Body Appreciation and Media Pressure Predict Time Perception During Exposure to Varying Body Sizes

Body Appreciation and Media Pressure Predict Time Perception During Exposure to Varying Body Sizes | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Body Appreciation and Media Pressure Predict Time Perception During Exposure to Varying Body Sizes Claire El-Jor, Rebecca Shankland, Valentin Flaudias, Quentin Hallez This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8259354/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This research investigates the influence of body pictures on time perception, specifically examining how viewing images of different body sizes affects subjective time estimation. Two experiments were conducted with female university students. Experiment 1 explored the effects of “underweight”, “normal', and “obese” body images on time perception and emotional responses, measuring valence and arousal. The results indicated that body size did not have a significant effect on time perception. However, “underweight” body images elicited more negative valence and higher arousal. Experiment 2 examined the moderating roles of additional variables on these effects, specifically measuring eating disorder symptoms, body appreciation, and media pressure. While body size did not directly affect time perception, lower body appreciation and higher media pressure were associated with longer subjective time estimations across all body image conditions. These findings suggest that emotional responses, particularly negative affect and increased arousal, to body images, and individual differences in body image-related attitudes, can indirectly influence the perception of time. Level of Evidence: Level I, experimental studies Time perception Body Sizes Temporal bisection Body appreciation Media pressure Figures Figure 1 Introduction The seemingly endless scroll of social media presents a complex and often contradictory landscape of messages about health and body image. While ostensibly promoting fitness and well-being, "fitspiration" posts can perpetuate unrealistic beauty standards and contribute to unhealthy body image and exercise addiction [ 1 – 3 ] . Similarly, other content overtly glorifies and encourages eating disorders, further blurring the lines between aspiration and harm [ 4 , 5 ] . Given the pervasiveness of body-related imagery in Western societies and its potential impact on cognition, this research investigates its influence on time perception. To investigate these questions, we conducted an initial experiment focusing on the impact of body size images on subjective time perception and emotional reactions. Building upon the findings of this first study, a second experiment was designed to further examine potential moderating variables. As such, Experiment 1 analyzes the effects of body images on time perception and affect, while Experiment 2 examines whether problematic eating behaviors, media pressure, and body image further modulate the effects of body pictures on time perception. Understanding the factors that influence temporal experience can inform strategies for improving time management and attention regulation, particularly among young adults heavily exposed to such imagery [ 6 ] . This is crucial in the context of information overload and constant stimulation prevalent on social media. The emotional impact of social media content varies depending on the specific post and the individual viewing it. Indeed, experimental research has looked into how “fitspiration” posts on social media affect an individual’s mood, revealing that even short exposures to this kind of content can increase negative mood states [ 7 , 8 ] . Furthermore, time spent on social media in general has been shown to be associated with mood, with the number of sites visited and the number of hours spent being significant predictors of general negative affect [ 9 ] . Additionally, recent research has investigated the protective effects of disclaimers on such posts; however, results indicated that such disclaimers did not reduce the effects of idealized body posts on mood or body image dissatisfaction [ 10 ] . An individual’s emotional state can affect the way they subjectively experience time. Time perception judgement, that is, the specific act or outcome of evaluating temporal information, has been studied for decades [ 11 , 12 ] . As such, there are many different theories that attempt to explain how time is perceived and what factors affect it. According to the pacemaker-accumulator model [ 13 ] , an internal pacemaker generates consistent pulses, similar to a ticking clock. These pulses pass through a switch that opens at the beginning of an event and closes at its end, allowing the pulses to accumulate in an accumulator. The total number of pulses collected represents the perceived duration of the event, the higher the number of pulses, the longer the subjective time. Indeed, the perception of time has been shown to be affected by multiple factors, such as attentional capacities, whereby attention regulates the flow of pulses from the pacemaker to the accumulator [ 11 , 14 , 15 ] . The lack of attention allocated to time processing is thought to open the attentional switch connecting the pacemaker to the accumulator. As a result, the pulses can no longer integrate into the accumulator and are lost, leading to an underestimation of time. In addition, time perception has also been shown to be affected by emotional stimuli resulting in temporal illusions such that positive emotions make it feel like time is “speeding up” due to an increase in the number of pulses sent to the pacemaker allowing more impulses to increment the accumulator, resulting in perceived longer times whereby the higher the arousal, the greater the effect such as in emotions of fear or anger [ 16 , 17 ] . Research has also investigated other aspects that can alter time perception, such as stimulus complexity or magnitude [ 18 ] . Thus, it can be said that the perception of time is influenced by various factors, often resulting in temporal illusions or distortions in judging durations. Researchers have been interested in finding different types of stimuli that can generate emotions and, ultimately, alter our perception of time (for a review, see [ 19 ] . Of our greater interest, time perception, as modulated by emotion, has also been studied in relation to food stimuli. For example, research has found that food pictures, particularly disliked ones, cause greater underestimation of time compared to neutral pictures, indicating that food pictures, and possibly food in general, distract attention from time processing [ 20 ] . To add to this, a recent study found that high-calorie food pictures led to an overestimation of time compared to non-food pictures, influenced by participants' diet control, whereby those with greater diet control showed less time overestimation, indicating that the arousal response to high-calorie foods significantly affects time perception [ 21 ] . More specifically, women with eating disorders have been found to have a heightened emotional response to food pictures, whereby they overestimate time when exposed to pictures that elicit heightened arousal and activate defenses [ 22 ] . Furthermore, patients with eating disorders show distorted time estimation patterns, linked to compulsive self-monitoring and differing by diagnosis (overestimation in anorexia nervosa and underestimation in binge eating disorder [ 23 ] ). In contrast, another study found that participants with anorexia nervosa underestimated time compared to participants in a control group [ 24 ] . In this vein, body images, ubiquitous on social media, may also constitute a potent emotional stimulus. Exposure to bodies that either conform to or deviate from promoted beauty ideals can elicit strong affective responses, such as anxiety and/or social comparison [ 25 , 26 ] . Such responses are particularly salient within the general population, and notably among young adults, where body image preoccupations are prevalent even without a clinical eating disorder diagnosis. It is thus relevant to investigate how viewing images of different body types might modulate the perception of time. Understanding this potential influence is crucial, considering the sheer volume of body-related content people consume daily. Experiment 1 Hypotheses The overarching aim of the present research is to determine whether visual exposure to “underweight” and “obese” body pictures influences the perception of time. Our primary focus (H1) is to analyze whether these emotionally evocative stimuli lead to a subjective overestimation of exposure duration compared to neutral visual content. Subsequently, should an effect on time perception be observed, a secondary objective is to elucidate the nature of this influence. This involves examining the potential mediating role of various psychological variables, including the level of arousal elicited by the stimuli (H2), to better understand the mechanisms underlying any temporal distortions. Methods Participants The study included 122 French female university students ranging in age from 16 to 32 years old ( M = 18.84, SD = 2.16). Participants were enrolled via an invitation communicated in the psychology courses of a French University and participated in this experiment to fulfill course credit. Participants were asked not to participate if they felt negatively about their own bodies. The mean BMI of participants was 21.74 (SD = 4.05). A significant majority (n = 86, 76%) had a "normal" BMI (18.5-25). Twenty-one participants (16.5%) had a BMI below 18.5, while 15 participants were above this threshold (n = 10, 7.8% “overweight” [25-29.9 kg/m²]; n = 5, 3.9% “obese” [>30 kg/m²]). Five individuals (3.9%) did not respond. Experiments 1 and 2 complied with the Declaration of Helsinki and were approved by the Ethics, Deontology, and Scientific Integrity Committee of XXX (Details withheld for blind review). All the data from Experiments 1 and 2 are available on the following OSF link : [https://osf.io/yvufw/?view_only=3270b6f90f024a9f9ee998ef5ea459f1]. Material Body pictures used for the experiment (Appendix A) were selected from a pre-test involving 42 female participants. The images chosen were those where participants subjectively rated them as the most “obese” (for the images of large bodies), the most “underweight” (for images of small bodies), and most "normal" for control stimuli on an analog scale ranging from “underweight” to “obese”. This first experiment was conducted remotely using the Qualtrics® online research platform. In the experimental session, emotional responses were measured using the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) Scale [27] , which is a tool designed to gauge participants' emotional reactions to stimuli. This scale evaluates three dimensions of emotion: valence (pleasure or happiness), arousal (excited or relaxed), and dominance (empowered vs overwhelmed), and participants indicate their feelings by choosing images that best depict their current emotional state. The valence dimension ranges from a frowning, unhappy figure to a smiling, happy figure. The arousal dimension ranges from an excited, wide-eyed figure to a relaxed, sleepy figure. The dominance dimension ranges from a large, powerful figure to a small, submissive figure. Procedure Participants first completed a bisection task divided into three phases: pre-training, training, and testing. During the initial part of this task (i.e., pre-training and training), participants were instructed to estimate the duration of visual stimuli presentations (colored squares of the same size as the images presented in the test phase), without attempting to count to aid in time measurement as this has been proved as an effective method to prevent counting [28] . During pre-training, participants were exposed twice to each of the two standard durations: "short" (400 ms) and "long" (1600 ms). In the training phase, the participants were exposed to a block of 16 trials in which standard durations were each randomly presented eight times. After each presentation, participants were required to judge the duration as "short" or "long" by selecting the corresponding option on the screen. They received immediate feedback on their accuracy ("yes" for correct, "no" for incorrect), displayed for two seconds before proceeding to the next trial. If the participant achieved a correct response rate exceeding 75%, they proceeded to the test phase. Otherwise, they repeated the learning phase a second time. In the experimental test phase, the squares were replaced with 12 images depicting