing materials also contributed to acidification and smog, but to a lesser extent. 4.5 Comparative Analysis of Base Case and Optimized Models Comparison of the base case and optimized scenarios showed clear improvements: CO ₂ emissions during construction reduced by 18%. Energy consumption reduced by 22% . Smog formation potential dropped by 17%, mainly from less idle equipment use. Figure 10 confirms that combining material efficiency from structural optimization with better equipment scheduling can significantly reduce Stage A5 environmental burdens. 4.6 Findings The study confirms that both structural efficiency and construction management are essential for reducing Stage A5 environmental impacts in tall buildings. Through the use of Grasshopper and Karamba 3D, the research demonstrated that precise optimization of design parameters—such as column spacing, beam sizes, and floor system configurations—can produce significant material savings. By reducing total structural weight by approximately 12–15%, these design strategies directly decrease the amount of reinforced concrete and steel required, which are the primary contributors to embodied carbon and energy use in construction. Importantly, these reductions were achieved without compromising structural integrity, as validated by structural analysis. The integration of BIM with life cycle assessment (LCA) tools, specifically through Revit and Tally, provided a comprehensive and scenario-specific understanding of the building’s environmental performance. The analysis revealed that construction activities in Stage A5 alone contributed nearly 31% of the total global warming potential (about 1.76 million kg CO₂-eq) and accounted for approximately 7.83 × 10⁶ kWh of non-renewable energy use. Material breakdowns indicated that reinforced concrete and structural steel together made up over 80% of Stage A5 impacts, underscoring the importance of targeting these materials for optimization. This level of detail from BIM–LCA integration enables project teams to identify high-impact areas and tailor interventions more effectively, rather than relying on generic assumptions. In addition to design and material considerations, the study used MATLAB to simulate construction-phase logistics and their environmental consequences. Results showed that crane scheduling, equipment idle time, and sequencing strategies have a direct and measurable effect on emissions. Optimizing logistics alone achieved an 18% reduction in CO₂ emissions and a 22% decrease in energy consumption compared to standard practices. These findings highlight that operational efficiency during construction is as critical as material efficiency from a sustainability perspective, and both should be prioritized in project planning. Taken together, these results demonstrate that a holistic approach—combining parametric structural optimization, BIM-based life cycle assessment, and construction logistics modeling—can deliver substantial and measurable environmental benefits. The research offers a replicable framework that empowers architects, engineers, and contractors to make informed, sustainability-driven decisions early in the design and construction process. This integrated methodology represents a significant step toward decarbonizing tall building construction and advancing broader climate goals within the built environment 4.6 Discussion This study reveals that Stage A5 construction accounts for a substantial portion of embodied environmental impacts in tall buildings—approximately one-third of the global warming potential in this case. Overlooking Stage A5 in life cycle assessments underestimates a building's true environmental burden. By integrating parametric optimization, construction scenario simulation, and BIM-based LCA, the study offers a more holistic and practical approach to assessing and improving environmental performance in tall buildings. Structural Optimization : Early design choices in Grasshopper and Karamba 3D had a direct impact on environmental outcomes. Varying beam sizes, column spacing, and floor layouts resulted in a 12–15% reduction in total structural weight, leading to a 9–12% decrease in embodied CO₂ emissions and a 10% decrease in non-renewable energy demand. Achieving these reductions at the conceptual stage shows that design iteration is a key sustainability tool—not just a technical step. Optimizing beams in non-critical areas reduced excess steel, and rationalizing columns cut concrete use. Since concrete and steel make up over 80% of Stage A5 impacts, structural optimization should be a primary environmental strategy, embedded early in the design workflow rather than assessed after the fact. Stage A5 Impacts: Using Revit and Tally, the study broke down Stage A5 impacts by activity, division, and material. Construction in Stage A5 produced about 1.76 million kg CO ₂ -eq—31% of total life cycle GWP—and used 7.83 × 10⁶ kWh of non-renewable energy, plus substantial electricity and water. This highlights the energy- and resource-intensive nature of constructing tall buildings. At the material level, concrete alone caused 52% of Stage A5 GWP, while metals (mainly reinforcing and structural steel) contributed 30%. Lightweight concrete and reinforcing steel were the largest sources of GWP, acidification, and smog formation. Targeting these materials for substitution, efficiency, or recycling offers the largest potential for reducing embodied emissions during construction. Construction Logistics and Equipment : Unlike many LCA studies, this research incorporated operational aspects, such as crane scheduling, hoisting cycles, and equipment idle time, in Stage A5. MATLAB simulations demonstrated that optimizing these factors resulted in an 18% reduction in CO₂ emissions, a 22% decrease in energy use, and a 17% decrease in smog formation. The findings show that construction-phase sustainability depends on both material efficiency and operational strategy. Tall buildings, which require energy-intensive cranes and hoists, are especially affected. Even small improvements in crane scheduling or reducing idle time can lead to large environmental savings, highlighting the importance of considering dynamic construction processes, not just material choices. Trade-Offs and Decision-Makin g: While the integrated framework effectively reduced impacts, it also introduced trade-offs. Structural optimization reduces material use and emissions, but it can also make structural detailing more complex, potentially lengthening construction timelines or increasing labor requirements. Improved logistics require more upfront planning and may raise early costs. These trade-offs highlight the need for integrated decision-making that balances performance, constructability, cost, and sustainability. For example, using recycled steel can cut emissions but may complicate supply chains, while advanced lightweight concrete could lower GWP but raise costs or require special handling. Sustainability must be considered in conjunction with feasibility and budget. Sensitivity and Practical Implications : The results show that environmental performance is highly sensitive to several key variables: Structural weight: Reducing weight by 12–15% resulted in approximately 10% lower embodied emissions. Crane utilization: Better sequencing and reduced idle time resulted in a 18% decrease in emissions. Energy use: Optimizing schedules cut non-renewable energy use by 22%. Material composition: Concrete and steel were responsible for over 80% of Stage A5 emissions. Construction stage: Stage A5 alone made up 31% of total GWP, showing its large impact. These findings provide a clear roadmap: focus on material-intensive components like concrete and steel, optimize layouts early, and refine equipment scheduling. Integrating these strategies offers the greatest environmental benefits. Future Research : Several directions remain for future research. Expanding the framework to encompass regional differences in construction would enhance the generalizability of the findings. Integrating environmental and economic modeling would help evaluate cost–cost-sustainability trade-offs. Adding machine learning could improve scenario simulation and forecasting. Finally, incorporating renewable energy or automation strategies could further reduce on-site energy demand. In summary, Stage A5 is both a major and addressable source of environmental impact in tall buildings. Structural efficiency, material choices, and logistics are all crucial factors—and they interact within a broader system where design and management must be considered together. Combining parametric structural optimization, BIM–LCA integration, and logistics simulation, this study presents a replicable framework for architects, engineers, and contractors to proactively reduce Stage A5 impacts. This approach embeds sustainability into tall building design and construction, demonstrating that addressing Stage A5 is crucial for genuine decarbonization in the built environment. 