bodies of different sizes (4 photos for each of the following categories: “underweight” body, “normal” body, “obese” body; see Appendix A). Additionally, intermediate durations (600ms, 800ms, 1000ms, 1200ms, and 1400ms) were introduced in addition to the two standard durations (400ms and 1600ms). Participants were informed about the inclusion of these intermediate durations but were instructed to continue identifying whether the presented duration was closest to the short or long duration. Participants then completed the SAM scale and provided demographic data. Before ending the experiment, a debriefing sheet was shared with participants. Statistical Analyses Stimuli associated with trials for which the presentation duration was 150 ms longer than prescribed were deleted. We thus deleted 73 trials from a total of 10248 trials, which corresponded to 0.71% of the data. On average, the presentation time compared to the expected time was accurate ( Mdiff = 0.047s; SD = 0.006s). Statistical analyses were carried out using JASP (version 0.18.2). Descriptive statistics were calculated and included means, standard deviations, skewness, and kurtosis. Pearson correlations were also carried out. Repeated measures analyses of variances (ANOVA) were then carried out. Greenhouse–Geisser corrections were applied when sphericity was violated. In addition, bisection points and Weber ratios were computed based on the psychophysical curves through linear interpolation. Results The effect of body size on time perception The repeated measures ANOVA carried out on the different time conditions (400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1400 & 1600ms) and the three different picture conditions (“underweight”, “normal”, and “obese”)) did not reveal any significant interaction effect between the different picture and time conditions on time perception, F (12, 121) = 1.18, p = .30. Greenhouse-Geisser corrections confirmed this non-significance, F (7.65, 121) = 1.18, p = .31. Similarly, further repeated measures ANOVA analyses that were carried out on the three different picture conditions and the bisection point and Weber ratio did not reveal any significant results. The effect of body size on emotional response Another repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to examine the effect of the three different picture conditions on the emotional response of the participants. The main effect of the picture conditions on valence was significant F (1.54, 123) = 1252.95, p = < .001. Post hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni correction revealed significant differences between the “underweight” body pictures and the “normal” body pictures, with a mean difference of -241.29 (SE = 5.53), t (122) = -43.67, p < .001. Significant differences were also found between the “underweight” body pictures and “obese” body pictures, with a mean difference of -237.74 (SE = 5.53), t (122) = -43.03, p < .001. Yet there were no differences between the “normal” and “obese” body pictures. These results indicate that participants felt more negative feelings when looking at the “underweight”- body pictures compared to both the “normal” and “obese” body pictures. The main effect of the picture conditions on arousal, or the intensity of the emotional experience, was also tested through repeated measures ANOVA and revealed significant results, F (1.05, 123) = 3965.74, p < .001. Post hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni correction identified significant differences between the “underweight” body pictures and the “normal” body pictures, with a mean difference of -485.34 (SE = 6.28), t(122) 77.25, p < .001. Significant differences were also found between the “underweight” body pictures and “obese” body pictures, with a mean difference of -483.83 (SE = 6.28), t(122) = 77.01, p < .001. Once again, there was no significant difference between the “normal” and “obese” body pictures. These results indicate that participants felt more intense feelings when looking at the “underweight” body pictures compared to both the “normal” and “obese” body pictures. Finally, the main effect of the picture conditions on dominance, or how in control the participant is feeling, was tested through another repeated measures ANOVA, revealing significant results, F (1.94, 121) = 4139.64, p < .001. Post hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni correction identified a similar pattern of results, with significant differences between the “underweight” body pictures and both the normal (SE = 3.14; t(120) -79.23, p < .001) and “obese” (SE = 3.14, t(120) -79.23, p .05). These results indicate that participants felt less in control when looking at the “underweight” body pictures compared to both the “normal” and “obese” body pictures. Discussion Experiment 1 While Experiment 1 did not reveal a significant effect of body size on time perception, it did highlight important findings regarding participants' emotional responses to different body types. Participants experienced significantly more negative emotions, heightened arousal, and a diminished sense of control when viewing "underweight" bodies compared to both "normal" and "obese" bodies. This suggests that images of “underweight” bodies may evoke stronger emotional reactions. However, the results of Experiment 1 failed to support our initial hypotheses (H1) regarding the influence of body size pictures on time perception. Contrary to our expectations, the emotional valence associated with different body types did not significantly impact participants' perception of time. This finding is somewhat surprising, given previous research demonstrating the influence of emotional stimuli on time perception [16,17] . Several factors might explain this lack of effect. On one hand, conducting this first experiment online may have introduced uncontrolled variability in participants' attention and environmental distractions, potentially limiting our ability to precisely measure time perception and detect subtle effects. On the other hand, and more theoretically, Experiment 1 did not examine the potential influence of individual differences that might modulate the relationship between exposure to body images and time perception. Specifically, we did not include measures concerning problematic eating behaviors, body appreciation, or perceived media pressure. The lack of consideration for these variables could be a key reason why the emotional manipulation via body images did not lead to the expected effects on time perception in this first study. Given these unexpected results and to address the identified limitations, a second experiment (Experiment 2) was designed. This second study was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting, allowing for greater control over potential confounding variables and a more accurate measurement of time perception. Importantly, Experiment 2 specifically aimed to investigate the role of the individual differences omitted in the first study (namely, problematic eating behaviors, body appreciation, and media pressure) and how they might influence time perception when viewing different body images. Research suggests that individuals with negative body image or eating concerns may experience heightened emotional responses to idealized images, potentially impacting their perception of time [25] . Similarly, pressure to conform to media ideals can contribute to body dissatisfaction and anxiety, which may also influence emotional responses and distort time perception [26] . Experiment 2 Hypotheses For this second study, our hypotheses were that: (H1b) lower individual body appreciation, (H2b) higher perceived media pressure, as well as (H3b) the presence of eating disorder symptomatology, would further distort the perception of bodies, resulting in an even greater overestimation of exposure durations compared to individuals without these characteristics. Methods Participants The final sample for this study comprised 70 French female university students. Their ages ranged from 18 to 39 years, with a mean age of 19.21 years (SD = 3.19). Consistent with the procedure in Experiment 1, participants were recruited by instructors during classes. Three participants (4.3%) did not provide sufficient data for BMI calculation. For the remaining 67 participants, the mean BMI was 22.22 (SD = 5.12). Based on the taxonomy previously exposed, 12 participants (17.9%) were classified as “underweight”, 41 (61.2%) as “normal” weight, 10 (14.9%) as “overweight”, and 5 (7.5%) as “obese”. Furthermore, all participants completed the SCOFF questionnaire, a screening tool for eating disorder risks (detailed in the Measures section). Applying the standard cutoff score of 2 or higher to indicate potential risk, 38 participants (54.3% of the total sample, N=70) were identified as being potentially at risk for an eating disorder Material and Procedure The temporal bisection task was similar to Experiment 1 but took place face-to-face. After informed consent was obtained, the same steps were repeated as above. The experiment employed a 13-inch computer with a resolution of 1920 × 1080 to control the presentation of stimuli and to record responses using a compiled Python program stored on the hard drive. Participants responded using the computer’s keyboard, pressing "S" for "short" and "L" for "long." After completing the experimental task, participants completed a series of questionnaires and provided demographic data. Finally, a debriefing sheet was shared with participants. Questionnaires Body appreciation was measured by the French version of the Body Appreciation Scale (BAS-2) [29] which is a 10-item, self-report instrument designed to assess positive body image. Participants respond to each item using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Always). An example of an item is "I respect my body.". In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha of the BAS-2 was .95, signifying excellent reliability. Social media influence was measured using the French Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ; [30] . For the sake of this study, a modified version of this scale was used to specifically focus on social media. Items specifically targeting magazines, music videos, and advertisements (items 5, 7, 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, and 21) as well as items that were very similar to others (8, 11, 20, 25, 26, 27, and 28) were removed. Then, four items about social media were added, resulting in a 17-item scale responded to on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Agree) to 5 (Strongly Disagree). This modified scale has 5 subscales, including general internalization, athletic internalization, pressure, information, and social media. Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale was .93 in this study and .77, .73, .80, .87, and .72 for the respective subscales, indicating good to excellent reliability. Eating disorder symptomology was assessed using the French version of the SCOFF [31] , which is a brief screening tool used to assess the presence of eating disorders. It consists of five items designed to identify core features of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa and is answered by either Yes or No for each item. An example of an item is “Would you say that Food dominates your life? ». Each "yes" response scores one point, with a total score of 2 or more indicating a likely case of an eating disorder. For this study, both a total score and a dichotomous score were calculated. The SCOFF Questionnaire has been validated for use in diverse populations, including French-speaking female university students, where it demonstrated strong accuracy and reliability for detecting eating disorders in a high-risk academic setting [31] . Emotional responses were evaluated using the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) Scale [27] , already presented in Experiment 1, although the dominance subscale was removed. Finally, participants filled out questions concerning demographic data about their ages and BMI. Statistical analysis The same techniques and pre-tests presented in the previous experiment were employed. No data were removed as there was no discrepancy between the programmed and presented durations due to the offline nature of the study. Results Correlations Pearson correlation analyses revealed several significant correlations among the study variables. Notably, BAS scores were significantly negatively correlated with both the SCOFF score (r = -0.61 p < .01) and SATAQ total scores ( r = -.52 p < .001). In addition, the SCOFF was positively correlated with the SATAQ ( r = -.52 p < .001). See Table 1 for descriptive statistics of the study variables split by dichotomous SCOFF scores and Table 2 for the full results of the correlational analyses. [Insert Table 1 here] [Insert Table 2 here] The effect of body size on time perception The repeated measures ANOVA conducted on the different time conditions and the three different picture conditions (“underweight”, “normal”, and “obese”) again did not show any significant interaction effect between the picture and time conditions on time perception, F (12,71) = 1.21, p = .269. The Greenhouse-Geisser corrections confirmed this, F (9.03,71) = 1.21, p = .284. It's interesting that when including the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) as a covariate, we found a significant main effect of body appreciation ( F (1, 68) = 4.74, p = 0.03). Further regression analysis showed that lower BAS-2 scores (indicating lower body appreciation) were linked to a higher proportion of "long" responses ( t = -2.18, SE = 0.02, p = 0.03). This suggests that people with lower body appreciation judge time as longer when faced with body pictures, independently of the body type. Similar results were found when the SATAQ was included as a covariate in the repeated measures ANOVA ( F (1, 68) = 5.20, p = 0.026). The regression analysis showed that increasing SATAQ scores led to an increase in the percentage of long responses ( t = 2.28, SE = 0.02, p = 0.026). This indicates that greater individual media pressure leads to an increase in time perception when viewing bodies, regardless of body type. Interestingly, when the dichotomized variable of the SCOFF was integrated within the model, it showed a trend body image * SCOFF interaction ( F (2, 70) = 2.43, p = 0.09). However, this effect was not deemed sufficiently robust to warrant further investigation with psychophysical indices such as PSE (Point of Subjective Equality) or WWR (Weber Ratio) generally used in this task. [Insert Figure 1 here] The effect of body size on emotional response Repeated measures ANOVA were also conducted to examine the effect of the three different picture conditions on the emotional response of the participants. The main effect of the picture conditions on valence was significant F (1., 71) = 70.72, p < .001. Post hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni correction revealed significant differences between the “underweight” body pictures and both the “normal” body pictures, with a mean difference of -3.28 ( SE = 0.29), t (70) = -11.23, p < .001 and “obese” body pictures, with a mean difference of -0.92 ( SE = 0.28), t (70) = -3.22, p = .006. Significant differences were also found between the “normal” body pictures and “obese” body pictures, with a mean difference of 2.36 ( SE = 0.28), t(70) = 8.55, p < .001. These results indicate that participants experienced the most negative affect when viewing “underweight” body pictures, followed by “obese” body pictures, with “normal” body pictures eliciting the least negative affect. Similarly, the main effect of the picture conditions on arousal was statistically significant after Greenhouse-Geisser corrections, F (1, 70) = 5.89, p = .004. Bonferroni post hoc comparisons showed significant differences between the “underweight” and “obese” body picture (Mean difference = 0.98, SE = 0.26, t = 3.78, p = 0.001. Yet, the difference between other pictures was not significant ( p > .05). Discussion Experiment 2 Experiment 2, conducted in a controlled laboratory setting, yielded intriguing results that further illuminate the relationship between body image, emotions, and time perception. While we again did not observe a main effect of body size on time perception, interestingly, the inclusion of the BAS-2 (body appreciation) and SATAQ (social media pressure) questionnaires as covariates revealed significant effects on time perception whereby higher scores on the SATAQ, indicating higher media pressure, and lower schools on the BAS-2 indicating lower body appreciation, were related to longer time perception regardless of body size viewed. One possible explanation for this could be that participants with higher social media pressure and lower body appreciation experienced negative emotions when viewing body images of any shape or size. As previously mentioned, time perception can be affected by emotional stimuli. Heightened emotional arousal, whether positive or negative, can lead individuals to perceive time as either speeding up or slowing down; in particular, negative emotions such as fear or anxiety are often associated with a slowing down of time [16,17] . The fact that there were no differences among body sizes viewed highlights the truly detrimental effects of body dissatisfaction (in this case, low body appreciation) and high social media pressure while viewing images of scantily dressed bodies. This suggests that the negative effects may be less about the bodies seen and more about the internalized attitudes and external pressures surrounding them. Furthermore, the significant effects of body size on emotional responses observed in Experiment 1 were replicated in this study. Participants reported more negative valence and higher arousal when viewing images of both small and large bodies compared to medium-sized bodies. This suggests that images of bodies deviating from the perceived norm may trigger stronger emotional responses, potentially linked to feelings of body dissatisfaction or social comparison. General Discussion While the results of Experiment 1 did not fully support the first two hypotheses put forth, they indicated that although the emotional valence elicited from viewing pictures with different body types did not significantly impact participants' perception of time, participants experienced significantly more negative emotions, heightened arousal, and a diminished sense of control when viewing "underweight" bodies compared to both "normal" and "obese" bodies, suggesting that the viewing of “underweight” bodies may lead to more intense emotional responses. When replicating the same experiment in a lab setting with additional variables of interest, Experiment 2 supported the findings of Experiment 1 and additionally revealed the significant role of low body appreciation and high social media pressure in the way time is perceived while viewing pictures of bodies, regardless of their size. More specifically, our results showed that “underweight” images led to an overestimation of time compared to “obese” images. Experiment 2 also pointed to the role body appreciation and media pressure may play in time perception when viewing bodies in general, regardless of size. Everything considered, the results of this paper illustrate that viewing images of “underweight” bodies compared to “normal” or “obese” bodies has a significant negative effect on emotions with a particular influence of body appreciation, media pressure, and eating disorder symptoms on time perception when viewing images of bodies of different sizes. The effects the pictures of “underweight” bodies had on emotional arousal could reflect societal pressures and biases towards thinness. Seeing "underweight" images might trigger heightened, negative, and seemingly “out of control” feelings related to body image concerns, disordered eating, or even stigmatization of extreme thinness. Moreover , the lack of difference between responses to "normal" and "obese" images might indicate evolving perceptions of body size and acceptance. Indeed, there has been a shift towards more weight-inclusive healthcare practices [32] in addition to more “body-positive” content on social media [33] . The overestimation of time related to lower body appreciation and higher media pressure may be explained by the relation these two variables have with body image. An overestimation of time is usually observed when exposed to a stimulus which induces negative affect [16,17] . Previous research by [34] found that exposure to faces expressing fear led to longer time estimations which was explained by higher emotional arousal which was also observed as a result of the present study. Indeed, a systematic review and meta-analysis of 240 papers highlighted that low levels of body appreciation are related to body image disturbances such as appearance-ideal internalization and sociocultural pressures such as media pressure and general psychopathology (i.e., depression and anxiety; [35] . Additionally, media pressure has been shown to be related to higher thin-ideal internalization which in turn is related to higher body surveillance and lower appearance evaluation [36] . The lack of differentiation between the different body sizes in the effects of body appreciation and media pressure on time perception is worth noting. There are a few potential explanations for these findings. First, it could be that lower levels of body appreciation and higher levels of media pressure encourage heightened focus on bodies in general which would lead to higher arousal while viewing all three types of images and thus an overestimation of time as explained above. Second, it could also be due to the type of images chosen. The “normal” bodies selected were fairly athletic, and thus while participants might experience negative emotions when seeing “underweight” or “obese” images they also might have experienced negative emotions when seeing “normal” (but athletic) images if they were comparing their own bodies to the bodies in the images shown. Strength and Limits To our knowledge, this study is the first of its kind to investigate the effects of pictures on different body sizes in this way. Moreover, this study, with its two experiments, attempted to dive deeper into the reasoning behind the potential outcomes. Another strength of this study is the nature of the study design, which is experimental, thus allowing for a high level of control over confounding variables. Like every research study, some limitations need to be pointed out. First, as explained above, the images selected were chosen because they generated the strongest feelings in a pre-test of women. We are therefore dealing with bodies where differences in body size are extremely marked. This is perhaps not representative of what happens on social media, where although we could see all different types of bodies, the tendency could be towards less extreme thin or large bodies. Furthermore, regarding the investigation of individual differences in Experiment 2, it is important to acknowledge that the SCOFF questionnaire is a screening tool designed to identify individuals potentially at risk for an eating disorder based on problematic thoughts and behaviors rather than providing a formal clinical diagnosis. Therefore, while our findings concerning the SCOFF-positive group are informative, they pertain to an 'at-risk' population, and direct extrapolation to individuals with clinically diagnosed eating disorders should be made with caution. Consequently, a valuable direction for future research would be to extend these investigations to a clinical population with formally diagnosed eating disorders. This would allow for a clearer understanding of whether the observed relationships between body image exposure, affect, individual differences, and time perception are similar, attenuated, or perhaps even amplified in a clinical context. Future research may also benefit from including a fourth “control” group consisting of neutral stimuli that do not have anything to do with bodies. Another aspect worth considering in future research is the reality of scrolling through social media, which involves viewing a mix of different body sizes in addition to heavily yet often discreetly edited pictures. What is already known on this subject? It is well-established that subjective time perception is susceptible to distortions caused by emotional arousal and valence, with high-arousal negative stimuli typically inducing an overestimation of duration. While extensive research has demonstrated that exposure to "fitspiration" and body-related content on social media negatively impacts mood and body satisfaction , and that individuals with eating disorders exhibit altered temporal processing, the specific cognitive interaction between viewing varying body sizes and time perception has remained unexplored. This study was necessary to determine if the emotional response elicited by specific body types acts as a catalyst for temporal distortions in a non-clinical population. What this study adds? This research demonstrates that while viewing images of "underweight" bodies elicits significantly higher physiological arousal and negative affect compared to "normal" or "obese" bodies, the body size stimulus alone does not directly distort time perception. Crucially, this study reveals that temporal overestimation is instead driven by individual traits, specifically finding that lower body appreciation and higher internalized media pressure predict longer subjective time estimates regardless of the body type viewed. These findings imply that clinical and public health interventions should prioritize addressing internalized sociocultural pressures and bolstering body appreciation, as these internal factors appear to have a more profound impact on cognitive processing than the visual content of body images alone. Declarations CRediT authorship contribution statement: Claire El-Jor: Formal analysis ;Writing – original draft Rebecca Shankland: Writing – review & editing Valentin Flaudias: Writing – review & editing Quentin Hallez: Conceptualization; Investigation; Writing – review and editing; Supervision. Declaration of Competing Interest: The authors declare no financial or non-financial conflicts of interest related to the subject matter of this manuscript. Ethics Approval and Informed Consent Statement: Experiments 1 and 2 were conducted in accordance with the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. The study protocols were reviewed and approved by the Ethics, Deontology, and Scientific Integrity Committee of Nantes University (IORG0011023). Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the experiments. Data Availability: All the data from Experiments 1 and 2 are available on the following OSF link : https://osf.io/yvufw/?view_only=3270b6f90f024a9f9ee998ef5ea459f1. Funding: This research received no external funding. Declaration of interest: None Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process: During the preparation of this work the authors used Gemini 2.5 in order to proofread the text for grammatical accuracy and clarity in English. After using this tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the published article. References Arigo, D., Brown, M. M., & DiBisceglie, S. (2021). Experimental effects of fitspiration messaging on body satisfaction, exercise motivation, and exercise behavior among college women and men. Translational Behavioral Medicine , 11 (7), 1441–1450. https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibab016 Cataldo, I., De Luca, I., Giorgetti, V., Cicconcelli, D., Bersani, F. 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Body Image , 41 , 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.02.001 Tables Table 1. Descriptive statistics of study variables in Experiment 2, split by SCOFF score Variable SCOFF ≥ 2 (n=38) M (SD) SCOFF < 2 (n=32) M (SD) Age (years) 16.66 (1.60) 19.88 (4.34) BMI (kg/m²) 21.92 (5.75) 22.43 (4.17) BSQ 206.26 (63.35) 120.50 (52.57) BAS 2.58 (0.77) 3.69 (0.75) SATAQ Total 3.04 (0.86) 2.57 (0.96) Internalization- Athlete 3.29 (0.86) 2.70 (1.03) Internalization- General 2.96 (0.87) 2.61 (1.01) Pressure 3.08 (0.93) 2.54 (1.09) Information 2.93 (1.08) 2.38 (1.15) Social Media Pressure 2.91 (0.83) 2.39 (0.88) Note. Higher scores on the SCOFF indicate a greater risk of disordered eating. BAS = Body Appreciation Scale; BMI = Body Mass Index; BSQ = Body Shape Questionnaire; M = Mean; n = sample size; SATAQ = Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire; SD = Standard deviation. Table 2. Descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables of Experiment 2 Variable M SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1. BAS 3.09 0.94 2. SATAQ 2.82 0.93 -.52*** 3. SCOFF (continuous) 2.83 1.45 -.61*** .28* 4. Valence “Underweight” 3.41 1.98 -.05 -.27** .30** 5. Arousal “Underweight” 4.81 1.85 .02 0.16 -.03*** .21 6. Valence “Normal” 6.69 1.50 -.08 .09 .02*** .02 .16 7. Arousal “Normal” 4.45 2.09 .01 .22 .20 .27* .08 .14*** 8. Valence “Obese” 4.33 1.83 .48*** -.26** -.36** .21 .15 .04*** -.02 9. Arousal “Obese” 3.79 1.67 -.07 .09 .08 .04*** .23 .20 .26* -.03 Note. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001 BAS, body appreciation scale; SATAQ; The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire; SCOFF, Sick, Control, One, Fat, Food questionnaire; SD, standard deviation. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59135,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAssociation Between Body Appreciation (BAS-2) and Perceived Duration of Body Image Stimuli\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8259354/v1/07ae4ab368f0b9ab78e857b2.jpg"},{"id":101891171,"identity":"a4b189af-0b08-4506-bd45-3cc13d7950a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-04 16:26:22","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1006255,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8259354/v1/e2ac43ab-dcc6-436a-ac29-3f4ac7d8eea9.pdf"},{"id":97988580,"identity":"ce610d39-101a-449b-b138-f075b432d49a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-11 14:12:12","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":10449529,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"AppendixA.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8259354/v1/9ab8907af3f778b7a9ba69da.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Body Appreciation and Media Pressure Predict Time Perception During Exposure to Varying Body Sizes ","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe seemingly endless scroll of social media presents a complex and often contradictory landscape of messages about health and body image. While ostensibly promoting fitness and well-being, \"fitspiration\" posts can perpetuate unrealistic beauty standards and contribute to unhealthy body image and exercise addiction \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Similarly, other content overtly glorifies and encourages eating disorders, further blurring the lines between aspiration and harm \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Given the pervasiveness of body-related imagery in Western societies and its potential impact on cognition, this research investigates its influence on time perception. To investigate these questions, we conducted an initial experiment focusing on the impact of body size images on subjective time perception and emotional reactions. Building upon the findings of this first study, a second experiment was designed to further examine potential moderating variables. As such, Experiment 1 analyzes the effects of body images on time perception and affect, while Experiment 2 examines whether problematic eating behaviors, media pressure, and body image further modulate the effects of body pictures on time perception. Understanding the factors that influence temporal experience can inform strategies for improving time management and attention regulation, particularly among young adults heavily exposed to such imagery \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This is crucial in the context of information overload and constant stimulation prevalent on social media.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe emotional impact of social media content varies depending on the specific post and the individual viewing it. Indeed, experimental research has looked into how \u0026ldquo;fitspiration\u0026rdquo; posts on social media affect an individual\u0026rsquo;s mood, revealing that even short exposures to this kind of content can increase negative mood states \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Furthermore, time spent on social media in general has been shown to be associated with mood, with the number of sites visited and the number of hours spent being significant predictors of general negative affect \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, recent research has investigated the protective effects of disclaimers on such posts; however, results indicated that such disclaimers did not reduce the effects of idealized body posts on mood or body image dissatisfaction \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn individual\u0026rsquo;s emotional state can affect the way they subjectively experience time. Time perception judgement, that is, the specific act or outcome of evaluating temporal information, has been studied for decades \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. As such, there are many different theories that attempt to explain how time is perceived and what factors affect it. According to the pacemaker-accumulator model \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, an internal pacemaker generates consistent pulses, similar to a ticking clock. These pulses pass through a switch that opens at the beginning of an event and closes at its end, allowing the pulses to accumulate in an accumulator. The total number of pulses collected represents the perceived duration of the event, the higher the number of pulses, the longer the subjective time. Indeed, the perception of time has been shown to be affected by multiple factors, such as attentional capacities, whereby attention regulates the flow of pulses from the pacemaker to the accumulator \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The lack of attention allocated to time processing is thought to open the attentional switch connecting the pacemaker to the accumulator. As a result, the pulses can no longer integrate into the accumulator and are lost, leading to an underestimation of time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, time perception has also been shown to be affected by emotional stimuli resulting in temporal illusions such that positive emotions make it feel like time is \u0026ldquo;speeding up\u0026rdquo; due to an increase in the number of pulses sent to the pacemaker allowing more impulses to increment the accumulator, resulting in perceived longer times whereby the higher the arousal, the greater the effect such as in emotions of fear or anger \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Research has also investigated other aspects that can alter time perception, such as stimulus complexity or magnitude \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Thus, it can be said that the perception of time is influenced by various factors, often resulting in temporal illusions or distortions in judging durations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearchers have been interested in finding different types of stimuli that can generate emotions and, ultimately, alter our perception of time (for a review, see \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Of our greater interest, time perception, as modulated by emotion, has also been studied in relation to food stimuli. For example, research has found that food pictures, particularly disliked ones, cause greater underestimation of time compared to neutral pictures, indicating that food pictures, and possibly food in general, distract attention from time processing \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. To add to this, a recent study found that high-calorie food pictures led to an overestimation of time compared to non-food pictures, influenced by participants' diet control, whereby those with greater diet control showed less time overestimation, indicating that the arousal response to high-calorie foods significantly affects time perception \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. More specifically, women with eating disorders have been found to have a heightened emotional response to food pictures, whereby they overestimate time when exposed to pictures that elicit heightened arousal and activate defenses \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Furthermore, patients with eating disorders show distorted time estimation patterns, linked to compulsive self-monitoring and differing by diagnosis (overestimation in anorexia nervosa and underestimation in binge eating disorder\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e). In contrast, another study found that participants with anorexia nervosa underestimated time compared to participants in a control group\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. In this vein, body images, ubiquitous on social media, may also constitute a potent emotional stimulus. Exposure to bodies that either conform to or deviate from promoted beauty ideals can elicit strong affective responses, such as anxiety and/or social comparison \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Such responses are particularly salient within the general population, and notably among young adults, where body image preoccupations are prevalent even without a clinical eating disorder diagnosis. It is thus relevant to investigate how viewing images of different body types might modulate the perception of time. Understanding this potential influence is crucial, considering the sheer volume of body-related content people consume daily.