4.7. Conclusion The results show that integrating parametric optimization, BIM–LCA, and construction scenario simulation can significantly reduce the environmental impacts of Stage A5. Parametric optimization decreased structural weight by 12–15%, leading to 9–12% less embodied CO₂ and a 10% drop in non-renewable energy use. Optimized crane scheduling and equipment use cut CO₂ emissions by 18%, energy consumption by 22%, and smog formation by 17%. This confirms that operational logistics are just as important as material efficiency for sustainable construction. The base-case model had higher emissions and energy use, whereas the optimized model combined structural efficiency with improved logistics to achieve better sustainability. The optimized model cut Stage A5 emissions by nearly 20% without sacrificing performance, reinforcing the value of adopting integrated frameworks early in the design process. A key finding is that Stage A5 alone contributed nearly 31% of total life cycle GWP (1.76 million kg CO₂-eq) and used 7.83 × 10⁶ kWh of energy, mainly from cranes, hoists, and material handling. Concrete and steel made up over 80% of these impacts, making them top priorities for emission reduction. Stage A5 is thus a major influence on a building’s environmental profile and must not be overlooked in sustainability assessments. Overall, the findings show that addressing Stage A5 is both necessary and achievable. Integrating material efficiency with logistics optimization can significantly reduce the environmental impacts of construction. Structural optimization, crane scheduling, and material efficiency are practical strategies that can be implemented early in the design process. Combined, they offer a clear pathway to decarbonizing high-rise construction and reducing the built environment’s environmental footprint. Declarations Authors and Affiliations Banan Alzoubi Department of Architecture, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA Email: [email protected] Mehdi Ghiai Department of Architecture, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA Email: [email protected] Corresponding author: Banan Alzoubi ( [email protected] ) Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Conflicts of interest The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Ethics approval Not applicable. Consent to participate Not applicable. Consent to publish The authors consent to the publication of this manuscript. 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9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":356830,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure 7: Results per Life Cycle Stage\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7774942/v1/886e7f806f0195002ab44202.png"},{"id":96060182,"identity":"cf688c80-58c8-4d41-9564-08d8b32d68a9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 08:25:29","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":119995,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure 8: Results per Life Cycle Stage, itemized by Division\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7774942/v1/2effb2b03b360e1855c910eb.png"},{"id":96060177,"identity":"68a90aed-775a-4ae0-aa28-cb222400196b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 08:25:29","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":107688,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure 9: Results per Division, itemized by Material\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7774942/v1/9df88786e541195a92ff66d0.png"},{"id":96060207,"identity":"9ccb6303-e3b9-4286-ab91-f3d42e46c977","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 08:25:31","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":120986,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure 10: Results per Revit Category, itemized by Family\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7774942/v1/247c56a07537091c6f3689c6.png"},{"id":108181111,"identity":"b0e0d0cd-5c0a-4da5-be09-c9af2bbb019b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-30 08:57:32","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4251893,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7774942/v1/b61bb32b-52f2-4e70-afd0-4dd16e5f4864.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Simulation-Based Assessment of Construction Phase Environmental Impacts for Tall Buildings Structural Systems","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe construction industry significantly contributes to global carbon emissions, accounting for approximately 39% of energy-related carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions worldwide, with a substantial portion arising from construction activities [1]. Tall buildings, in particular, exert greater environmental impacts than other building types because they require more materials, involve complex structural systems, and present unique logistical challenges [2]. As urban density rises, vertical development becomes more common, making it increasingly important to understand and mitigate the environmental consequences of constructing tall buildings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith the growing need for high-rise buildings, assessing their environmental impacts during the construction phase is essential for promoting sustainable development. Construction activities contribute a large portion of total life cycle emissions. Tall building projects require significant resources and produce high levels of greenhouse gases, making targeted assessments necessary to identify opportunities for reducing environmental harm [3]. Studies show that increasing building height leads to greater material use, which in turn raises greenhouse gas emissions during construction [4].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecognizing how resources are used during construction supports accountability and guides smarter decisions about materials and structural design. For example, research by Cao et al. shows that choosing materials based on environmental criteria can improve sustainability in high-rise buildings. Their findings highlight the value of incorporating energy calculations and performance metrics to select more eco-friendly options [5]. This focus on material efficiency during construction is especially important, as this phase is frequently overlooked in environmental discussions. Including it in life cycle assessments helps fill a crucial gap in evaluating sustainability [6]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLife Cycle Assessment (LCA) is widely used to evaluate environmental impacts across a building\u0026rsquo;s entire life cycle, from material extraction to demolition [7]. Tall buildings require large quantities of materials during construction, making detailed analysis necessary. Traditional evaluation methods often overlook the full range of impacts, particularly those that occur during construction. Mavrokapnidis et al. note that most life cycle greenhouse gas emissions in tall buildings originate from both the construction and operational stages, and that construction impacts, in particular, warrant closer examination due to their scale [8].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe European standard EN 15978 defines different stages of a building\u0026rsquo;s life cycle, with Stage A5 focusing on the construction phase, which includes on-site energy use, material transport, equipment operation, and waste generation, as shown in Figure 1. This stage encompasses energy consumption on-site, transportation of materials, equipment operation, and waste production [9]. However, activities like hoisting, crane operation, and handling complex materials are often overlooked in LCA studies. As a result, it is crucial to conduct detailed analyses of emissions during the construction phase of tall buildings [10].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address these gaps, researchers recommend using LCA as a design tool to support informed decisions during both construction and operation [11]. This shift means that minimizing environmental impact becomes a key design priority. By introducing sustainability strategies at the earliest stages, construction teams can more effectively reduce the negative environmental effects of tall building projects [12]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBuilding Information Modeling (BIM) enables early integration of sustainability by providing detailed, data-driven models of buildings [13]. Autodesk Revit, a common BIM platform, supports the creation of parametric models with key material and quantity information for environmental analysis. BIM streamlines data extraction and ensures accuracy, making it a strong foundation for LCA in the early design stages [14].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Tally plugin, developed by Kieran Timberlake with Autodesk and Thinkstep, connects BIM and LCA by allowing real-time environmental assessments within the BIM environment. Tally combines material quantity data with standardized environmental information from databases like GaBi, improving the accuracy and efficiency of sustainability evaluations [15]. This integration helps architects, engineers, and consultants make better-informed decisions [16].