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Experiment 1","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHypotheses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe overarching aim of the present research is to determine whether visual exposure to \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body pictures influences the perception of time. Our primary focus (H1) is to analyze whether these emotionally evocative stimuli lead to a subjective overestimation of exposure duration compared to neutral visual content. Subsequently, should an effect on time perception be observed, a secondary objective is to elucidate the nature of this influence. This involves examining the potential mediating role of various psychological variables, including the level of arousal elicited by the stimuli (H2), to better understand the mechanisms underlying any temporal distortions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study included 122 French female university students ranging in age from 16 to 32 years old (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e = 18.84, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 2.16). Participants were enrolled via an invitation communicated in the psychology courses of a French University and participated in this experiment to fulfill course credit. Participants were asked not to participate if they felt negatively about their own bodies. The mean BMI of participants was 21.74 (SD = 4.05). A significant majority (n = 86, 76%) had a \u0026quot;normal\u0026quot; BMI (18.5-25). Twenty-one participants (16.5%) had a BMI below 18.5, while 15 participants were above this threshold (n = 10, 7.8% \u0026ldquo;overweight\u0026rdquo; [25-29.9 kg/m\u0026sup2;]; n = 5, 3.9% \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; [\u0026gt;30 kg/m\u0026sup2;]). Five individuals (3.9%) did not respond. Experiments \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 1 and 2 complied with the Declaration of Helsinki and were approved by the Ethics, Deontology, and Scientific Integrity Committee of XXX (Details withheld for blind review). All the data from Experiments 1 and 2 are available on the following OSF link : [https://osf.io/yvufw/?view_only=3270b6f90f024a9f9ee998ef5ea459f1].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaterial\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBody pictures used for the experiment (Appendix A) were selected from a pre-test involving 42 female participants. The images chosen were those where participants subjectively rated them as the most \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; (for the images of large bodies), the most \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; (for images of small bodies), and most \u0026quot;normal\u0026quot; for control stimuli on an analog scale ranging from \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis first experiment was conducted remotely using the Qualtrics\u0026reg; online research platform. In the experimental session, emotional responses were measured using the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) Scale\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[27]\u003c/sup\u003e, which is a tool designed to gauge participants\u0026apos; emotional reactions to stimuli. This scale evaluates three dimensions of emotion: valence (pleasure or happiness), arousal (excited or relaxed), and dominance (empowered vs overwhelmed), and participants indicate their feelings by choosing images that best depict their current emotional state. The valence dimension ranges from a frowning, unhappy figure to a smiling, happy figure. The arousal dimension ranges from an excited, wide-eyed figure to a relaxed, sleepy figure. The dominance dimension ranges from a large, powerful figure to a small, submissive figure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProcedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants first completed a bisection task divided into three phases: pre-training, training, and testing. During the initial part of this task (i.e., pre-training and training), participants were instructed to estimate the duration of visual stimuli presentations (colored squares of the same size as the images presented in the test phase), without attempting to count to aid in time measurement as this has been proved as an effective method to prevent counting\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[28]\u003c/sup\u003e. During pre-training, participants were exposed twice to each of the two standard durations: \u0026quot;short\u0026quot; (400 ms) and \u0026quot;long\u0026quot; (1600 ms). In the training phase, the participants were exposed to a block of 16 trials in which standard durations were each randomly presented eight times. After each presentation, participants were required to judge the duration as \u0026quot;short\u0026quot; or \u0026quot;long\u0026quot; by selecting the corresponding option on the screen. They received immediate feedback on their accuracy (\u0026quot;yes\u0026quot; for correct, \u0026quot;no\u0026quot; for incorrect), displayed for two seconds before proceeding to the next trial. If the participant achieved a correct response rate exceeding 75%, they proceeded to the test phase. Otherwise, they repeated the learning phase a second time.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the experimental test phase, the squares were replaced with 12 images depicting bodies of different sizes (4 photos for each of the following categories: \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; body, \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; body, \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body; see Appendix A). Additionally, intermediate durations (600ms, 800ms, 1000ms, 1200ms, and 1400ms) were introduced in addition to the two standard durations (400ms and 1600ms). Participants were informed about the inclusion of these intermediate durations but were instructed to continue identifying whether the presented duration was closest to the short or long duration. Participants then completed the SAM scale and provided demographic data. Before ending the experiment, a debriefing sheet was shared with participants.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analyses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStimuli associated with trials for which the presentation duration was 150 ms longer than prescribed were deleted. We thus deleted 73 trials from a total of 10248 trials, which corresponded to 0.71% of the data. On average, the presentation time compared to the expected time was accurate (\u003cem\u003eMdiff\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.047s; \u003cem\u003eSD\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.006s).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistical analyses were carried out using JASP (version 0.18.2). Descriptive statistics were calculated and included means, standard deviations, skewness, and kurtosis. Pearson correlations were also carried out. Repeated measures analyses of variances (ANOVA) were then carried out. Greenhouse\u0026ndash;Geisser corrections were applied when sphericity was violated. In addition, bisection points and Weber ratios were computed based on the psychophysical curves through linear interpolation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe effect of body size on time perception\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe repeated measures ANOVA carried out on the different time conditions (400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1400 \u0026amp; 1600ms) and the three different picture conditions (\u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo;)) did not reveal any significant interaction effect between the different picture and time conditions on time perception, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(12, 121) = 1.18, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .30. Greenhouse-Geisser corrections confirmed this non-significance, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(7.65, 121) = 1.18, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .31.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, further repeated measures ANOVA analyses that were carried out on the three different picture conditions and the bisection point and Weber ratio did not reveal any significant results.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe effect of body size on emotional response\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Another repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to examine the effect of the three different picture conditions on the emotional response of the participants. The main effect of the picture conditions on valence was significant \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1.54, 123) = 1252.95, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= \u0026lt; .001. Post hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni correction revealed significant differences between the \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; body pictures and the \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; body pictures, with a mean difference of -241.29 (SE = 5.53), \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(122) = -43.67, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001. Significant differences were also found between the \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; body pictures and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body pictures, with a mean difference of -237.74 (SE = 5.53), \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(122) = -43.03, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001. Yet there were no differences between the \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body pictures. These results indicate that participants felt more negative feelings when looking at the \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo;- body pictures compared to both the \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body pictures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;The main effect of the picture conditions on arousal, or the intensity of the emotional experience, was also tested through repeated measures ANOVA and revealed significant results, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1.05, 123) = 3965.74, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001. Post hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni correction identified significant differences between the \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; body pictures and the \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; body pictures, with a mean difference of -485.34 (SE = 6.28), t(122) 77.25, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001. Significant differences were also found between the \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; body pictures and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body pictures, with a mean difference of -483.83 (SE = 6.28), t(122) = 77.01, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001. Once again, there was no significant difference between the \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body pictures. These results indicate that participants felt more intense feelings when looking at the \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; body pictures compared to both the \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body pictures.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, the main effect of the picture conditions on dominance, or how in control the participant is feeling, was tested through another repeated measures ANOVA, revealing significant results, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1.94, 121) = 4139.64, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001. Post hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni correction identified a similar pattern of results, with significant differences between the \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; body pictures and both the normal (SE = 3.14; t(120) -79.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001) and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; (SE = 3.14, t(120) -79.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001) body pictures, while no differences between the two latter (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026gt; .05). \u0026nbsp;These results indicate that participants felt less in control when looking at the \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; body pictures compared to both the \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body pictures.