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis integration helps architects, engineers, and consultants make better-informed decisions [17], few focus directly on the construction phase of tall buildings. Much of the existing research uses case-specific models, which limit broader applicability. This reveals a significant need for BIM approaches that can simulate and assess environmental performance during construction. Scalable BIM-based models would enable more strategic, repeatable analyses at the early design stage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite advances in BIM-based LCA tools, research focused on the construction phase (Stage A5) of tall buildings is still limited. Existing work often depends on specific case studies, which makes it difficult to apply findings more broadly. This study addresses the gap by creating a standardized parametric model of a typical tall building\u0026rsquo;s structural system in Autodesk Revit. The model uses common structural components and material specifications, providing a reliable framework for assessing environmental performance during construction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith Tally, a Revit plugin for real-time LCA, this study measures the environmental impacts linked to material transport, equipment uses, and on-site construction activities. The approach identifies key Stage A5 impacts and pinpoints which construction factors contribute most. By clarifying how different activities and material choices affect outcomes, the research guides early-stage decisions focused on sustainability. The result is a replicable and flexible method for improving environmental performance in tall building construction.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Life Cycle Assessment in Tall Buildings\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLife Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a method for evaluating the environmental impacts of a product over its entire life cycle [11]. In the context of tall buildings, LCA is used to assess environmental performance across four main phases:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Phase 1: Resource extraction and Materials manufacturing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Phase 2: Transportation and Construction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Phase 3: Use stage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Phase 4: End of life.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 4 shows that phases 1, 2, and 4 have significant environmental impacts and carbon emissions. The construction phase is especially important and is often included in whole-building LCA, following BS EN 15978, a widely recognized standard for setting system boundaries in building assessments \u0026nbsp;[18]. However, this phase is not required by ISO 14044, which is the main standard for LEED certification. In LCA, the construction phase adds to the building\u0026rsquo;s initial embodied carbon and is split into Stage A4 (transport) and Stage A5 (construction and installation).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Life Cycle Assessment in the Construction Industry\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLCA has become a key tool for measuring the environmental impacts of buildings throughout their life cycle. It helps stakeholders identify and reduce carbon emissions and other impacts at each stage, from material extraction and transportation to construction, operation, and demolition [20]. EN 15978 provides a framework for organizing a building\u0026apos;s life cycle into stages. Stage A5 focuses on the construction phase, covering machinery use, material transport, on-site assembly, and temporary resource consumption [9].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe primary goal of building LCA is to minimize environmental impacts, reduce carbon emissions, lower energy consumption, and lower costs. This section provides an overview of current research priorities in building LCA [21] A summary of major focus areas in building LCA research is shown in Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1: A summary of major focus areas in building LCA research\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"744\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor(s)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBuilding LCA Focus Area\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGoal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudied\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLCA Stage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[22]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInformal and formal building types\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAddress data gaps in LMI (low- and middle-income) countries\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDeveloped reproducibility metrics highlighted the need for LCA of traditional buildings\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA (1-3)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[23]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarbon footprint of materials\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEvaluate the environmental impacts of materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIdentified low-carbon alternatives in building materials\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA (1-3)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[24]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnergy efficiency strategies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnalyze energy demand reductions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Provided case studies on innovative technologies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eB (1-5)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[25]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnd-of-life scenarios\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAssess the implications of building a disposal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighlighted recycling potential \u0026amp; resource recovery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eC (1-4)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[26]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLife cycle costs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOptimize the economic performance of buildings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDeveloped models for cost-effectiveness over lifespans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhole LCA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[27]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBIM integration and modular design\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImprove the accuracy and comprehensive assessment of buildings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIdentified the need to include underexplored lifecycle phases, highlighting opportunities for impact reduction.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhole LCA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[28]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSite-Specific Data Utilization\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCalculate the environmental impacts of an office building\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe major impacts of materials and HVAC systems were identified, and reliable data from contractors was used.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eB (1-5)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[29]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTechnical and electrical equipment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAssess environmental impacts by including detailed components\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTechnical and electrical equipment contribute to 38% of total ecological impacts; significant discrepancies in simplified assessments noted.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhole LCA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[30]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhole-building performance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExplore integrated LCA with energy modeling\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe holistic approach demonstrated improved accuracy in embodied energy assessments, leading to better performance predictions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA (1-3)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[31]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaterials optimization and recycling\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnalyze the impacts of material selection and recycling methods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIdentified potential reduction in carbon footprint through optimized material choices and enhanced recycling processes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA (1-3)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026amp; \u003cstrong\u003eD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[32]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUse of renewable and low-impact materials\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEvaluate the benefits of using sustainable materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificant reductions in lifecycle GHG emissions were found with updated materials and design strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA (1-3)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[33]\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDigital tools in LCA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntegrate LCA with BIM for enhanced data acquisition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImplementation of BIM in LCA resulted in a more efficient workflow and comprehensive environmental impact assessment.