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDiscussion Experiment 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile Experiment 1 did not reveal a significant effect of body size on time perception, it did highlight important findings regarding participants\u0026apos; emotional responses to different body types. Participants experienced significantly more negative emotions, heightened arousal, and a diminished sense of control when viewing \u0026quot;underweight\u0026quot; bodies compared to both \u0026quot;normal\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;obese\u0026quot; bodies. This suggests that images of \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; bodies may evoke stronger emotional reactions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, the results of Experiment 1 failed to support our initial hypotheses (H1) regarding the influence of body size pictures on time perception. Contrary to our expectations, the emotional valence associated with different body types did not significantly impact participants\u0026apos; perception of time. This finding is somewhat surprising, given previous research demonstrating the influence of emotional stimuli on time perception\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[16,17]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral factors might explain this lack of effect. On one hand, conducting this first experiment online may have introduced uncontrolled variability in participants\u0026apos; attention and environmental distractions, potentially limiting our ability to precisely measure time perception and detect subtle effects. On the other hand, and more theoretically, Experiment 1 did not examine the potential influence of individual differences that might modulate the relationship between exposure to body images and time perception. Specifically, we did not include measures concerning problematic eating behaviors, body appreciation, or perceived media pressure. The lack of consideration for these variables could be a key reason why the emotional manipulation via body images did not lead to the expected effects on time perception in this first study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven these unexpected results and to address the identified limitations, a second experiment (Experiment 2) was designed. This second study was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting, allowing for greater control over potential confounding variables and a more accurate measurement of time perception. Importantly, Experiment 2 specifically aimed to investigate the role of the individual differences omitted in the first study (namely, problematic eating behaviors, body appreciation, and media pressure) and how they might influence time perception when viewing different body images. Research suggests that individuals with negative body image or eating concerns may experience heightened emotional responses to idealized images, potentially impacting their perception of time\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[25]\u003c/sup\u003e. Similarly, pressure to conform to media ideals can contribute to body dissatisfaction and anxiety, which may also influence emotional responses and distort time perception\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[26]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Experiment 2","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHypotheses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor this second study, our hypotheses were that: (H1b) lower individual body appreciation, (H2b) higher perceived media pressure, as well as (H3b) the presence of eating disorder symptomatology, would further distort the perception of bodies, resulting in an even greater overestimation of exposure durations compared to individuals without these characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe final sample for this study comprised 70 French female university students. Their ages ranged from 18 to 39 years, with a mean age of 19.21 years (SD = 3.19). Consistent with the procedure in Experiment 1, participants were recruited by instructors during classes. Three participants (4.3%) did not provide sufficient data for BMI calculation.\u0026nbsp;For the remaining 67 participants, the mean BMI was 22.22 (SD = 5.12). Based on the taxonomy previously exposed, 12 participants (17.9%) were classified as \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo;, 41 (61.2%) as \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; weight, 10 (14.9%) as \u0026ldquo;overweight\u0026rdquo;, and 5 (7.5%) as \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo;. Furthermore, all participants completed the SCOFF questionnaire, a screening tool for eating disorder risks (detailed in the Measures section). Applying the standard cutoff score of 2 or higher to indicate potential risk, 38 participants (54.3% of the total sample, N=70) were identified as being potentially at risk for an eating disorder\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaterial and Procedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe temporal bisection task was similar to Experiment 1 but took place face-to-face. After informed consent was obtained, the same steps were repeated as above. The experiment employed a 13-inch computer with a resolution of 1920 \u0026times; 1080 to control the presentation of stimuli and to record responses using a compiled Python program stored on the hard drive. Participants responded using the computer\u0026rsquo;s keyboard, pressing \u0026quot;S\u0026quot; for \u0026quot;short\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;L\u0026quot; for \u0026quot;long.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter completing the experimental task, participants completed a series of questionnaires and provided demographic data. Finally, a debriefing sheet was shared with participants.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQuestionnaires\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBody appreciation was measured by the French version of the Body Appreciation Scale (BAS-2)\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[29]\u003c/sup\u003e which is a 10-item, self-report instrument designed to assess positive body image. Participants respond to each item using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Always). An example of an item is \u0026quot;I respect my body.\u0026quot;. In the present study, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of the BAS-2 was .95, signifying excellent reliability.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial media influence was measured using the French Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ;\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[30]\u003c/sup\u003e. For the sake of this study, a modified version of this scale was used to specifically focus on social\u0026nbsp;media. Items specifically targeting magazines, music videos, and advertisements (items 5, 7, 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, and 21) as well as items that were very similar to others (8, 11, 20, 25, 26, 27, and 28) were removed. Then, four items about social media were added, resulting in a 17-item scale responded to on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Agree) to 5 (Strongly Disagree). This modified scale has 5 subscales, including general internalization, athletic internalization, pressure, information, and social media. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha for the total scale was .93 in this study and .77, .73, .80, .87, and .72 for the respective subscales, indicating good to excellent reliability.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEating disorder symptomology was assessed using the French version of the SCOFF\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[31]\u003c/sup\u003e, which is a brief screening tool used to assess the presence of eating disorders. It consists of five items designed to identify core features of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa and is answered by either Yes or No for each item. An example of an item is \u0026ldquo;Would you say that Food dominates your life? \u0026raquo;. Each \u0026quot;yes\u0026quot; response scores one point, with a total score of 2 or more indicating a likely case of an eating disorder. For this study, both a total score and a dichotomous score were calculated. The SCOFF Questionnaire has been validated for use in diverse populations, including French-speaking female university students, where it demonstrated strong accuracy and reliability for detecting eating disorders in a high-risk academic setting\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[31]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmotional responses were evaluated using the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) Scale\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[27]\u003c/sup\u003e, already presented in Experiment 1, although the dominance subscale was removed. Finally, participants filled out questions concerning demographic data about their ages and BMI.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe same techniques and pre-tests presented in the previous experiment were employed. No data were removed as there was no discrepancy between the programmed and presented durations due to the offline nature of the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePearson correlation analyses revealed several significant correlations among the study variables. Notably, BAS scores were significantly negatively correlated with both the SCOFF score (r = -0.61 p \u0026lt; .01) and SATAQ total scores (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -.52 p\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001). In addition, the SCOFF was positively correlated with the SATAQ (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -.52 \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001). See Table 1 for descriptive statistics of the study variables split by dichotomous SCOFF scores and Table 2 for the full results of the correlational analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Insert Table 1 here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Insert Table 2 here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe effect of body size on time perception\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe repeated measures ANOVA conducted on the different time conditions and the three different picture conditions (\u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo;) again did not show any significant interaction effect between the picture and time conditions on time perception, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(12,71) = 1.21, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .269. The Greenhouse-Geisser corrections confirmed this, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(9.03,71) = 1.21, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .284. It\u0026apos;s interesting that when including the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) as a covariate, we found a significant main effect of body appreciation (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 68) = 4.74, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.03). Further regression analysis showed that lower BAS-2 scores (indicating lower body appreciation) were linked to a higher proportion of \u0026quot;long\u0026quot; responses (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = -2.18, SE = 0.02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.03). This suggests that people with lower body appreciation judge time as longer when faced with body pictures, independently of the body type. Similar results were found when the SATAQ was included as a covariate in the repeated measures ANOVA (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 68) = 5.20, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.026). The regression analysis showed that increasing SATAQ scores led to an increase in the percentage of long responses (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = 2.28, SE = 0.02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.026). This indicates that greater individual media pressure leads to an increase in time perception when viewing bodies, regardless of body type.