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhole LCA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe table highlights that many studies stress the importance of accurate environmental impact assessments using parametric modeling and material evaluation. For example, \u0026nbsp;[23] identified low-carbon material alternatives, showing the value of early design choices to reduce global warming potential and fossil fuel use. Likewise, [32] found that renewable and low-impact materials can greatly lower life cycle greenhouse gas emissions, supporting sustainability efforts from the start of a project.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch on digital integration and BIM-based tools [27, 33] shows that including detailed lifecycle data through BIM improves the quality of environmental assessments, especially when using tools like Tally to analyze construction-stage impacts. This approach not only makes assessments more accurate but also allows for the inclusion of phases that are often overlooked. For example, [22] highlights the need to address data gaps, especially in low- and middle-income contexts, by using more standardized and reproducible modeling methods, such as developing a generic Revit model. Other studies [28, 29] emphasized that specific components, like HVAC and electrical systems, play a major role in overall environmental impact and benefit from detailed parametric modeling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEven with growing research on building LCA, there is still a lack of studies focused on the construction phase (Stage A5) of tall building structures. Most existing work looks at general building types or focuses on operational phases, missing the unique challenges of high-rise construction like crane logistics, material hoisting, and structural assembly. This gap makes it harder to make informed, sustainable choices early on in the design of tall buildings. These challenges\u0026mdash;such as cranes, scaffolding, concrete pumps, and vertical transport\u0026mdash;are unique to tall buildings and create environmental impacts not seen in low-rise projects [2].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.2. BIM as a Framework for Sustainability Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBIM provides a detailed digital model of structures and has quickly become essential for integrated design, visualization, cost estimation, and performance analysis. Autodesk Revit stands out among BIM platforms for its parametric modeling and ability to generate precise quantity takeoffs, which are important for later environmental assessments [34]. Because of its structured data, BIM is an ideal source for LCA tools, especially during early design when decisions have the most impact on the environment [14]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntegrating BIM with LCA improves project sustainability by giving real-time environmental feedback and reducing manual data entry errors [33]. BIM also supports modeling of generic or typical buildings, which is important for research that aims to produce results that can be applied beyond a single project [35]. Tally is a plugin for Autodesk Revit that connects BIM with environmental databases, allowing real-time LCA within the design model. It uses life cycle inventory data from GaBi and supports assessments that meet EN 15804 and ISO 14040/44 standards [15]. Tally is widely used in academia and industry because it is easy to use and can compare LCA results for different design choices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTally is usually used for full life cycle assessments, but it can also be customized to focus on Stage A5 by selecting construction-related parameters, such as on-site energy use, temporary materials, hoisting schedules, and equipment uses [36]. Because Tally is fully integrated with Revit, it can pull material quantities directly from the model, making sustainability analysis faster and more reliable. Unlike other tools like OneClick LCA and SimaPro, which need manual data entry and separate modeling, Tally works directly within Revit for real-time assessments. This integration reduces errors and streamlines workflow. While OneClick LCA and SimaPro have strong databases and detailed features, they often require extra steps to connect with BIM. Tally\u0026rsquo;s direct link to Revit makes it especially useful for early design, when frequent changes happen and fast feedback is needed. For this research on Stage A5 impacts in tall buildings, Tally is the most practical and efficient choice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Environmental Impact of Tall Building Construction\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTall residential buildings present unique environmental challenges due to their structural requirements and the methods employed for vertical construction. Materials like reinforced concrete cores, steel frames, and curtain walls often result in high embodied energy. The construction process also requires careful planning for equipment such as cranes and concrete pumps, which increase energy use and emissions during construction [2].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConstructing tall buildings requires more resources than mid- or low-rise buildings, particularly in terms of transportation emissions and energy needed for vertical lifting [10]. This makes it crucial to utilize LCA for Stage A5 to identify which components and processes have the greatest impact. However, there are few standardized methods for modeling these impacts with generic BIM models, making it harder to compare results and draw broad conclusions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.4. U.S.-Based Applications of BIM and LCA in Construction\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the United States, growing awareness of carbon emissions and life cycle impacts has led architects, engineers, and policymakers to incorporate LCA into building design. Table 2 highlights several studies in this area. One major initiative is the Carbon Leadership Forum (CLF), which has used tools like Tally to benchmark embodied carbon in different U.S. building types [37]. The Embodied Carbon Benchmark Study set baseline values for carbon emissions across many buildings and stressed the need for more consistent emission data during construction. Firms like Kieran Timberlake, Gensler, and Skanska USA have also used Revit and Tally to guide material choices and optimize structures for better environmental outcomes \u0026nbsp;[38].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese practices are supported by U.S. standards like LEED v4.1, which encourage whole-building LCA and the use of tools such as Tally. Still, most studies focus on overall LCA and often miss the details of Stage A5 in the construction phase. Table 2 summarizes key research on BIM and LCA integration, noting whether Stage A5 and tall buildings are specifically addressed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2: Research into integrating Building Information Modeling (BIM) with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"564\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor(s)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy Focus\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTool(s) Used\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBIM-LCA\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntegration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStage A-5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIncluded\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBuilding Type\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 1px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[39]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary materials analysis for non-residential LCA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDesign documents analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNon-residential\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[40]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImpact of risk on life cycle costs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExpert questionnaire method\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResidential and non-residential\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[41]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental impact assessment using BIM-LCA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBIM-6D Model\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeneric\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[42]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInformation model of a construction object\u0026apos;s life cycle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBIM tools\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTall and generic\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[43]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBIM and LCA for green building certifications\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClick LCA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeneric\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[44]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntegration of BIM with LCA for low-carbon buildings\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHybrid literature review\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow-Carbon Buildings\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[45]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOpportunities and challenges in using LCA-based BIM plugins in early design stages\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLCA-based BIM plugins\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTall and generic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[46]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntegrating BIM-LCA to enhance sustainability assessments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRevit\u0026reg; (v 2022), OneClick LCA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeneric and Renovation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[47]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssessing Life Cycle Environmental and Economic Impacts\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAutodesk Revit, Dynamo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVarious Construction Solutions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[48]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComprehensive consideration of building services in LCA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCustom LCA Tool\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTall and Generic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[49]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLife Cycle Assessment of Construction and Demolition Waste Management\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImpact 2002+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeneric\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[50]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBIM-based LCA and energy analysis for optimized sustainable design\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAutodesk Revit, Green Building Studio, Tally\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeneric (two-bedroom single-family)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[51]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 186px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInformation simulation of life cycle of building territory\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBIM technology, 3D models\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeneric\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe studies reviewed show a clear trend of combining BIM and LCA to improve environmental analysis and decisions in construction. Many, like [39, 41-43, 47, 50] used BIM-based tools (such as Revit, Tally, or custom LCA applications) to assess Stage A5 impacts for a range of building types, including tall buildings. Others, such as [44-46] focused on early design integration but left out Stage A5, highlighting a limitation when it comes to measuring construction impacts. Some studies, [48, 49] extended LCA applications to services and waste management but showed inconsistent focus on tall buildings. Notably, while several studies consider generic buildings, only a few, such as those by [42, 45] focus specifically on tall buildings\u0026mdash;revealing a gap in research on Stage A5 for this building type.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.5. Research Gap\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCombining Building Information Modeling (BIM) with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is seen as a strong way to make building design and construction more sustainable. However, most research focuses on either specific projects or full life cycles and often overlooks the construction phase (Stage A5), emphasizes tall buildings. Studies that examine Stage A5 often use custom models or limited data, making their findings hard to generalize. The use of generic or parametric Revit models to simulate standard tall building structures is still rare, even though this could offer broader and more transferable results. This is important, since tall buildings have complex construction logistics, use large amounts of materials, and generate significant emissions during Stage A5 [52]. Many studies also miss the benefits of real-time BIM-LCA tools like Tally, which streamline data and improve analysis within the BIM workflow.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo fill these gaps, this study presents a BIM-based framework for consistently evaluating Stage A5 environmental impacts in tall buildings. By creating a standardized parametric model in Autodesk Revit that reflects typical tall building structures and materials, the framework sets up a digital foundation that can be reused for analysis. Tally is then used with this model to run targeted LCA for construction activities, such as material transport, equipment uses, and assembly giving detailed measurements of embodied carbon and other impacts. This approach improves the reliability of Stage A5 assessments and helps architects, engineers, and sustainability consultants make better decisions early in the design process. In the long run, it supports efforts to reduce emissions from buildings, especially in dense urban environments.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology ","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study used an integrated approach that combines Building Information Modeling (BIM), life cycle assessment (LCA), structural optimization, and construction scenario simulation to evaluate the environmental impacts of tall buildings, focusing on Stage A5. A detailed BIM model was built in Autodesk Revit, and the Tally plug-in quantified embodied impacts with GaBi datasets. Grasshopper and Karamba 3D were used for structural optimization, reducing material use by adjusting column spacing and beam sizes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeanwhile, MATLAB simulations modeled different construction scenarios, showing how equipment operations, crane use, and schedules affect energy use and emissions. The outcomes from optimization, simulations, and BIM-LCA were then compared for baseline and improved scenarios, making sure both material and construction process impacts were included. Figure 1 shows the research workflow.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Research Objectives and Scope Definition\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjectives:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Define the research questions clearly, such as: \u0026ldquo;How can optimizing structural systems with parametric tools reduce environmental impacts during the construction of tall buildings?\u0026rdquo; State that the focus is on the construction phase of tall buildings using BIM-based LCA.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eScope \u0026amp; Boundaries:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Describe which life cycle phases are included (with emphasis on the construction phase) and explain why integrating parametric modeling tools with BIM and LCA is necessary for this assessment.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch Questions:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHow can a standardized parametric model of a tall building structural system be developed to evaluate and improve environmental performance during the construction phase (Stage A5)?\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHow can Tally be applied to conduct a life cycle assessment (LCA) focusing on Stage A5 of tall buildings\u0026apos; structural systems?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWhat are the measurable environmental impacts associated with Stage A5?\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWhich factors contribute most significantly to environmental impacts during construction, and how can this information inform more sustainable decisions in the early design phase?\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.2.1. Base-Case Model\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModel Creation: A tall office building created in Revit 2024, the 30-floor high building has a square typical steel structure plan with reinforced concrete core and concrete slabs, as shown in Figure 2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModel Development: Grasshopper was used as the parametric design environment to create an initial generic tall office building model by defining key geometric parameters, material properties, and layout variables. Design alternatives were generated by varying column placements, beam sizes, and floor systems.