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInterestingly, when the dichotomized variable of the SCOFF was integrated within the model, it showed a trend body image * SCOFF interaction (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2, 70) = 2.43, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.09). However, this effect was not deemed sufficiently robust to warrant further investigation with psychophysical indices such as PSE (Point of Subjective Equality) or WWR (Weber Ratio) generally used in this task.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[Insert Figure 1 here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe effect of body size on emotional response\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eRepeated measures ANOVA were also conducted to examine the effect of the three different picture conditions on the emotional response of the participants. The main effect of the picture conditions on valence was significant \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1., 71) = 70.72, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001. Post hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni correction revealed significant differences between the \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; body pictures and both the \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; body pictures, with a mean difference of -3.28 (\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e = 0.29), \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(70) = -11.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001 and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body pictures, with a mean difference of -0.92 (\u003cem\u003eSE\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.28), \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(70) = -3.22, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .006. Significant differences were also found between the \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; body pictures and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body pictures, with a mean difference of 2.36 (\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e = 0.28), t(70) = 8.55, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001. These results indicate that participants experienced the most negative affect when viewing \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; body pictures, followed by \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body pictures, with \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; body pictures eliciting the least negative affect.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, the main effect of the picture conditions on arousal was statistically significant after Greenhouse-Geisser corrections, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 70) = 5.89, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .004. Bonferroni post hoc comparisons showed significant differences between the \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; body picture (Mean difference = 0.98, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e = 0.26, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = 3.78, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.001. Yet, the difference between other pictures\u0026nbsp;was\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;not significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026gt; .05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDiscussion Experiment 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExperiment 2, conducted in a controlled laboratory setting, yielded intriguing results that further illuminate the relationship between body image, emotions, and time perception. While we again did not observe a main effect of body size on time perception, interestingly, the inclusion of the BAS-2 (body appreciation) and SATAQ \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;(social media pressure)\u0026nbsp;questionnaires\u0026nbsp;as covariates\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;revealed\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;significant effects on time perception whereby higher scores on the SATAQ, indicating higher media pressure, and lower schools on the BAS-2 indicating lower body appreciation, were related to longer time perception regardless of body size viewed.\u0026nbsp; One possible explanation for this could be that participants with higher social media pressure and lower body appreciation experienced negative emotions when viewing body images of any shape or size. As previously mentioned, time perception can be affected by emotional stimuli. Heightened emotional arousal, whether positive or negative, can lead individuals to perceive time as either speeding up or slowing down; in particular, negative emotions such as fear or anxiety are often associated with a slowing down of time\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[16,17]\u003c/sup\u003e. The fact that there were no differences among body sizes viewed highlights the truly detrimental effects of body dissatisfaction (in this case, low body appreciation) and high social media pressure while viewing images of scantily dressed bodies. This suggests that the negative effects may be less about the bodies seen and more about the internalized attitudes and external pressures surrounding them. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the significant effects of body size on emotional responses observed in Experiment 1 were replicated in this study. Participants reported more negative valence and higher arousal when viewing images of both small and large bodies compared to medium-sized bodies. This suggests that images of bodies deviating from the perceived norm may trigger stronger emotional responses, potentially linked to feelings of body dissatisfaction or social comparison.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"General Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eWhile the results of Experiment 1 did not fully support the first two hypotheses put forth, they indicated that although the emotional valence elicited from viewing pictures with different body types did not significantly impact participants\u0026apos; perception of time, participants experienced significantly more negative emotions, heightened arousal, and a diminished sense of control when viewing \u0026quot;underweight\u0026quot; bodies compared to both \u0026quot;normal\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;obese\u0026quot; bodies, suggesting that the viewing of \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; bodies may lead to more intense emotional responses. When replicating the same experiment in a lab setting with additional variables of interest, Experiment 2 supported the findings of Experiment 1 and additionally revealed the significant role of low body appreciation and high social media pressure in the way time is perceived while viewing pictures of bodies, regardless of their size. More specifically, our results showed that \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; images led to an overestimation of time compared to \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; images. Experiment 2 also pointed to the role body appreciation and media pressure may play in time perception when viewing bodies in general, regardless of size. Everything considered, the results of this paper illustrate that viewing images of \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; bodies compared to \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; bodies has a significant negative effect on emotions with a particular influence of body appreciation, media pressure, and eating disorder symptoms on time perception when viewing images of bodies of different sizes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe effects the pictures of \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; bodies had on emotional arousal could reflect societal pressures and biases towards thinness. Seeing \u0026quot;underweight\u0026quot; images might trigger\u0026nbsp;heightened, negative,\u0026nbsp;and seemingly \u0026ldquo;out of control\u0026rdquo; feelings related to body image concerns, disordered eating, or even stigmatization of\u0026nbsp;extreme thinness.\u0026nbsp;Moreover\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;, the lack of difference between responses to \u0026quot;normal\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;obese\u0026quot; images might indicate evolving perceptions of body size and acceptance. Indeed, there has been a shift towards more weight-inclusive healthcare practices\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[32]\u003c/sup\u003e in addition to more \u0026ldquo;body-positive\u0026rdquo; content on social media\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[33]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe overestimation of time related to lower body appreciation and higher media pressure may be explained by the relation these two variables have with body image. An overestimation of time is usually observed when exposed to a stimulus which induces negative affect\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[16,17]\u003c/sup\u003e. Previous research by\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[34]\u003c/sup\u003e found that exposure to faces expressing fear led to longer time estimations which was explained by higher emotional arousal which was also observed as a result of the present study. Indeed, a systematic review and meta-analysis of 240 papers highlighted that low levels of body appreciation are related to body image disturbances such as appearance-ideal internalization and sociocultural pressures such as media pressure and general psychopathology (i.e., depression and anxiety;\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[35]\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, media pressure has been shown to be related to higher thin-ideal internalization which in turn is related to higher body surveillance and lower appearance evaluation\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e[36]\u003c/sup\u003e. The lack of differentiation between the different body sizes in the effects of body appreciation and media pressure on time perception is worth noting. There are a few potential explanations for these findings. First, it could be that lower levels of body appreciation and higher levels of media pressure encourage heightened focus on bodies in general which would lead to higher arousal while viewing all three types of images and thus an overestimation of time as explained above. Second, it could also be due to the type of images chosen. The \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; bodies selected were fairly athletic, and thus while participants might experience negative emotions when seeing \u0026ldquo;underweight\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;obese\u0026rdquo; images they also might have experienced negative emotions when seeing \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; (but athletic) images if they were comparing their own bodies to the bodies in the images shown.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStrength and Limits\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo our knowledge, this study is the first of its kind to investigate the effects of pictures on different body sizes in this way. Moreover, this study, with its two experiments, attempted to dive deeper into the reasoning behind the potential outcomes. Another strength of this study is the nature of the study design, which is experimental, thus allowing for a high level of control over confounding variables. \u0026nbsp;Like every research study, some limitations need to be pointed out. First, as explained above, the images selected were chosen because they generated the strongest feelings in a pre-test of women. We are therefore dealing with bodies where differences in body size are extremely marked. This is perhaps not representative of what happens on social media, where although we could see all different types of bodies, the tendency could be towards less extreme thin or large bodies. Furthermore, regarding the investigation of individual differences in Experiment 2, it is important to acknowledge that the SCOFF questionnaire is a screening tool designed to identify individuals potentially at risk for an eating disorder based on problematic thoughts and behaviors rather than providing a formal clinical diagnosis. Therefore, while our findings concerning the SCOFF-positive group are informative, they pertain to an \u0026apos;at-risk\u0026apos; population, and direct extrapolation to individuals with clinically diagnosed eating disorders should be made with caution. Consequently, a valuable direction for future research would be to extend these investigations to a clinical population with formally diagnosed eating disorders. This would allow for a clearer understanding of whether the observed relationships between body image exposure, affect, individual differences, and time perception are similar, attenuated, or perhaps even amplified in a clinical context. Future research may also benefit from including a fourth \u0026ldquo;control\u0026rdquo; group consisting of neutral stimuli that do not have anything to do with bodies. Another aspect worth considering in future research is the reality of scrolling through social media, which involves viewing a mix of different body sizes in addition to heavily yet often discreetly edited pictures.