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.2.2. Structural System Optimization\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral studies [4-17] validate the use of structural optimization in minimizing embodied emissions, thereby reinforcing the robustness of the proposed methodology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKaramba 3D was integrated with Grasshopper to run structural analysis and optimize design alternatives. This setup allows for parametric, performance-driven workflows, with finite element analysis (FEA) performed directly in Grasshopper. Real-time simulation outputs\u0026mdash;such as stress distribution, deflection, and load paths\u0026mdash;guide the selection of the most efficient structural configurations for further BIM development. These results help spot areas that may be overdesigned or under designed, enabling refinement for material efficiency and safety before transferring to BIM. Karamba 3D stands out for its seamless integration with parametric modeling, ability to handle complex shapes, and precise FEA compared to traditional software. Other programs like SAP2000, ETABS, and Autodesk Revit Structural Analysis were considered but lack the flexibility or real-time feedback needed in early design. Karamba 3D combines parametric design, simulation, and optimization in one workflow, making it ideal for early-stage decisions and BIM development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.2.3. Construction Scenario Optimization Using AI\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA MATLAB code was developed to calculate energy consumption and CO2 emissions during the construction phase of the structural system. NSGA-III was then used to find the construction scenario with the lowest environmental impacts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe MATLAB code integrated construction activity data, material properties, crane operations, and equipment performance to estimate energy use and emissions. By modeling multiple construction scenarios, the code assessed trade-offs between design and scheduling strategies, helping to understand how structural choices impact environmental outcomes. The NSGA-III algorithm was used to balance objectives like energy use, emissions, and project efficiency, resulting in a set of optimal solutions for sustainable construction planning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.2.4. Detailed BIM Model Development in Revit\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter structural optimization and construction scenario simulations, the parametric model was moved into Autodesk Revit to create a detailed BIM. This ensured that the optimized design\u0026mdash;including refined columns, beams, and floors\u0026mdash;was accurately represented in a digital environment. The Revit model included all material specifications, quantity takeoffs, and geometric details needed for LCA. It allowed for precise material quantity extraction and easy integration of environmental data using the Tally plug-in, which assigns impact values to each component. This direct connection between optimization and BIM modeling ensured consistency between design choices and environmental analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoving from the conceptual model in Grasshopper/Karamba to a detailed Revit model also allowed for the inclusion of constructability factors like hoisting, crane placement, and temporary works. These aspects are critical for accurately assessing Stage A5 impacts, as equipment use and logistics are major sources of emissions. By including these in the Revit model, the LCA covered both material quantities and construction activities on site. The detailed model served as the central point for integrating data from optimization, construction simulations, and LCA, making it easier to see how design choices affect Stage A5 impacts and providing a repeatable method for future projects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 3 illustrates the Grasshopper script for different crane locations in various scenarios. The location is saved in an Excel file and then input into MATLAB to analyze the different environmental impacts of different construction scenarios. Figure 4 illustrates the final 3D Revit model used to conduct LCA using Tally and obtain results for different scenarios\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.2.5. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) using Tally\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTally was chosen because it integrates directly with Autodesk Revit, making it easy to extract material quantities and environmental data without extra steps. Unlike standalone LCA tools that need manual data entry and can introduce errors, Tally keeps the environmental analysis in sync with the digital model throughout design. This integration allows for real-time assessment of environmental impacts as the design changes, making Tally ideal for early decision-making.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTally meets EN 15804 and ISO 14040/44 standards, ensuring trustworthy results across studies. It has been used successfully in previous construction-focused LCA research, confirming its suitability for tall buildings, where they track large volumes of materials and complex logistics matters. Tally provides detailed results for both materials and assemblies, identifying major Stage A5 contributors like concrete, steel, and crane operations, and makes it easy to compare different scenarios. These strengths show Tally is a reliable tool for measuring Stage A5 impacts in an integrated BIM-LCA setup\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.2.6. Integration and Analysis of Results\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData Integration: Outputs from Grasshopper/Karamba 3D optimization\u0026mdash;like reduced column spacing and optimized beams\u0026mdash;were transferred into Revit and linked to Tally\u0026rsquo;s environmental datasets. This made sure that material efficiency gains were directly reflected in the Stage A5 LCA results.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative Comparison: Environmental impacts were compared between baseline and optimized models by tracking changes in embodied carbon (kg CO₂-eq), non-renewable energy use (kWh), and smog formation. These were chosen as key measures, especially for concrete and steel. Charts were created to show the percentage reductions in emissions and energy use for each scenario.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSensitivity Analysis: The robustness of the framework was tested with sensitivity analyses\u0026mdash;like changing crane use cycles, adjusting hoisting schedules, and replacing reinforcing steel with recycled content. Each scenario was re-simulated in MATLAB and reassessed in Tally to see how these changes affected Stage A5 impacts. This helped reveal how decisions about logistics and materials influence environmental outcomes in tall building construction.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Results of Parametric Structural Optimization\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParametric optimization using Grasshopper and Karamba 3D led to clear improvements in structural efficiency and environmental performance (see Figure 5). By adjusting column spacing, beam sizes, and floor layouts, the optimized models reduced\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;total structural weight by 12\u0026ndash;15%\u003c/strong\u003e compared to the base-case design. This reduction lowered material usage, especially in reinforced concrete and structural steel, the main contributors to Stage A5 emissions according to the LCA.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe optimization showed that making small changes early in design\u0026mdash;like reducing beam sizes in non-critical areas or optimizing column placement\u0026mdash;can significantly cut embodied impacts. These adjustments saved materials without compromising structural performance, as confirmed by Karamba\u0026rsquo;s analysis. Integrating the optimized models with Revit and Tally led to a 9\u0026ndash;12% drop in embodied CO₂\u0026nbsp;emissions and a 10% reduction in non-renewable energy demand versus the baseline. This demonstrates that parametric structural optimization can meaningfully reduce construction-phase environmental impacts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, these results show that structural optimization is both a technical and sustainability strategy, reducing Stage A5 impacts. Linking structural efficiency with environmental assessment early enables architects and engineers to make informed, sustainable decisions for tall building construction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Construction Scenario Simulations and Emissions Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing MATLAB, as shown in Figure 6, construction-phase scenarios were modeled to evaluate energy consumption and CO₂ emissions. Optimized scheduling and crane utilization reduced emissions by 18% and energy consumption by 22% relative to conventional construction sequencing. These results underscore the importance of operational logistics (hoisting cycles, equipment idle time) in shaping environmental performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Stage A5 Impacts\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTally-based LCA broke down impacts by life cycle stage (Figure 7). Construction (Stage A5) accounted for about 31% of total global warming potential (1,756,310 kg CO₂-eq) and high non-renewable energy use (\u0026asymp;7.83 \u0026times; 10⁶ kWh)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring Stage A5, construction used 3.3 \u0026times; 10⁶ kWh of electricity, 3317 kBtu of heating, and 3317 gallons of water. This confirms that on-site activities like cranes, pumps, and temporary work are major contributors to embodied impacts in tall buildings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e4.4 Division and Material-Level Contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalyzing impacts by construction division showed concrete contributed over 52% of total GWP (\u0026asymp;3.48 million kg CO₂-eq), with metals accounting for around 30%, see Figure 8.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the material level (Figure 9), lightweight concrete (5000 psi) and reinforcing steel were the top contributors to GWP, acidification, and smog formation. Fireproofing materials also contributed to acidification and smog, but to a lesser extent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e4.5 Comparative Analysis of Base Case and Optimized Models\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eComparison of the base case and optimized scenarios showed clear improvements:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e₂\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;emissions\u003c/strong\u003e during construction reduced by 18%.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEnergy consumption reduced by 22%\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSmog formation potential dropped by 17%, mainly from less\u003c/strong\u003e idle equipment use.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 10 confirms that combining material efficiency from structural optimization with better equipment scheduling can significantly reduce Stage A5 environmental burdens.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e4.6 Findings\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study confirms that both structural efficiency and construction management are essential for reducing Stage A5 environmental impacts in tall buildings. Through the use of Grasshopper and Karamba 3D, the research demonstrated that precise optimization of design parameters\u0026mdash;such as column spacing, beam sizes, and floor system configurations\u0026mdash;can produce significant material savings. By reducing total structural weight by approximately 12\u0026ndash;15%, these design strategies directly decrease the amount of reinforced concrete and steel required, which are the primary contributors to embodied carbon and energy use in construction. Importantly, these reductions were achieved without compromising structural integrity, as validated by structural analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe integration of BIM with life cycle assessment (LCA) tools, specifically through Revit and Tally, provided a comprehensive and scenario-specific understanding of the building\u0026rsquo;s environmental performance. The analysis revealed that construction activities in Stage A5 alone contributed nearly 31% of the total global warming potential (about 1.76 million kg CO₂-eq) and accounted for approximately 7.83 \u0026times; 10⁶ kWh of non-renewable energy use. Material breakdowns indicated that reinforced concrete and structural steel together made up over 80% of Stage A5 impacts, underscoring the importance of targeting these materials for optimization. This level of detail from BIM\u0026ndash;LCA integration enables project teams to identify high-impact areas and tailor interventions more effectively, rather than relying on generic assumptions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to design and material considerations, the study used MATLAB to simulate construction-phase logistics and their environmental consequences. Results showed that crane scheduling, equipment idle time, and sequencing strategies have a direct and measurable effect on emissions. Optimizing logistics alone achieved an 18% reduction in CO₂\u0026nbsp;emissions and a 22% decrease in energy consumption compared to standard practices. These findings highlight that operational efficiency during construction is as critical as material efficiency from a sustainability perspective, and both should be prioritized in project planning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTaken together, these results demonstrate that a holistic approach\u0026mdash;combining parametric structural optimization, BIM-based life cycle assessment, and construction logistics modeling\u0026mdash;can deliver substantial and measurable environmental benefits. The research offers a replicable framework that empowers architects, engineers, and contractors to make informed, sustainability-driven decisions early in the design and construction process. This integrated methodology represents a significant step toward decarbonizing tall building construction and advancing broader climate goals within the built environment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e4.6 Discussion\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study reveals that Stage A5 construction accounts for a substantial portion of embodied environmental impacts in tall buildings\u0026mdash;approximately one-third of the global warming potential in this case. Overlooking Stage A5 in life cycle assessments underestimates a building\u0026apos;s true environmental burden. By integrating parametric optimization, construction scenario simulation, and BIM-based LCA, the study offers a more holistic and practical approach to assessing and improving environmental performance in tall buildings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStructural Optimization\u003c/strong\u003e: Early design choices in Grasshopper and Karamba 3D had a direct impact on environmental outcomes. Varying beam sizes, column spacing, and floor layouts resulted in a 12\u0026ndash;15% reduction in total structural weight, leading to a 9\u0026ndash;12% decrease in embodied CO₂\u0026nbsp;emissions and a 10% decrease in non-renewable energy demand.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAchieving these reductions at the conceptual stage shows that design iteration is a key sustainability tool\u0026mdash;not just a technical step. Optimizing beams in non-critical areas reduced excess steel, and rationalizing columns cut concrete use. Since concrete and steel make up over 80% of Stage A5 impacts, structural optimization should be a primary environmental strategy, embedded early in the design workflow rather than assessed after the fact.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStage A5 Impacts: Using Revit and Tally, the study broke down Stage A5 impacts by activity, division, and material. Construction in Stage A5 produced about 1.76 million kg CO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e₂\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-eq\u0026mdash;31% of total life cycle GWP\u0026mdash;and used 7.83 \u0026times; 10⁶ kWh of non-renewable energy, plus substantial electricity and water. This highlights the energy- and resource-intensive\u003c/strong\u003e nature of constructing tall buildings.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the material level, concrete alone caused 52% of Stage A5 GWP, while metals (mainly reinforcing and structural steel) contributed 30%. Lightweight concrete and reinforcing steel were the largest sources of GWP, acidification, and smog formation. Targeting these materials for substitution, efficiency, or recycling offers the largest potential for reducing embodied emissions during construction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConstruction Logistics and Equipment\u003c/strong\u003e: Unlike many LCA studies, this research incorporated operational aspects, such as crane scheduling, hoisting cycles, and equipment idle time, in Stage A5. MATLAB simulations demonstrated that optimizing these factors resulted in an 18% reduction in CO₂\u0026nbsp;emissions, a 22% decrease in energy use, and a 17% decrease in smog formation.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings show that construction-phase sustainability depends on both material efficiency and operational strategy. Tall buildings, which require energy-intensive cranes and hoists, are especially affected. Even small improvements in crane scheduling or reducing idle time can lead to large environmental savings, highlighting the importance of considering dynamic construction processes, not just material choices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrade-Offs and Decision-Makin\u003c/strong\u003eg: While the integrated framework effectively reduced impacts, it also introduced trade-offs. Structural optimization reduces material use and emissions, but it can also make structural detailing more complex, potentially lengthening construction timelines or increasing labor requirements. Improved logistics require more upfront planning and may raise early costs.