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhat is already known on this subject?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is well-established that subjective time perception is susceptible to distortions caused by emotional arousal and valence, with high-arousal negative stimuli typically inducing an overestimation of duration. While extensive research has demonstrated that exposure to \u0026quot;fitspiration\u0026quot; and body-related content on social media negatively impacts mood and body satisfaction , and that individuals with eating disorders exhibit altered temporal processing, the specific cognitive interaction between viewing varying body sizes and time perception has remained unexplored. This study was necessary to determine if the emotional response elicited by specific body types acts as a catalyst for temporal distortions in a non-clinical population.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhat this study adds?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research demonstrates that while viewing images of \u0026quot;underweight\u0026quot; bodies elicits significantly higher physiological arousal and negative affect compared to \u0026quot;normal\u0026quot; or \u0026quot;obese\u0026quot; bodies, the body size stimulus alone does not directly distort time perception. Crucially, this study reveals that temporal overestimation is instead driven by individual traits, specifically finding that lower body appreciation and higher internalized media pressure predict longer subjective time estimates regardless of the body type viewed. These findings imply that clinical and public health interventions should prioritize addressing internalized sociocultural pressures and bolstering body appreciation, as these internal factors appear to have a more profound impact on cognitive processing than the visual content of body images alone.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCRediT authorship contribution statement: Claire El-Jor:\u003c/strong\u003e Formal analysis ;Writing \u0026ndash; original draft \u003cstrong\u003eRebecca Shankland:\u003c/strong\u003e Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing \u003cstrong\u003eValentin Flaudias:\u003c/strong\u003e Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing \u003cstrong\u003eQuentin Hallez:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization; Investigation; Writing \u0026ndash; review and editing; Supervision.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare no financial or non-financial conflicts of interest related to the subject matter of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval and Informed Consent Statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eExperiments 1 and 2 were conducted in accordance with the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. The study protocols were reviewed and approved by the Ethics, Deontology, and Scientific Integrity Committee of Nantes University (IORG0011023). Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the experiments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll the data from Experiments 1 and 2 are available on the following OSF link\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ehttps://osf.io/yvufw/?view_only=3270b6f90f024a9f9ee998ef5ea459f1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eDeclaration of interest:\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eDeclaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process:\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e During the preparation of this work the authors used Gemini 2.5 in order to proofread the text for grammatical accuracy and clarity in English. After using this tool, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the published article.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArigo, D., Brown, M. M., \u0026amp; DiBisceglie, S. (2021). Experimental effects of fitspiration messaging on body satisfaction, exercise motivation, and exercise behavior among college women and men. \u003cem\u003eTranslational Behavioral Medicine\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e(7), 1441\u0026ndash;1450. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibab016\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1093/tbm/ibab016\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCataldo, I., De Luca, I., Giorgetti, V., Cicconcelli, D., Bersani, F. 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Pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction among women: The U.S. Body Project I. \u003cem\u003eBody Image\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e41\u003c/em\u003e, 195\u0026ndash;208. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.02.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.02.001\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive statistics of study variables in Experiment 2, split by SCOFF score\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSCOFF \u0026ge; 2 (n=38)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eM (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSCOFF \u0026lt; 2 (n=32)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eM (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.66 (1.60)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.88 (4.34)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBMI (kg/m\u0026sup2;)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.92 (5.75)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.43 (4.17)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBSQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e206.26 (63.35)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120.50 (52.57)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBAS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.58 (0.77)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.69 (0.75)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSATAQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.04 (0.86)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.57 (0.96)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInternalization- Athlete\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.29 (0.86)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.70 (1.03)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInternalization- General\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.96 (0.87)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.61 (1.01)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePressure\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.08 (0.93)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.54 (1.09)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInformation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.93 (1.08)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.38 (1.15)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocial Media Pressure\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.91 (0.83)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 311px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.39 (0.88)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Higher scores on the SCOFF indicate a greater risk of disordered eating. BAS = Body Appreciation Scale; BMI = Body Mass Index; BSQ = Body Shape Questionnaire; M = Mean; n = sample size; SATAQ = Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire; SD = Standard deviation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive statistics and correlations among study variables of Experiment 2\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"999\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. BAS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. SATAQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.52***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3. SCOFF (continuous)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.61***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.28*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4. Valence \u0026ldquo;Underweight\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.27**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.30**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5. Arousal \u0026ldquo;Underweight\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.03***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.21 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6. Valence \u0026ldquo;Normal\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7. Arousal \u0026ldquo;Normal\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.22 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.20 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.27*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.14***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8. Valence \u0026ldquo;Obese\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.48***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.26**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.36**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.21 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9. Arousal \u0026ldquo;Obese\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.20 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.26*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;*p \u0026lt; .05, **p \u0026lt; .01, ***p \u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBAS, body appreciation scale; SATAQ; The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire; SCOFF, Sick, Control, One, Fat, Food questionnaire; SD, standard deviation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Time perception, Body Sizes, Temporal bisection, Body appreciation, Media pressure","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8259354/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8259354/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis research investigates the influence of body pictures on time perception, specifically examining how viewing images of different body sizes affects subjective time estimation. Two experiments were conducted with female university students. Experiment 1 explored the effects of “underweight”, “normal', and “obese” body images on time perception and emotional responses, measuring valence and arousal. The results indicated that body size did not have a significant effect on time perception. However, “underweight” body images elicited more negative valence and higher arousal. Experiment 2 examined the moderating roles of additional variables on these effects, specifically measuring eating disorder symptoms, body appreciation, and media pressure. While body size did not directly affect time perception, lower body appreciation and higher media pressure were associated with longer subjective time estimations across all body image conditions. These findings suggest that emotional responses, particularly negative affect and increased arousal, to body images, and individual differences in body image-related attitudes, can indirectly influence the perception of time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLevel of Evidence: Level I, experimental studies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Body Appreciation and Media Pressure Predict Time Perception During Exposure to Varying Body Sizes","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-11 14:12:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8259354/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f49c0bf5-26e9-4c67-9ee6-33d850d374d4","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-04T16:25:50+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-11 14:12:06","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8259354","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"identity":"rs-8259354","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}