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese trade-offs highlight the need for integrated decision-making that balances performance, constructability, cost, and sustainability. For example, using recycled steel can cut emissions but may complicate supply chains, while advanced lightweight concrete could lower GWP but raise costs or require special handling. Sustainability must be considered in conjunction with feasibility and budget.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSensitivity and Practical Implications\u003c/strong\u003e: The results show that environmental performance is highly sensitive to several key variables:\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStructural weight: Reducing weight by 12\u0026ndash;15% resulted in approximately 10% lower embodied emissions.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCrane utilization: Better sequencing and reduced idle time resulted in a 18% decrease in emissions.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEnergy use: Optimizing schedules cut non-renewable energy use by 22%.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMaterial composition: Concrete and steel were responsible for over 80% of Stage A5 emissions.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eConstruction stage: Stage A5 alone made up 31% of total GWP, showing its large impact.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings provide a clear roadmap: focus on material-intensive components like concrete and steel, optimize layouts early, and refine equipment scheduling. Integrating these strategies offers the greatest environmental benefits.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFuture Research\u003c/strong\u003e: Several directions remain for future research. Expanding the framework to encompass regional differences in construction would enhance the generalizability of the findings. Integrating environmental and economic modeling would help evaluate cost\u0026ndash;cost-sustainability trade-offs. Adding machine learning could improve scenario simulation and forecasting. Finally, incorporating renewable energy or automation strategies could further reduce on-site energy demand.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn summary, Stage A5 is both a major and addressable source of environmental impact in tall buildings. Structural efficiency, material choices, and logistics are all crucial factors\u0026mdash;and they interact within a broader system where design and management must be considered together.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCombining parametric structural optimization, BIM\u0026ndash;LCA integration, and logistics simulation, this study presents a replicable framework for architects, engineers, and contractors to proactively reduce Stage A5 impacts. This approach embeds sustainability into tall building design and construction, demonstrating that addressing Stage A5 is crucial for genuine decarbonization in the built environment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u0026nbsp;4.7. Conclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results show that integrating parametric optimization, BIM\u0026ndash;LCA, and construction scenario simulation can significantly reduce the environmental impacts of Stage A5. Parametric optimization decreased structural weight by 12\u0026ndash;15%, leading to 9\u0026ndash;12% less embodied CO₂\u0026nbsp;and a 10% drop in non-renewable energy use. Optimized crane scheduling and equipment use cut CO₂\u0026nbsp;emissions by 18%, energy consumption by 22%, and smog formation by 17%. This confirms that operational logistics are just as important as material efficiency for sustainable construction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe base-case model had higher emissions and energy use, whereas the optimized model combined structural efficiency with improved logistics to achieve better sustainability. The optimized model cut Stage A5 emissions by nearly 20% without sacrificing performance, reinforcing the value of adopting integrated frameworks early in the design process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA key finding is that Stage A5 alone contributed nearly 31% of total life cycle GWP (1.76 million kg CO₂-eq) and used 7.83 \u0026times; 10⁶ kWh of energy, mainly from cranes, hoists, and material handling. Concrete and steel made up over 80% of these impacts, making them top priorities for emission reduction. Stage A5 is thus a major influence on a building\u0026rsquo;s environmental profile and must not be overlooked in sustainability assessments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, the findings show that addressing Stage A5 is both necessary and achievable. Integrating material efficiency with logistics optimization can significantly reduce the environmental impacts of construction. Structural optimization, crane scheduling, and material efficiency are practical strategies that can be implemented early in the design process. Combined, they offer a clear pathway to decarbonizing high-rise construction and reducing the built environment\u0026rsquo;s environmental footprint.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthors and Affiliations\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBanan Alzoubi\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDepartment of Architecture, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmail: [email protected]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMehdi Ghiai\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDepartment of Architecture, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmail: [email protected]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorresponding author:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBanan Alzoubi ([email protected])\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors consent to the publication of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBanan Alzoubi\u003c/strong\u003e conducted all simulations and got all results and wrote the manuscript.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMehdi Ghiai\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ereviewed the manuscript and provided feedback.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIEA, \u003cem\u003eGlobal Status Report for Buildings and Construction 2019, IEA, Paris\u003c/em\u003e. 2019.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePomponi, F. and A. 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This study examines the environmental impacts associated with the construction process of tall office buildings by integrating Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). A generic model representing common structural systems and material configurations was developed in Autodesk Revit. Grasshopper and Karamba 3D were utilized to optimize the structural system, enhancing its performance and efficiency. The environmental impact of the construction process, Stage A5 of the building life cycle, as defined by EN 15978 standards, was then assessed using the Tally plugin. MATLAB was used to quantify the energy consumption and CO₂ emissions of the optimized structure. Then, different construction scenarios were optimized using VSGA-III, providing a more precise evaluation of the system\u0026rsquo;s environmental performance. An LCA analysis was conducted using the Tally plugin within Revit to highlight key impact factors, including fossil fuel depletion, global warming potential, and construction waste. By combining BIM, structural optimization, and advanced analytical tools, this framework provides a reliable tool for early-stage environmental assessments of tall buildings' structural systems, helping architects and designers to make informed decisions to minimize environmental impacts during the construction phase of tall buildings. This process might lead to New or revised green building certifications, Changes in regulatory requirements, and this framework could become a new standard for designing sustainable tall buildings, influencing industry practices and promoting the adoption of sustainable design principles. This study quantified measurable outcomes, including an 18% reduction in CO₂ emissions, a 22% reduction in energy consumption, and a 17% reduction in smog formation potential, thereby demonstrating the framework\u0026rsquo;s practical effectiveness in minimizing Stage A5 environmental impacts. Future studies could expand this framework by incorporating additional life cycle stages, testing real-world construction projects, and integrating renewable energy solutions or automation strategies to further enhance sustainability outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Simulation-Based Assessment of Construction Phase Environmental Impacts for Tall Buildings Structural Systems","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-17 08:24:58","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7774942/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"402ded32-fdae-460a-96b0-9b41acdbce2a","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-23T05:54:45+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-17 08:24:58","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7774942","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7774942","identity":"rs-7774942","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}